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In general when the receiving end voltage is greater than the sending end voltage then that is called Ferranti effect. It is mainly a part of transmission line. When a transmission line is lightly loaded or not loaded, then the receiving end voltage exceeds the sending end voltage. The loads are normally inductive in nature, which draws a huge amount of reactive power. Typically capacitors are connected in parallel to the transmission lines to supply this reactive power but when the transmission lines are not loaded or lightly loaded, the reactive power supplied by the capacitors adds on to the transmission line and as a result the receiving end voltage is found to be greater than the sending end voltage which is termed as Ferranti effect.
Power triangle describes the relationship between real power and reactive power. Real power is the power, which flows through the circuit without being stored or interrupted. Reactive power is that power which is stored in the circuit for some time and the power returns to the source in each cycle. Now returning to the transmission lines, the loads connected with the transmission lines are inductive in nature and they require reactive power. To introduce reactive power in to the circuit, the angle between real power and apparent power is increased or power factor is reduced. To do this, capacitors are connected in parallel with the transmission lines which store energy in one cycle and release in the other cycle, hence fulfilling the requirement of the reactive power. But when the transmission line is at no load or lightly loaded condition there is excess reactive power in the network which is added with the real power and at the receiving end we get more voltage than the supply end voltage, this phenomenon is termed as Ferranti effect. So in a single sentence Ferranti effect can be understood as the incidence when the receiving end voltage is greater than the sending end voltage.
* reactive (capacitive/inductive) power. Power generated by the power plants supplies the actual power through the transmission lines. So, to get the required reactive power some steps are taken and some changes are made in the transmission lines. The most common of them is the power factor correction. The power factor can be corrected by introducing capacitors in parallel with the transmission lines. These capacitors will supply the required reactive power to the network. Now suppose the transmission lines are at no load or in very lightly loaded condition. Then reactive power requirement is zero or very low but the capacitors keep on supplying reactive power which will be added on to the transmission lines and ultimately increasing the receiving end voltage. The term Ferranti effect describes the phenomenon when the receiving end voltage is greater than the sending end voltage. Hence the main cause of this phenomenon is when the transmission line is at no load or lightly loaded condition and then the receiving end voltage is higher.
(ii) Step down transformer. As the name suggests, the step up transformers are used to step up the voltage level. These are also termed as power transformer when used in power plants. Similarly step down transformers are used to step down or bring down the voltage.
Now, coming to the step up transformer, they are used in electrical power system at generation level. When power is generated at power plants the voltage level is pretty low. So when they are transmitted from generation station to distribution substation, power is reduced due to the different types of losses and the voltage of the receiving end decreases radically and thus the economic purpose is also not served. Thats why step up transformers are introduced at the power plants to step up the voltage level before transmission. So, the receiving end voltage is not decreased too much. Again as this high voltage cannot be used directly, so voltage is again stepped down by step down transformer before distribution.
When the fault is minor, the rate of production of gas is low and therefore the force induced by them is also low which dont tilt the lower hing but stored in the upper part of the chamber. As soon as the amount of the gases increased, it tilts the upper hing which initiates a signal and
the alarm goes off, which indicates that there is something wrong in the transformer. But when the fault is severe the rate of production of gas is pretty high which is able to tilt the lower hing and as a result the contacts of the circuit breaker is closed and the transformer circuit is tripped.
A bluish glow is seen surrounding the conductor during corona. As the potential across the conductor increases, the glow gets brighter. Corona loss can be detected by a hissing noise also.
What are the advantages of AC transmission? Now-a -days all the modern equipments are energized by alternating current and this is one of the main reasons of generation, transmission and distribution of AC power. Besides these, there are many other reasons for why AC transmission is preferred over DC transmission:
High voltage power can be generated for AC, which is not possible for DC.
The main and probably the most important reason for using AC for transmission is that, transformer can be used in AC, Which enables the control of voltage while transmission. That is voltage is stepped up before transmission by step up transformer and is stepped down for distribution purpose by step down transformer. But transformers cannot be used for DC and thats why the voltage which is generated is to be transmitted to consumers. Another advantage of AC transmission is that the maintenance cost of AC substation is much lower than that of DC substation, which fulfills the economical criteria and saves money also. Circuits breakers used in DC have their own limitation, but in AC they can be easily used.
Various types of circuit breakers are designed to reduce the operating time, so that as soon as the fault occurs, the circuit breaker disconnects a certain portion of power system from rest of the network.
What is a composite conductor? For transmission of high voltages, stranded conductors are used. These are known as composite conductors. These are composed of two or more strands of cable. Mainly for high voltage transmission, stranded copper conductors are used. Solid conductors are used before for transmission purpose, but stranded conductors have many more advantages. Thats why
they * * conductor). mechanical are rapidly used. They are widely used because of their: stability. flexibility.
* reduction in skin effect (the tendency of the current to flow through the surface of the
ii) By underground cables. Now both of this lines have some advantage over the another and some disadvantages also. When it comes to the comparison of these two type of cables, some point can be easily highlighted: For overhead transmission lines inductance effect is prominent but for underground cables capacitance effect is more prominent. Overhead transmission lines are less costly than the underground transmission line, because the conductors of overhead lines do not have any insulation around them, so that the dissipation of heat is better as well as this line is economical too. This is the main reason for same transmission of power, the size of the conductors for overhead lines are smaller than those of the underground cables, which eventually effects the costing. The main difference of costing is due to the use of the insulation types. The overhead line insulators are typically made of porcelain. The air surrounding the overhead lines provides insulation also. But for underground cables, the insulation is provided by wrapping each conductor by high grade paper tapes. And metal sheet is also applied to prevent moisture. For oil filled cables, oil reserves are situates at certain distances to keep the oil pressure intact. These developments makes the insulation process much complex and expensive. Again the cost for installing the overhead transmission tower is lower than installing underground clean and less congested cables. But underground cables provide more safety to the public and help the city or area looking
Classification of Relays
Actually, relay is type of protecting device which has the sensing ability. Relay can be stated as a device which sense any kind of abnormality in a power system and then close its contacts, which inturn close the circuit breaker. In this way, the faulty part of the circuit is automatically disconnected. Now, relays can be divided in many ways depending upon operation, construction, signal adapting etc. All of these are enlisted below: The most basic classification comes from functioning, so from this point of view relays can be classified as i) ii) iii) iv) Control Relay Now depending on the construction, there are various types of relays, those are i) ii) iii) iv) pressure, etc.) Relays can be divided depending upon the type of signals which activates the relay these are i) ii) iii) iv) v) vi) Velocity relay etc. Current Frequency Voltage Temperature Pressure relay relay relay relay relay Solid Microprocessor Computerized Electromagnetic State Relay Relay Relay Relay Auxiliary Protection Monitoring Relay Relay Relay
Now depending upon the type of protection that a relay provides, relays can be divided as i) ii) iii) iv) v) Over Reverse Over Directional Over Distance voltage Power current current relay relay relay relay relay
vi) Differential relay etc. Finally depending upon the operating principles relay can be classified as i) a) b) c) ii) iii) Cup type relay. Relay Induction Shaded Electromagnetic Attraction with pole type movable type relay relay coil relay relay
Various types of circuit breakers are designed to reduce the operating time, so that as soon as the fault occurs, the circuit breaker disconnects a certain portion of power system from rest of the network.
Now depending upon the time of operation i.e. operating time ( Actually operating time is time elapsed between the value of the current exceeding the actuating quantity and the time when the contacts of the relay is closed), over current relays are divided in i) Instantaneous over current relay As the name suggests this relay takes no intentional time to act or close the contacts of circuits breaker. The operating time of such relay is approximately 0.1 sec. ii) Inverse time current relay This type of relays operating time reduces as the actuating quantity i.e. the amount of current flow increases. It means that, for severe fault the operating time of the relay will be less and for minor fault the operating time will be more. iii) Inverse Definite Minimum Time Over Current Relay (IDMT) In this type of relay the operation and operating time is similar to inverse time over current relay near the pickup value but it becomes almost constantly increase. iv) Very Inverse Relays- As the name suggests, in this type of relay the saturation of the core occurs at a later stage and it has very inverse characteristics. v) Extremely Inverse Relay- The slope of time current graph is more than very inverse over current relay and for this the saturation of the core occurs at later stage.
produce
steam.
This
steam
helps
to
rotate
the
turbines.
In hydel power plant water is stored at specific height in dams which is released and water comes down at a very high speed and rotates the turbine. In nuclear power plants nuclear energy is used for electricity generation. In windmills the force of air rotates the wind turbines and in this way produces electricity by attaching the turbines with generators. Now, mainly thermal power plants are used widely because of the easy availability of fuel and coal, after that hydel power plants are popular. Nuclear power plants are also used but their use is limited because of natural causes and pollution concerns. Windmill power plant is getting popularity but the use is limited because of non availability of steady flow of natural air at all corners of this planet. We can see that in most of the cases electricity is generated by rotating the turbines. The main principle is same everywhere. This principle is Faradays Law of electromagnetic induction. We know that if any coil is rotated in the presence of an electric field then a current flows in the coil. This is the main principle of electricity generation.
Insulation of Cables
Insulation of cables is done mainly for safety reason i.e. to prevent direct contact with the current carrying conductor and any living or conducting material. The over head transmission and distribution lines are not provided with insulation because they hang pretty much above the ground and out of reach of common people. Insulation is done to underground cables and those cables which are used for domestic wiring. In underground cables there is 3 to 4 no. of cables kept together, so to prevent short circuit in between them, proper insulation is needed. And the domestic wires are insulated because there can be easy contact with these cables which can cause accident. The insulating materials which are used for insulating need to have certain characteristics which arei) ii) iii) They They need should High to have have high high mechanical insulation dielectric resistance. strength. strength.
Materials which are used for insulation are mainly vulcanized rubber, butyl rubber, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polythene, impregnated paper etc.
1. 3. heated
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2. Then steam at high pressure is produced and again this steam is superheated. superheated and 4. After rotating the turbine the steam condenses and come to low pressure which again is turned 5. The rotating turbine acts as the prime mover of the alternator. The line diagram of thermal power plant explains this in a lot easier way.
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types of power plants and their locations.
There are various types of power stations depending on the types of fuel used in them. And the locations of the power plants are very vital. Because depending on the location of power plants, the construction cost and running cost of a power plant is determined. Now we will discuss about various Thermal power plants:- Thermal power plants are the most economical power plants, coal is used as fuel heat up the boiler and produce steam. So in most of the cases thermal power plants are set up near mining areas, so that the carrying cost is minimum for them. As coal is burnt during the operation of the power plant many toxic gases are released into the nature, for this reason these are not build near towns or cities. Hydel power plants:- this type of power plants have very high construction cost because dams build to hold the river water. The location of the hydel power plants are so chosen that there is water in the river for maximum time of the year, so that there is minimum loss. Nuclear power plant:- the fuel used in nuclear power plants are radioactive materials. So, the main problems with them are the radioactive waste. So, while choosing the location of nuclear power plants, sufficient steps are taken to ensure the deposition of radioactive wastes and generally they are not located near populated areas. Solar power plants: These plants are constructed where sunlight can be obtained for maximum time in a year. Huge area is needed for them, so generally deserts ar other waste lands are ideal to build them. Wind power plants: The turbines are rotated by the winds, for that the power plants should be built where the speed of wind is maximum throughout the year (mainly costal area). These are how we choose locations of the power plants.
current tends to flow through this portion. As the current is not equally distributed across the cross section of the conductor, and the effective resistance of the conductors for alternating current increases. This phenomenon is known as skin effect of conductor.
The skin effect is due to unequal linkage of self flux. But there may be a situation, where a conductor links with flux due to current in any neighboring conductor. The portions of the conductor closer to neighboring conductor links with more flux of neighboring conductor. Due to this unequal flux linkage, the induction of the portion of the conductor closer to the neighboring conductor is more than that of farther portion; hence distribution of the current in the conductor is affected by flux due to current in the neighboring conductor. This phenomenon is commonly known as proximity effect.
Belted type consist of three conductors which are separately insulated. Then all the cables are insulated again with paper. Whereas in shielded type insulation, three cables are insulated and then they are kept together by a non-magnetic Armour. Typically, shielded type insulation is more preferred. After the solid paper insulation there is another type of insulation namely oil filled insulation. Oil is filled around the cables, which act as an insulating medium. Various steps are taken to measure the oil pressure. The disadvantage of this type of insulation is during contraction and expansion, there is a chance of leakage of oil which ultimately leads to fault. Another type of insulation is gas cushioned insulation. In this technique, cables are paper insulated and covered with rubber to prevent water from entering the cable. The pressure is maintained at about 14kg/cm2 and a clearance of about 0.175 cm is kept for single cables. For having high insulating property and high dielectric strength, SF6 gas is used in this type of cable insulation. This insulation can provide insulation for thousands of MVA.
What are the different steps of thermal power generation The total thermal generation process can be divided into two phases
1) Formation of steam in the boiler house.
2) Generation of electrical power in the generator room. Different steps of thermal power generation are listed below, a) First the preheated feed water is fed into boiler. b) Then this feed water is heated up in the boiler vessel, by the heat, produced by boiler furnace. The boiler furnace is fired by pulverized coal. c) As the water is heated up, steam is formed at high pressure and temperature. d) This steam is then passed through super heater where it further heated up. e) This super heated and highly pressurized steam then enters into turbine through steam NOZZLE. f) Here in the turbine, this steam forcefully rotates the turbine blades. g) Turbine blades assembly is mechanically coupled with alternator (generator) rotor shaft, hence the rotor rotates along with turbine blades assembly. h) As the rotor, rotates in alternator, electric power is generated, which can be fed to the power system network. i) The steam comes out from the turbine after doing its mechanical work for rotating turbine blades; it is fed to the condenser, where it becomes condensed in form of water. j) This water then again fed to the boiler via one feed water heater, as preheated feed water.
There are various types of power plants such as hydraulic power plants, thermal power plants, wind mill, nuclear power plants etc. In hydraulic power plant water stored by dams are made to rotate the turbine and the turbine is directly coupled with the generator. In this way, the generators generates the electricity. In thermal power plants, steam is produced in boilers after combustion of coal or fuel. Then that steam is used to rotate the turbine. In wind mill, natural air circulation helps the turbines to rotate and thus the electricity is produced. In nuclear power plants, nuclear fusion or fission is done to produce huge energy which then is then used to rotate the generator to generate electricity.
(iii) Strain type: The design of strain type insulator are identical to that of suspension type insulators. The only difference between these two is that, suspension type insulator hangs vertically where as strain type insulators are kept horizontally. These are mainly used at the terminals or at line junctions, at angled towers etc. Many times parallel set of insulator are used to withstand the high voltage.
stress that fall on the insulator is the weight of the wire, that is rested on the top of it. As the pin type insulators are kept in open air, to overcome the problem due to wet atmosphere, complex slots and grooves are used in the insulator. Pin type insulators are used as a single unit, i.e. if any fault occurs, the entire set has to be changed. Pin type insulators are not used beyond 33kv lines, because of the above mentioned reason. Below 33kv line pin type insulators are ideal to use.
What is proximity effect in transmission lines? Proximity means nearness in space or time, so as the name suggests, proximity effect in transmission lines indicates the effect in one conductor for other neighboring conductors. When the alternating current is flowing through a conductor, alternating magnetic flux is generated surrounding the conductor. This magnetic flux associates with the neighboring wires and generates a circulating current (it can be termed as eddy current also). This circulating current increases the resistance of the conductor and push away the flowing current through the conductor, which causes the crowding effect.
When the gaps between two wires are greater the proximity effect is less and it rises when the gap reduces.
Proximity Effect
It is shown from the above picture that flux due to central conductor links with right side conductor. In a two wire system more lines of flux link elements farther apart than the elements nearest to each other as shown above. Therefore, the inductance of the elements farther apart is more as compared to the elements near to each other and hence the current
density is less in the elements farther apart than the the current density in the element near to each other. As a result the effective resistance of the conductor is increased due to non uniform distribution of current. This phenomenon is actually referred as proximity effect. This effect is pronounced in the case of cables where the distance between the conductor is small whereas proximity effect in transmission lines in the case of overhead system, with usual spacing is negligibly small.
After that the combustion process is done. The main advantage of using pulverized coal is, the of furnace area is fully utilized as well as the utilization of fuel is done also i.e. almost 95% of the fuel injected is utilized in this process. In general the overall efficiency of the boiler increases also.
the stress at the point of attachment of the conductor and the insulator reduces radically compared to pin type insulators and as a result the longevity of the insulator and the network increases. Suspension type insulators are used when the operating voltage is more than 33kv. Each of the disks are designed to withstand 11kv. The no. of disks can be increased depending upon the voltage. For example, if the voltage of the transmission line is 132kv then maximum no. of suspension type disks required, 132/11=12 and these discs will provide sufficient insulation for the system.
It has a symmetric charge distribution around the central atom. The following figures describes the structure better.
Dielectric strength of an insulating material is determined by the maximum electric field it can withstand intrinsically without losing its insulating capability. The dielectric strength of SF6 at normal pressure and temperature is 2 -3 times compared to that of air. Very good arc quenching ability As SF6 is an electromagnetic gas, it has an affinity for the free electrons. During the operation of circuit breaker there is a huge amount of free electrons present in the arcing region, the main aim of the circuit breaker is to extinguish the arc. SF6 at high pressure absorbs the electrons and forms SF6 The SF6 SF6 + e ? SF5- + F Excellent thermal stability SF6 gas decomposed thermally at a temperature of about 500 degree centigrade, which is pretty high. The gas also works as a cooling agent during the operation as it absorbs energy during the absorption of electrons. The thermal time constant of SF6 is low and for this the pressure at which it can be stored are lower compared to that of air. This also ensures the small size of the circuit breaker. Great thermal conductivity Excellent heat transfer properties are seen in SF6 gases because of its high molecular weight and its low gaseous viscosity, which enables it to transfer heat by convection more effectively than other gases. reaction + may occur e in the ? following ways SF6-
The main purpose of insulators is to limit the current. In generating stations insulators are used to isolate the high voltage operated machines from grounding to increase the safety factor of the workers working at the power station i.e. providing them safety from huge amount of current as well as to secure the economical aspects. In transmission lines insulators are used to isolate power lines from the towers and ground. Various types of insulators are made from porcelain and glasses. Different types of insulator that are used in transmission lines are pin type, suspension type, shackle type. In consumer households the insulators are used in wires and switches to prevent the user from getting shock. These insulators are made of non conducting material. So, the main purpose of an insulator is to isolate the current from being ground anywhere before the circuit completion. Besides these insulators are essential for safety and they prevent direct contact from live wires.
(ii) Step down transformer. As the name suggests, the step up transformers are used to step up the voltage level. These are also termed as power transformer when used in power plants. Similarly step down transformers are used to step down or bring down the voltage. Now, coming to the step up transformer, they are used in electrical power system at generation level. When power is generated at power plants the voltage level is pretty low. So when they are transmitted from generation station to distribution substation, power is reduced due to the different types of losses and the voltage of the receiving end decreases radically and thus the economic purpose is also not served.
Thats why step up transformers are introduced at the power plants to step up the voltage level before transmission. So, the receiving end voltage is not decreased too much. Again as this high voltage cannot be used directly, so voltage is again stepped down by step down transformer before distribution.
Basically, electric field force is determined by the amount of work done is needed to introduce a positive charge from infinity into the electric field. The more the work done is needed, more is the intensity of the electric field and more is the power of that electric field , similarly if very less amount of work is needed, then it can be said that the electric field is pretty weak. A positive unit electric charge and a unit negative charge has equal but opposite amount of electric field force.
impractically large. That is why insulators can not conduct electric current easily. Wood, Glass, Plastic, Mica are well known example of insulator.