M. CHITHIRAI PON SELVAN* et al. / (IJAEST) INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADVANCED ENGINEERING SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGIES Vol No.

11, Issue No. 2, 267 - 275

Review of the Current State of Research and Development in Abrasive Waterjet Cutting Technology
M. CHITHIRAI PON SELVAN*
PhD Research Scholar, Karpagam University, Coimbatore, India.

Dr. N. MOHANA SUNDARA RAJU

Principal, Mahendra Institute of Technology, Namakkal, India.

Keywords- abrasive waterjet; depth of cut; kerf taper; mass flow rate; standoff distance; surface roughness; traverse rate; water pressure.

I.

INTRODUCTION

In Abrasive Waterjet Cutting [AWJC] process, water serves primarily as an accelerating medium, whereby material removal is achieved by the abrasive particles. A stream of small abrasive particles is introduced in the waterjet in such a manner that waterjet's momentum is partly transferred to the abrasive particles. As water accelerates large quantities of abrasive particles to a high velocity, a high coherent jet is achieved. This jet is then directed towards the working area to perform cutting (Hashish (1989) [1]). This novel technology was first initiated by Franz to cut laminated paper tubes in 1968 and was first introduced as a commercial system in 1983 (Hoogstrate and Van Luttervelt (1997) [2]) for the cutting of glass. Nowadays, this process is being widely used for machining difficult-to-cut materials such as ceramics, concrete, composites, titanium alloys etc. where conventional machining is often not technically or economically feasible. In the last two decades, a great deal of research effort has sought to understand this process, its cutting mechanism and the associated science. In this paper, an extensive review of the current state of research and development in AWJC is conducted.

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Abstract Abrasive waterjet cutting has been proven to be an effective technology for processing variety of engineering materials.It is an emerging technology and has various distinct advantages over the other non-traditional cutting technologies, such as no thermal distortion, high machining versatility, minimum stresses on the work piece, high flexibility and small cutting forces.This paper presents an extensive review of the current state of research and development in the abrasive waterjet cutting process. Further challenges and scope of future development in abrasive waterjet cutting are also projected. This review paper will help researchers, manufacturers and policy makers widely.

Hashish (1984) [3] found that the material removal in AWJC process is a cyclic penetration process that consists of two cutting regimes, cutting wear zone and deformation wear zone. Bittar (1963) [4] referred to the material removal process in brittle materials as a "brittle fracture process". Axinte et. al (2009) [5] reported a preliminary study of the capability of AWJ cutting of polycrystalline diamond (PCD) using abrasive media with different hardness, i.e. aluminium oxide (Al2O3), silicon carbide (SiC) and diamond. While keeping some operating parameters constant (pump pressure, stand-off distance and size of abrasives) the feed speed had been adjusted to enable full jet penetration for each type of abrasives. It was found that not only the material removal rates vary significantly with the employment of different types of abrasives but also the nozzle wear ratios, with further implications on the kerf quality (width, taper angle) of diamond cut surfaces. The ductile erosion mechanism of hardbrittle materials by AWJ in small erosion angle has been analyzed by Zhu et al. (2009) [6]. In theory, the ductile erosion can achieve micromaterial removal and the surface eroded is smooth and without any fracture. A modified form of Finnie's model for erosion for application to AWJ was developed by EITobgy et al. (2005) [7]. This modified form is able to deal with curved surfaces rather than flat surfaces only. Furthermore, the new modelling approach is capable of simulating multiple particle erosion. This approach uses standard material properties and requires no calibration constants. The modelled results agreed well with both experimental and analytical data. Hassan and Kosmol (2001) [8] presented an attempt to model AWJM using the finite element method (FEM) in order to explain the abrasive particlework piece interaction process. Also, the model predicts the depth of deformation as a result of abrasive particle impact.

II.

MECHANISMS OF MATERIAL REMOVAL

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Jiyue Zeng and Thomas J. Kim (1996) [9] investigated the erosion phenomenon associated with abrasive waterjet cutting of polycrystalline ceramics. The erosion mechanisms observed in this study include intergranular network cracking and plastic flow. Material removal due to network cracking was calculated with a crack network model which relates the fracture surface energy in forming the crack network to the energy of the impact induced stress waves. The contribution of plastic flow was evaluated with Finnie's model. The derived erosion model was verified with abrasive waterjet erosion experiments. Gi Sang Choi and Gi Heung Choi (1997) [10] attempted to develop an analytical model for material removal in abrasive water jet machining (AWJM) of brittle material. The size of fracture that takes place on the backside of the work piece as the jet passes through the work piece was then predicted. The proposed model was experimentally evaluated. In addition, acoustic emission (AE) generated from AWJM of alumina ceramics was evaluated in view of establishing an experimental relationship with the parameters of material removal process. The experimental results indicated that a strong correlation between the RMS AE signal and the characteristics of AWJM exists and, therefore, suggest that AE can be implemented in practice for monitoring purpose. III. KERF CHARACTERISTICS

Verification of the model for using it as a practical guideline has been found to agree with the experiments. An experimental investigation of the machinability and kerf characteristics of polymer matrix composite sheets under abrasive waterjets is presented by Jun Wang (1999) [14]. It showed that this unique cold cutting technology is a viable and effective alternative for polymer matrix composite processing, with good productivity and kerf quality. Plausible trends of kerf quality with respect to the input parameters were discussed, from which recommendations are made for process control and optimization. An experimental investigation was carried out by Shanmugam et al. (2008) [15] to minimise or eliminate the kerf taper in AWJC of alumina ceramics by using a kerf-taper compensation technique. Among the cutting parameters studied, kerf-taper compensation angle is found to have the most significant effect on the kerf taper and the kerf taper angle varies almost linearly with this compensation angle. It showed that with this technique, it is possible to achieve a zero kerf taper angle without compromising the nozzle traverse speed or cutting rate.

In AWJC, it is found that there are two categories of kerfs produced, "through" cuts and "non-through" cuts. When the jet is provided with sufficient energy, a through cut is formed. It is characterized by a wider entry and then a gradual reduction towards the exit so a kerf taper is formed. When the jet is unable to penetrate the specimen, a non-through cut is formed.

Srinivasu et al. (2009) [12] investigated the influence of key kinematic operating parameters (i.e. -jet impingement angle and v-jet feed rate) on the kerf geometry and its dimensional characteristics. Shanmugam and Masood (2009) [13] presented an investigation on the kerf taper angle generated by abrasive waterjet (AWJ) technique to machine two types of composites: epoxy pre-impregnated graphite woven fabric and glass epoxy. Comprehensive factorial design of experiments was carried out in varying the traverse speed, abrasive flow rate, standoff distance and water pressure. Using the dimensional technique and adopting the energy conservation approach, the kerf taper angle had been related to the operating parameters in a form of a predictive model.

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Wang and Wong (1999) [11] presented a study of Abrasive Waterjet (AWJ) cutting of metallic coated sheet steels based on a statistically designed experiment. It showed that AWJ cutting is a viable technology for processing metallic coated sheet steels with good productivity and kerf quality.

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Surface roughness is a measure of the technological quality of a product and a factor that greatly influences manufacturing cost. It describes the geometry and surface textures of the machined parts. There are several ways to describe surface roughness, such as roughness average (Ra), root-mean-square (rms) roughness (Rq) and maximum peakto-valley roughness (Ry or Rmax), etc. Ra is defined as the arithmetic value of the profile from centerline along the sampling length. The cut quality and abrasive embedment following waterjet cutting of a commonly used titanium alloy, Ti6Al4V with 80 mesh garnet from five different sources (differing significantly in their hardness, crushing strength and morphology) were examined and evaluated by Boud et. al (2010) [16]. The cut-face itself was examined to establish the presence or absence of sub-surface embedded abrasive; in addition, the top surface of the plate close to the cut where particles outside the main core of the jet may have impinged was also examined. Embedment levels, surface waviness and roughness and the mechanisms of abrasivesurface interactions were evaluated through a combination of scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX) and profilometry. It was found that despite the differences in abrasive characteristics, no significant differences in cut quality or abrasive embedment was seen. Adnan Akkurt et al. (2004) [17] explained the effects of feed rate and thickness of workpiece on the roughness. Considering experimental data, effects of the composition of the material on surface roughness were assessed. The study also evaluated the deformation effect of AWJ on workpieces that have the same composition but different thickness. In the

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IV.

SURFACE CHARACTERISTICS

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study pure aluminium, Al-6061 aluminium alloy, brass-353 (+ brass), AISI 1030 and AISI 304 steel materials were cut with AWJ at different feed rates. Gudimetla et al. [2002] (18) investigated the machinability and kerf formation characteristics associated with the abrasive waterjet cutting of industrial ceramics. It was found that at low cutting rates, the erosive process is associated with initial surface fracture leading to a high degree of plastic flow and deformation of the subsurface, probably due to the incidence of high thermal stresses at the jettarget interaction zone. At higher speeds, surface fracture results in an intergranular network propagating downward, creating a critical shear plane that forms a kerf due to the hydrodynamic forces within the waterjet. This study reveals that there exists a combination of process parameters for the effective machining of ceramics. A grooving wear effect exists for the uncut through kerf. Experimental study of the surface quality produced by abrasive waterjet (AWJ) on metallic materials has been performed by Jan Valicek et al. (2007) [19]. The surface roughness/waviness was quantitatively evaluated by using the contactless optical measurement. In order to characterize the cut surface qualities, a single-parameter criterion has been proposed. Based on root mean square (RMS) roughness evaluation of the worst cut surface zone, the dimensionless statistical parameter C can be calculated as a basic quantity for AWJ surface cut characterization. An experimental study was conducted by Arola and Ramulu (1997) [20] to determine the influence of material properties on the surface integrity and texture that results from abrasive waterjet (AWJ) machining of metals. A microstructure analysis, microhardness measurements, and profilometry were used in determining the depth of plastic deformation and surface texture that result from material removal. Models now available for dry abrasive erosion were adopted and found useful in understanding the influence of material properties on the hydrodynamic erosion process.

the surface could be reduced up to 200% by using the new nozzle oscillation technique compared to the traditional AWJ technique. The macro-mechanism of AWJC was studied by Orbanic and Junkar (2008) [23] from the point of cutting front and striation formation analysis. The striation on the surface cut with AWJ is a characteristic phenomena which is strongly present when cutting with high traverse velocities for particular material type and thickness of work piece. The connection between the cutting front step formation and striation formation was explained through series of experiments, which include visual observations of cutting transparent material and through analogies, which deal with river meandering and wear of pneumatic conveyor bends. The characterization of different materials cut surfaces was investigated by Chen and Siores (2003) [24] using a scanning electron microscope. The effect of abrasive particle distribution in the jet on striation formation was detailed. A non-invasive technique: laser Doppler anemometry was used to analyze the abrasive particle distribution in the jet. Furthermore, the mechanisms of striation formation were discussed in detail and an effective striation minimisation technique applied to the cutting process was outlined. Surface roughness (Ra) and kerf taper ratio (TR) characteristics of an abrasive water jet machined surfaces of glass/epoxy composite laminate were studied by Azmir and Ahsan (2009) [25]. Taguchi's design of experiments and analysis of variance were used to determine the effect of machining parameters on Ra and TR. Hydraulic pressure and type of abrasive materials were considered as the most significant control factor in influencing Ra and TR, respectively. V. EFFECTS OF PROCESS PARAMETERS

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Shipway et al. (2005) [21] examined the abrasive waterjet milling behaviour of Ti6Al4V in terms of the surface properties of the milled component, such as roughness, waviness and level of grit embedment. The properties of the surface following milling depend strongly on the milling parameters, such as jet-workpiece traverse speed, impingement angle, waterjet pressure and abrasive size. Experimental study and microstructure analysis using scanning electron microscope (SEM) and advanced surface analysis techniques were performed by Chen et al. (2002) [22] to quantitatively evaluate particle embedment at abrasive waterjet (AWJ) generated mild steel surfaces. It was found that particle embedment depends on cutting depth, traverse speed and pump pressure. A new nozzle oscillation technique was applied to the AWJ cutting process in order to reduce contamination by embedded particles. It was found that, under identical input cutting conditions, the particle embedment at

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John Rozario Jegaraj and Ramesh Babu (2006) [26] carried out experimental studies to investigate the influence of orifice and focusing tube bore variation on the performance of abrasive waterjets in cutting 6063-T6 aluminum alloy. The performance was assessed in terms of different parameters such as depth of cut, kerf width and surface roughness. This study made use of Taguchi's design of experiments and analysis of variance (ANOVA) to analyze the performance of AWJs in cutting. These experimental data was used to build empirical models. An hybrid strategy combining the response equations of the empirical model with fuzzy model was proposed to arrive at suitable set of process parameters for achieving desired cutting performance considering the variation in orifice and focusing tube bore. The adequacy of the model was confirmed with suitable experiments. Srinivasu and Ramesh Babu (2008) [27] presented a neuro-genetic approach proposed to suggest the process parameters for maintaining the desired depth of cut in AWJC by considering the change in diameter of focusing nozzle, i.e.

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for adaptive control of AWJC process. An artificial neural network (ANN) based model was developed for prediction of depth of cut by considering the diameter of focusing nozzle along with the controllable process parameters such as water pressure, abrasive flow rate, jet traverse rate. ANN model combined with genetic algorithm (GA), i.e. neuro-genetic approach, was proposed to suggest the process parameters. An analysis of the cutting performance of multipass abrasive waterjet (AWJ) machining was presented by Wang and Guo (2003) [28] based on an experimental investigation on an 87% alumina ceramic. It was shown that with a good combination of cutting parameters such as nozzle traverse speed; multipass cutting demonstrates distinct superiority over the single pass cutting. Plausible trends of kerf quality and depth of cut with respect to the number of passes, nozzle traverse speed and nozzle traverse direction were analyzed. A general guide for the selection of cutting parameters in multipass cutting was finally presented based on the analysis. Radovan Kovacevic and Mei Fang (1994) [29]shown that the selection of the abrasive waterjet cutting parameters for a required depth of cut in the given material can be effectively done by applying the principles of the fuzzy set theory. This approach will eliminate the need for extensive experimental work in order to select the magnitudes of the most influential abrasive waterjet parameters on the depth of cut.

conducted. Profilometry measurements supplemented with microscopy analysis suggest that three regions of surface topography are evident on the machined surface of the laminate specimens. Libor M. Hlavac (2009) [34] aimed at the implementation of new findings into the author's theoretical models of the abrasive water jet. Both the theoretical and the experimental works were performed to verify and specify the physical relationships among parameters of abrasive water jets used for cutting, the properties of cut materials and the output parameters of cutting, usually the depth of the cut. The model is based on up-to-date results. The new part of the model was designed to enable the calculation of the angle of the cutting head tilt so that the jet penetrating the material might exit it approximately along the normal to the material surface created at the point of jet axis entry. This model was experimentally verified on several tens of materials and its high reliability and applicability were confirmed on quasi-homogeneous materials. Ti6Al4V alloy, known as one of the difficult-tomachine materials using conventional machining processes, was machined by Ahmet Hascalik et al. (2007) [35] under varying traverse speeds of 60, 80, 120, 150, 200, and 250 mm/min by abrasive waterjet (AWJ) machining. After machining, the profiles of machined surfaces, kerf geometries and microstructural features of the machined surfaces were examined using surface profilometry and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The experimental results indicated that the traverse speed of the jet is a significant parameter on the surface morphology, and the widths and features of different regions formed in the cutting surface change according to the traverse speed. It was also observed that the kerf taper ratio and surface roughness increase with increasing traverse speed in chosen conditions. Hoogstrate et al. (2006) [36] described the cutting with AWJ beyond the current industrial pressure limit. Firstly, the factors that limit the water pressure were discussed. Secondly, the jet formation was considered by addressing the effects of the geometry of the upstream tube and the orifice. Finally, the AWJ cutting process was described in terms of energy transfer efficiency. There is an optimum abrasive load ratio over which the cutting ability of the jet decreases due to the less efficient power transfer from waterjet to the abrasives. Artificial Neural Network (ANN) and Simulated Annealing (SA) techniques were integrated labeled as integrated ANN-SA by Azlan Mohd Zain et al. (2011) [37] to estimate optimal process parameters in abrasive waterjet (AWJ) machining operation. The considered process parameters include traverse speed, waterjet pressure, standoff distance, abrasive grit size and abrasive flow rate. The quality of the cutting of machined-material was assessed by looking to the roughness average value (Ra).

An investigation was conducted by Kovacevic (1991) [30] to experimentally determine the influence of the abrasive waterjet cutting parameters on surface texture. A mathematical model was developed characterizing the correlation between the surface roughness and the abrasive waterjet cutting variables. John Rozario Jegaraj and Ramesh Babu (2005) [31] studied the influence of orifice and focusing nozzle diameter variation on the performance of abrasive waterjets in cutting 6063-T6 aluminum alloy. The performance was assessed in terms of different parameters such as depth of cut, material removal rate, cutting efficiency, kerf geometry and cut surface topography.

Mustafa Kemal Kulekci (2002) [32] presented a detailed explanation of the recent developments in the main components of abrasive waterjet systems. Factors such as water pressure, grain diameters of abrasive feed rate, and traverse speed influencing surface roughness and depth of cut were studied using experimental data. An experimental investigation was conducted by Ramulu and D. Arola (1994) [33] to determine the influence of cutting parameters on the surface roughness and kerf taper of an abrasive waterjet machined graphite/epoxy laminate. Experimental design was used to systematically measure the influence of cutting parameters on the surface roughness and kerf taper of laminate specimens. Stylus prolifometry was used to measure the surface roughness and a visual inspection including scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was

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Nozzle wear dependence on abrasive water jet system parameters and nozzle geometry was experimentally investigated by Madhusarathi Nanduri et al. (2002) [38]. Experimental procedures for evaluating long term and accelerated nozzle wear were discussed. Accelerated wear tests were conducted to study the effects of nozzle length, inlet angle, diameter, orifice diameter, abrasive flow rate, and water pressure on wear. An empirical model for nozzle weight loss rate was developed and was shown to correlate well with experimental measurements. The effects of jetworkpiece traverse speed, number of passes of the jet and abrasive grit size on the material removal rate, surface waviness and surface roughness were investigated by Fowler et al. (2005) [39]. Traverse speed is shown to govern the operative mechanism of material removal and thus the material removal rate. It is also shown that the surface waviness can be reduced as the traverse speed is increased, but it should be noted that waviness increases with number of passes of the jet over the work piece. Momber and Kovacevic (1997) [40] presented investigations on the behavior of five artificial rocklike materials subjected to abrasive water jet cutting. The influence of the test parameters, i.e. applied pump pressure, traverse rate and abrasive mass flow rate was investigated, as well as the influence of several material parameters, e.g. compressive strength, Young's modulus, absorbed fracture energy and crack velocity. For the test parameters, it was found that two sets of critical parameters exist. First, there are minimum threshold values which must be exceeded to initiate the material destruction process. Second, critical values for the test parameters exist which should not be exceeded in order to ensure an effective cutting process. At the heart of every abrasive waterjet cutting system is the high pressure pump. Bohler Hochdrucktechnik (2001) [41] demonstrated the effectiveness of high pressure pump utilised for abrasive waterjet cutting technology.

were cut at 690 MPa without the delaminations observed at 379 MPa. Increasing the standoff distance increases the cutting speed. This is attributed to the droplet impact effect that becomes dominant at large standoff distances. The use of 0.025 mm-diameter jets was explored. Tests were also conducted to include cutting with up to 690 MPa abrasivewaterjets (AWJ). Cuts with 690 MPa AWJs confirmed the linear trend of the effect of pressure on cutting rate. Most importantly, the abrasive consumption was significantly reduced when 690 MPa jets were used. VI. ENHANCING THE PERFORMANCE OF AWJC PROCESS

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Experimental investigations were conducted by Azmir and Ahsan (2008) [42] to assess the influence of abrasive water jet machining (AWJM) process parameters on surface roughness (Ra) of glass fibre reinforced epoxy composites. The approach was based on Taguchi's method and analysis of variance (ANOVA) to optimize the AWJM process parameters for effective machining. It was found that the type of abrasive materials, hydraulic pressure, standoff distance and traverse rate were the significant control factors and the cutting orientation was the insignificant control factor in controlling the Ra. Hashish et al. (1997) [43] addressed waterjet cutting at pressures up to 690 MPa. Commercially available systems are capable of working at a maximum pressure of 379 MPa. It was observed that thin sheet metal (1.6 mm thick) can effectively be cut with waterjets. Higher quality surfaces are produced as the pressure increases. It was also observed that excessive plastic deformation occurs near the edges. Several composites

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A study of the depth of jet penetration (or depth of cut) in abrasive waterjet (AWJ) cutting of alumina ceramics with controlled nozzle oscillation was presented and discussed by Wang (2007) [44]. An experimental investigation was carried out first to study the effects of nozzle oscillation at small angles on the depth of cut under different combinations of process parameters. Based on the test conditions, it was found that nozzle oscillation at small angles can improve the depth of cut by as much as 82% if the cutting parameters are correctly selected. Depending on the other cutting parameters in that study, it was found that a high oscillation frequency (1014 Hz) with a low oscillation angle (46) can maximize the depth of cut. Using a dimensional analysis technique, predictive models for jet penetration when cutting alumina ceramics with and without nozzle oscillations were finally developed and verified. It was found that the model predictions are in good agreement with the experimental results with the average percentage errors of less than 2.5%. Experimental techniques based on statistical design principles were conducted to study AWJ cutting of ceramics by Chen et al. (1998) [45]. The research work, involving multi-directional cutting, was conducted to examine the effect of jet impact angles on cutting quality. To optimise and predict the AWJ cutting process applicable to ceramics, experimental techniques based on statistical design principles and theoretical investigations were conducted by Siores et al. (1996) [46]. The new cutting head oscillation technique applied to the cutting process produced superior results and showed that the smooth zone depth increased by more than 30% with oscillation as compared to that without oscillation and both striation drag angle and frequency in the striation zone decreased. An experimental investigation is presented by Wang and Xu (2005) [47] on the AWJ multi pass cutting of an 87% alumina ceramic with nozzle oscillation. The cutting capacity in terms of depth of cut and the major kerf geometrical features as represented by top kerf width, bottom kerf width and kerf taper were analysed with respect to the major process variables including the number of passes, the nozzle traverse speed, water pressure and oscillation parameters. Optimum combinations of the major process parameters were recommended to maximize the depth of cut, taking into

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account the economic or productivity aspects. The general guidelines and suggestions were given for the selection of the number of passes and the other major cutting variables. Ashraf I. Hassan et al. (2004) [48] proposed a model for on-line depth of cut monitoring based on the acoustic emission (AE) response to the variation in AWJ depth of cut, instead of the expensive and impractical vertical cutting force monitoring. The main objective is to use the AE technique in order to predict the actual depth of cut in AWJ cutting under normal cutting conditions. It was found that the root mean square of the acoustic emission energy (AErms) increases linearly with an increase in the depth of cut and could be used for its on-line monitoring. The results showed that the AE is the most suitable technique for AWJ monitoring, as the AE signal has high sensitivity to the variation in the depth of cut. An experimental study was undertaken Keyurkumar J. Patel (2004) [49] on a commonly used ductile material, aluminium AlMg4, 5Mn, which is used as a base material for manufacturing most of the aircraft/aerospace components. The results indicated that as the depth of cut increases the grit contamination decreases. A comparison was made between straight cutting and oscillation cutting, and it was observed that oscillation cutting is 10 times better than straight cutting for ductile material with respect to particle contamination. Alternative technology was suggested to overcome the grit contamination problem.

speeds, oscillation angles and frequencies of oscillation. The results showed that by oscillating the nozzle during cutting, the improvement in surface finish as measured by centre-line average Ra can be obtained by as much as 30%. VII. MODELLING STUDY OF AWJC PROCESS A predictive model for the depth of cut in abrasive waterjet contouring of alumina ceramics was developed by Wang (2009) [53] using a dimensional analysis technique. The model was then experimentally verified when cutting an 87% alumina ceramic within the practical range of process variables. It was found that the model can give adequate predictions of this cutting performance measure with about 1% average error. In order to develop a waterjet cutting model capable of predicting the depth of cut of ceramic materials as a function of the material properties and the process parameters involved, the erosion model by Evans et al. [A.G. Evans, M.E. Gulden, M.E., Rosenblatt. 1978. Impact damage in brittle materials in the elastic-plastic response regime, Proc. R. Soc. London, Sec. A, 361, 343365] was adopted by Abdel-Rahman and ElDomiaty (1998) [54]. Closed form expression for the maximum depth of cut was obtained. The predicted maximum depths of cut for three ceramic materials were compared with recent experimental results, where both showed an agreement within a maximum deviation of 7.5%. The effect of the process parameters on the maximum depth of cut for a given material was also studied to further investigate the capabilities and limitations of the proposed model. A semi-empirical model was developed for predicting the depth of jet penetration in AWJC of polymer matrix composites by Wang and Guo (2002) [55]. The plausibility of the model was then assessed by analyzing the predicted trends of that performance measure and by comparing with the experimental results. It was shown that the model gives adequate predictions and can be used for process planning.

An experimental and theoretical research work on abrasive water-jet (AWJ) oscillation cutting of glass fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP) composite materials was conducted by Lemma et al. (2002) [51] at the Water-jet Laboratory of the Industrial Research Institute of Swinburne (IRIS). The objective of this research work was to conduct a comparative study of the oscillation and normal (without head oscillation) cutting of GFRP composite materials and compare the performances the two processes. This new technique which is a variant of the traditional AWJ cutting technique, makes use of a back and forth motion of the cutting head which is superimposed on the normal linear motion to effect optimum loading of the cutting forces on the work piece material and scan the cut-wall surface to also improve surface finish. Lemma et al. (2002) [52] presented an experimental investigation on the impact of using nozzle oscillation cutting technique in minimizing or reducing these AWJ cut surface irregularities. The technique was used for cutting ductile materials, i.e. mild steel and aluminium, at various traverse

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Different nozzle oscillation cutting techniques were developed by Chen et al. (2002) [50] to optimize the AWJ machining process. A comparative study was conducted using different surface texture parameters among straight cutting and different oscillation cutting methods under the same input cutting parameters. Detailed analyses of the cutting results indicated that a significant enhancement in the cut surface quality was obtained by using the controlled cutting nozzle oscillation techniques.

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Ruihe Wang and Mingbo Wang (2010) [56] conducted a theoretical analysis in order to develop a flow model for the abrasive waterjet. The main concern is whether the abrasive particles can be treated as a pseudo-fluid phase. A two-fluid model is developed based on the fundamental laws of conservation. A control volume method is used to discretize the equations, and a phase-coupled SIMPLE algorithm was adopted to solve the pressurevelocity coupling equations. The quasi two-dimensional flow field outside a conventional nozzle used in abrasive waterjet was analyzed and computed to validate the model. Good agreement was observed comparing the numerical results with the experimental measurements Experimental techniques based on statistical experimental design principles and theoretical investigations were conducted by Chen et al. (1996) [57] to study AWJ cutting of alumina-based ceramics. Semi-empirical cutting depth equations were determined for the prediction and optimization

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of the AWJ cutting performance. Topographical characteristics of uncut-through kerf and the effects of various parameters were discussed. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) models for ultrahigh velocity waterjets and abrasive waterjets (AWJs) were established by Liu et al. (2004) [58] using the Fluent6 flow solver. Jet dynamic characteristics for the flow downstream from a very fine nozzle were then simulated under steady state, turbulent, two-phase and three-phase flow conditions. Water and particle velocities in a jet were obtained under different input and boundary conditions to provide an insight into the jet characteristics and a fundamental understanding of the kerf formation process in AWJ cutting. For the range of downstream distances considered, the results indicated that a jet is characterised by an initial rapid decay of the axial velocity at the jet centre while the cross-sectional flow evolves towards a top-hat profile downstream. A model for predicting the shape of the cut profile in industrial cutting processes has been developed by Deam et al. (2004) [59] and applied to abrasive water jet cutting. The wellknown physics of abrasive wear was used in the process model, which is cast in intrinsic coordinates. This choice of coordinates enables a formulation of the problem that leads to simple solutions and also a good understanding of the process. The model predicts that fluctuations in the local curvature of the cutting face are an inherent property of the cutting process and that no matter how precise the control over the cutting parameters, the fluctuations cannot be eliminated. Data from cuts filmed whilst cutting Perspex have been used to validate the model. Mathematical models for the particle velocity variations across and along an AWJ were developed by Wang (2009) [60] based on an in-depth understanding of the jet dynamic characteristics from a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation study. The models were then assessed qualitatively and quantitatively. It was found that the model predictions are reasonable and consistent with the data from a verified CFD model with an average percentage error of less than 1%.

range, the process performance for nozzle oscillation was found to be worse than normal cutting. Vikram and N. Ramesh Babu (2002) [62] proposed a new approach for modelling the three-dimensional (3D) topography produced on abrasive water jet (AWJ) cut surface. It makes use of the trajectory of jet, predicted from the theory of ballistics and Bitters theory of erosion for material removal, for numerically simulating the cutting front. The 2D topography at different depths of the cut surface was generated by considering the trajectories on the cutting front and the abrasive particles impacting the walls of cut surface randomly. For realistic generation of topography on cut surfaces, several instantaneous profiles generated in each region of cut are superimposed to obtain an effective profile. The nature of effective profiles thus predicted was analyzed and validated using power spectral density analysis. The effective profiles predicted at different depths are in turn used to generate the 3D topography of AWJ cut surface. Results obtained with the proposed model are validated with the experimental results.

Lemma et al. (2005) [61] presented a semi-empirical model that can be used for predicting the maximum depth of cut in both oscillation and normal cutting processes. The model was constructed by integrating the results of a visualisation and parametric experimental study of the AWJ cutting process that compares the nozzle oscillation technique with conventional AWJ cutting to the theoretical potential of the cutting process. The experimental results for ductile materials processing show that by oscillating the nozzle during cutting at relatively small angle and high frequencies of oscillation, the efficiency of the erosion process is appreciably increased. At the optimum, oscillation parameter settings, about 30% improvements in performance were obtained for oscillation cutting of mild steel compared to normal cutting samples, while the level of improvement that was found for aluminium samples were about 20%. Outside this optimum

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An extensive review of the state of the art research and development in the AWJC technologies has been conducted in this paper. It was shown that AWJC process is receiving more and more attention in the machining areas particularly for the processing of difficult-to-cut materials. Its unique advantages over other conventional and un-conventional methods make it a new choice in the machining industry. A brief review of the material removal mechanisms was conducted in the second section of this paper. It was followed by a summary of research on kerf and surface characteristics produced by AWJC process. The effects and influences of cutting parameters on the cutting performance are reviewed in detail. While these investigations show a good understanding of the cutting performance and the associated science, most of the results are for particular cutting conditions and materials. To enhance the cutting performance, number of new techniques has been explored. These include forward angling the jet, controlled nozzle oscillation and multipass cutting. Finally, the mathematical models to predict the cutting performance have been extensively reviewed. These models were developed using AWJ erosion mechanism, fracture mechanics and energy conversation approach. Most of these models are limited to particular cutting conditions and target materials. Also they have a complex mathematical expression which is difficult for practical use. Some of them include unknown factors needed to be determined by other research. It is concluded that more experimental work is required to fully understand the relationship between important AWJC parameters namely water pressure, nozzle traverse speed, abrasive mass flow rates and process output in greater detail for aluminium, brass, cast iron, ceramics, copper, composites, granite, mild steel stainless steel and titanium as the right choice of process parameters is very important for good

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cutting performance. In order to correctly select the process parameters, reliable predictive mathematical models can be developed for the depth of cut in AWJC process of aluminium, brass, cast iron, ceramics, copper, composites, granite, mild steel stainless steel and titanium. These depths of cut models can be used as practical guidelines for selecting optimum process parameters in AWJC of these materials. Therefore the need for extensive experimental work in order to select the magnitudes of the most influential abrasive waterjet cutting parameters on the depth of cut can be eliminated. REFERENCES
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