Softening

Desired end products are CaCO3 and Mg(OH)2, no matter which of the softening processes are used. 12 Ion Exchange Best used in waters high in noncarbonate hardness and where total hardness does not exceed 350 mg/L 1 Can achieve zero hardness 1 Sodium levels should not be allowed to exceed 20 mg/L 1 Iron and Manganese must be reduced to their lowest possible limits before applying water to the softener. 2 Normal Cl2 dosages are acceptable, but high residuals can damage resin and reduce its life span. 2 Optimum brine solution: 10-14% of NaCl solution 3 A 26% brine solution (fully concentrated or saturated) causes too great of an osmotic shock on the ion exchange resin (or media) and can cause it to break up. 3 Disposal of spent brine is one of the biggest problems associated with ionexchange plants. 4 You dont want to produce water with a zero hardness for domestic consumers, but around 80-90 mg/L 5 Water with zero hardness is very corrosive and will (over time) attack steel pipes and cause red water problems. It would be very expensive water to produce. 18 Four stages of operation: 6 1. Service 2. Backwash 3. Brine 4. Rinse

Three basic types of softeners: 15 1. Upflow unit Water enters from the bottom and flows up through the exchange bed and exits out of the top. 2. Gravity flow unit Constructed and operated like a rapid sand filter. Water enters the top, flows down through the bed and exits out the bottom. 3. Pressure downflow unit May be vertical or horizontal, with vertical being the most preferred due to the likeliness of short-circuiting. This is the most commonly used type. While split treatment may be used in the lime-soda process, it is often advantageous to use a lime-ion exchange process. The salt used to remove noncarbonate hardness in the ion-exchange process is less expensive to use than the soda ash required in the lime-soda ash process. 13 Softener influent: 17 Fe & Mn levels must be kept to a minimum to prevent fouling before entering the softener. Insoluble particles will plug the filter media. Soluble particles will exchange on the media and will not be fully removed by regeneration. If source water is high in Fe & Mn, proper oxidation and filtration prior to entering the filter should reduce levels and prevent problems from occurring. Softener effluent: 17 Run a hardness test on the effluent side. The water should have a hardness of zero. Lime Softening Cannot achieve zero hardness. 1 Theoretical hardness 1 grain (17.1 mg/L) 19 Calcium carbonate settles out at a pH of 10 7 Magnesium hydroxide settles out at a pH of 11 7 Carbonate hardness (temporary hardness) is removed by lime only. 8 Noncarbonate hardness (permanent hardness) requires both lime and soda ash. 8

Quicklime CaO Calcium Oxide Hydrated Lime Ca(OH)2 Calcium Hydroxide As the alum or iron feed rate increases, so must the lime. 9 Lime-Soda Ash Minimum hardness (effluent) is around 30-40 mg/L as CaCO3 10 Calcium carbonate settles out at a pH of 10 7 Magnesium hydroxide settles out at a pH of 11 7 Carbonate hardness (temporary) is removed by lime only. 8 Noncarbonate hardness (permanent) requires both lime and soda ash. 8 Quicklime CaO Calcium Oxide Hydrated Lime Ca(OH)2 Calcium Hydroxide While split treatment may be used in the lime-soda process, it is often advantageous to use a lime-ion exchange process. The salt used to remove noncarbonate hardness in the ion-exchange process is less expensive to use than the soda ash required in the lime-soda ash process. 13 As the alum or iron feed rate increases, so must the lime. 9 Advantages: 10 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Removal of Fe and Mn Reduction of solids Removal and inactivation of viruses due to high pH. Corrosion and scale formation control. Removal of excess fluoride.

Limitations: 10 1. Inability to remove all hardness. 2. High degree of operator control must be exercised for maximum efficiency in stability, hardness removal and costs. 3. Color removal may be complicated by high pH.
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4. Large amounts of sludge created. Lime Addition Softening Formula Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 2H2O + 2CaCO3 Calcium Bicarbonate + Calcium Hydroxide (Lime) yields 2 Waters + 2 Calcium Carbonates Caustic Soda Softening Advantages of using NaOH: 11 & 12 1. Stability in storage 2. Less sludge is formed 3. Ease of storage and handling Sludge Recirculation and Disposal In some cases, sludge is recirculated back into the primary mix area of a conventional plant to seed the process. 16 Advantages: 1. Recirculation speeds up the precipitation process. 2. Possibility of reduction in chemical requirements. Disadvantages: 1. Increase in Magnesium may result. Sludge with a Ca:Mg ratio <2:1 will be difficult to dewater. 16 Sludge with a Ca:Mg ratio >5:1 will easily dewater. Color Removal When treating highly colored waters, they must be coagulated for color removal at a low pH. Alum is a good coagulant under these conditions. 9 Alum 5.5 7.0 optimum pH 5.8
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Ferric Sulfate 4.0 6.2 optimum 4.5 Since optimum pH is a function of the specific raw water to be treated, optimum pH may vary. Coagulation Optimum coagulation: pH 5-7 Most Economical (Cheapest) Disinfection: Cl2 Softening: CaO (slaking) Full treatment: Dry alum Sludge: Liquid 3% solids (cheapest to produce) Dewatered 15% solids (cheapest to transport) Miscellaneous Calcium and Magnesium become less soluble as the pH increases. 8 Calcium and Magnesium become less soluble as the temperature increases. Never use the same conveyer for quicklime and alum. This mixture may explode under the proper conditions. 14

Footnotes 1. II; 79; 14.1 2. II; 107; 14.13 3. II; 106; 14.112 4. II; 107; 14.14 5. II; 98; 14.91 6. II; 104; 14.11 7. II; 87; 14.32 8. II; 84; 14.31 9. II; 91; 14.4 10.II; 83; 14.30 11.II; 85; 14.315 12.II; 90; 14.35 13.II; 88; 14.33 14.II; 429; 20.140 15.II; 101; 14.10 16.II; 93; 14.7 17.II; 107; 14.12 18.II; 114; 14.19 19.II; 109; 14.161