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ENG4820 | History of the English Language | Spring 2009
Week 15: Present‐Day and Future English
FROM LAST WEEK… Distinguishing American Dialects
Dialects can be very slippery things. Speakers will adjust their production – whether consciously or not – based
on many different factors, many of them emotional:
• How do they feel about their sociolinguistic origins?
• Are they paying special attention to the features of their own speech?
• What linguistically defined group do they feel they belong to, want to belong to, or want to not belong to?
• What linguistically defined group do they associate their addressee(s) to?
• What’s the subject? Family history or quantum physics?
Do You
General More Have
Environment Specifically… Key Pairs This? Notes
Merger of /ɑ/ before nasals don ~ dawn YES / NO • Playing out in the North Midland, Upper
before /t/ cot ~ caught YES / NO Midwestern, and Inland Northern areas,
and /ɔ/
before /k/ tock ~ talk YES / NO as well as all of the western states. Very
Before /l/ caller ~ collar YES / NO little prevalence in the South
• In opposition with the Northern Cities Shift
(see below), and positively correlated with
rural location or identification.
• St. Louis is on the southeastern border of
the areas in which the merger is playing
out. Speakers who do not merge tend to
identify more with St. Louis than with
outlying areas. Speakers who merge tend
to be less identified with St. Louis.
(Source: Tivoli Majors, p.c.)
Merger of /I/ and /ε/ before pin ~ pen YES / NO • Tell a tale, go to hell…
nasals bin ~ been • Strictly Southern, but widespread among
Lax‐tense high fill ~ feel YES / NO African‐American dialects because of large‐
merger in front Mid fell ~ fail YES / NO scale migration from the South into the
vowels before Low full ~ fool YES / NO northern industrial cities in the early 20th c.
/l/ • Less prevalent with low vowels
Merger of /ɑ/ and /o/ before /r/ card ~ cord YES / NO • Originated in white Appalachian dialects
(and from there to African‐American
dialects of the Midwest, i.e. St. Louis) but
is propagating – slowly – through
Southern dialect areas
Merger of /e/ and /ε/ before /r/ Mary ~ merry YES / NO These mergers are widespread and correlate
Merger of /æ/ and /ε/ before /r/ merry ~ marry YES / NO only weakly with dialect boundaries
Merger of /iw/ and /u/ dew ~ do YES / NO
news ~ gnus
ENG4820 | WEEK 15 | PAGE 1 OF 10
Getting To Know Your Dialect Markers
St. Louis is a border area between areas undergoing major reorganizations of their vowel systems. The
features can be difficult to pin down in isolation. Read through the following passages, which contain words
that will tell you where you are in relation to some of the major changes:
1. Yesterday I was going for a drive and saw a man who was standing on a street corner eating a ham
sandwich. He seemed pretty glad to see me, but then he ran away along a path leading into the park.
2. My roommate Todd got pretty sick a few weeks ago. He had a pretty bad cough and kept spitting up
these big blobs of mucous. Our third roommate Tom and I got so grossed out by it all that we made
him sleep on a cot out in the laundry room. He tried to cop some Nyquil off of me but I didn’t have any.
I wrote about the whole thing on my blog.
Shift Environment Key Words Do You Have This?
Raising & diphthongization of /æ/ Before nasals man YES / NO
mam YES / NO
stand YES / NO
Before voiced consonants mad YES / NO
glad YES / NO
stab YES / NO
Before voiceless consonants mat YES / NO
that YES / NO
path YES / NO
Fronting and lowering of /ɔ/ Before nasals con YES / NO
don YES / NO
tom YES / NO
Before voiced consonants blog YES / NO
blob YES / NO
todd YES / NO
Before voiceless consonants cough YES / NO
cot YES / NO
cop YES / NO
ENG4820 | WEEK 15 | PAGE 2 OF 10
Chain Shifts in Action
THE NORTHERN CITIES SHIFT
The Northern Cities Shift is a massive and ongoing reorganizations of the vowel inventories associated with
the urban centers of the Upper Midwest and Northeast.
The blue line encloses areas in
which /Λ/ is backed. The red
line encloses areas in which
/æ/ is diphthongized to [eə]
even before non‐nasal
consonants. The areas
enclosed by all three lines may
be considered the "core" of the
NCVS; it is most consistently
present in Syracuse, Rochester,
Buffalo, Detroit, and Chicago.
(Source).
The numbers (1) through (5) represent the extent of the shift, with the
geographic distribution shrinking as the number gets higher.
In other words, the pronunciation in (1) characterizes the entire
region of the Northern Cities Shift, whereby the vowels in man, had,
/iə/
cat approaches the diphthong in the second syllable of idea.
idea
The pronunciation in (6), where the vowel in kit starts to sound like
/ I/
the vowel in pet on the other hand, is generally found only in the core
kit urban areas such as Syracuse, Rochester, Buffalo, Detroit, Chicago.
6
4 5
/ε/ /Λ/ /ɔ/
pet cut caught
1 /æ/ 2 /ɑ/ 3
man cot
ENG4820 | WEEK 15 | PAGE 3 OF 10
The Southern Shift
This shift began about two
hundred years ago, a date
we can derive from the only
partially shifted vowels of
emigrant African American
dialects in Canada and the
Dominican Republic
In this very complex change, some
vowels are shifting into already
occupied slots in the inventory,
while others (shaded grey) are
shifting into quite novel
pronunciations.
The numbers (1) through (8)
represent the extent of the shift,
with the geographic distribution
shrinking as the number gets
higher.
/i/
/iə/ In other words, the pronunciation
key /uw/ /ur/
kids in (1) characterizes the entire
5 rude chord
3 4 Southern dialect area, whereby the
vowels in hide approaches the
/Ij/ /I/ /Iy/ /ow/ vowel in had in most other dialects.
key kids rude road
7
6 The pronunciation in (8), where the
/or/
2 vowel in card approaches the
/eə/ /ej/ chord
pronunciation in chord in
bed made
/εw/ mainstream dialects, is
road geographically restricted to
4 /Λj/
/ε/ Appalachian dialects but is
made
bed spreading.
8
/æə/ 4
had /æ/
had
/ɑj/ /ɑr/
1
hide card
ENG4820 | WEEK 15 | PAGE 4 OF 10
ENGLISH TODAY: FORCES OF CHANGE
Variation and change in today’s English is dominated by ‘superregions,’ overlapping and internally variable
areas encompassing numerous state‐sized pieces of territory that are defined mostly by political and cultural
boundaries. Examples: The Midwest, New England, The South, Southern England, Northern England, etc.
These are truly novel entities in the history of English and are a result of the salient forces of our age. All over
the world, rural areas are emptying out, with their former inhabitants and their children moving into urban
and suburban centers. Last year, the number of people living in urban centers exceeded the number of rural
inhabitants for the first time in human history. (Source)
Within these superregions, dialects on the ground are becoming measurably more different from those of
other superregions, largely in areas of
• Phonology: Vowel shifts and mergers
• Lexical content: Incorporation of loan words from locally neighboring languages: American dialects, but
not others, are borrowing heavily from Spanish: enchildada, tamale, taco, fiesta, rodeo, ranch, canyon,
mesa, patio, plaza, hacienda, armadillo, tortilla. More recently: amigo, desperado, señorita, vamoose, loco,
numero uno, chico/chica, cojones, Cinco de Mayo, piñata, tequila, agave, huevos rancheros
• In some North Americal dialects, a change is underway in the verbal system that affects alternations in
simple‐past and past‐participle forms of irregular verbs. The change is centered roughly in the Midwest
and correlates negatively with socioeconomic status (or desired socioeconomic status).
CHANGES IN THE VERB SYSTEM OF NORTH AMERICAN ENGLISH
Crucial to understanding this change is to also understand that:
• Change spreads throught the lexicon one form or class at a time
• Change often affects forms differently according to frequency, usually reaching least frequent forms first
• Change can be arrested at any time, for any length of time, and can also be reversed as the change is
played out in layered, socially structured linguistic domains.
The Standard/Conservative/Old/Original System
Dictionary form – Simple Past – Past Participle
Weak ('regular') verbs play – played – played
Non‐present forms add /‐d/ affix
'Strong' verbs eat – ate – eaten
• Simple past: idiosynchratic vowel alternations
• Past participle: idiosyncratic vowel alternations
• Past participle: idiosyncratic addition of /‐en/ or /‐Ø/ affix
• /‐en/: more numerous and more frequent overall
bite, blow, break, choose, drive, eat, fall, forget, freeze, get, give, grow, hide, know, ride, rise, see,
shake, speak, steal, swear, tear, take, throw, wake, wear, weave, write
• /‐Ø/: less numerous, less frequent overall, correlates heavily with nasal consonant
ENG4820 | WEEK 15 | PAGE 5 OF 10
become, begin, bind, cling, come, dig, drink, find, fling, grind, hang, hold, ring, run, shine, sing, sink, sit,
sling, stick, stink, string, swim, wind, win, wring
'Mixed' verbs buy – brought – brought also: bring, catch, seek, teach, think
• Idiosynchratic vowel/ consonant alternations in non‐present forms
• Do not add /‐en/ affix in participle forms
THE MIDWESTERN ANALOGY
Part 1: Extend the Strong /‐en/ ending onto the past participles of the Mixed class:
ÆI have boughten, I have broughten
This is especially prevalent in the past subjunctive, I should have boughten/broughten.
This change makes the irregular verb system more regular: for every Mixed Verb that adopts the Strong
ending, one idiosynchracy is removed from its list.
Part 2: Extend the simple past form onto the past participle:
Æ I have broke/chose/ate
This change makes the irregular verb system more regular: for every Strong Verb that goes through this
change, one less form must be learned.
These two changes would appear to be at cross‐purposes: the Mixed Verbs are adopting an ending from the
Strong Verbs at the same time this ending is being done away with.
The contradiction is only an apparent one if we assume that:
• Part I began before Part II
• Part I and Part II are propagating independently within each class of verbs
Another Historically Unique Situation: Large‐Scale and Enduring English/Spanish Bilingualism
Large‐scale and largely
permanent migration to the
United States from Spanish‐
speaking countries in the
Americas is having a profound
influence socially and
linguistically. The last time such
lasting, large‐scale, and long‐
term bilingualism happened
was during the Scandinavian
settlement of England from the
8th to 11th centuries.
ENG4820 | WEEK 15 | PAGE 6 OF 10
THE GROWING FAMILY OF ENGLISH SPEAKERS
Commercially Driven Expansion
Across the world, the use of English as a language for commerce and diplomacy is expanding, mostly into
areas that have not existed until recently:
• The economic and political integration (with varying speed and depth) of superregions: Sub‐Saharan
Africa, Western Europe, the Eastern Mediterranean, South Asia, East Asia, etc.
• Integrated, globally distributed manufacturing and shipping. Raw materials from Africa, manufacturing
in China, assembly in Mexico, sale in the United States
• Large‐scale global tourism and its seasonal labor force
Post‐Colonial Areas
Most of the areas colonized or annexed by Britain and the United States in the 18th through 20th centuries
have retained English as an official or semi‐official language.
ASIA AFRICA
Tanzania 44
Zambia 13
Zimbabwe 13
In all of these areas, English speakers were just the most recent arrival in a centuries‐long sequence of
invasions. In each case, segments of the upper classes adopted the invading languages, almost always keeping
them alongside their indigenous languages. The English that is spoken is influenced by indigenous languages
in both phonology and lexical material.
South Asia, for instance, had seen invasions by Persian speakers (10th to 12th centuries) and the Portugese
(17th to 18th centuries) before the roughly 200‐year presence of the British. Most people in present‐day India,
Pakistan, and Bangladesh are conversant in at least two or three languages in addition to any English they
might also use.
ENG4820 | WEEK 15 | PAGE 7 OF 10
In each area, English interacts with the ethnic and economic dividing lines within the society.
• About forty percent of India's over 1 billion people speak Hindi as their primary language; Hindi is to a
greater or lesser degree mutually comprehensible with other Indo‐European languages of the north,
e.g. Punjabi, Gujerati, Marathi.
• The south is dominated by speakers of languages from the unrelated Dravidian family: Tamil, Telugu,
Kannada, Malayalam. Within national politics, the Hindi‐speaking plurality has tended, off and on, to
resist official use of English, whereas the language groups in the south have more heavily favored it, as
it establishes a more level playing field.
The local phonology and lexical material are heavily influenced by the indigenous languages, by relics of
Victorian‐era pronunciations (years as /jΛ:z/ vs. mainstream British pronunciations more like /jI:z/, and by
simplifications that characterize second‐language acquisition of English generally.
• Across post‐colonial English varieties, interdental fricatives /θ/ and /ð/ are usually realized as the
corresponding stops /t/ and /d/.
• Voiceless stops in most Indian varieties of English are realized without aspiration. Remember that the
presence or absence of aspiration on consonants is meaning‐bearing in Hindi, e.g. /tan/ 'piece of cloth'
vs. /than/ 'melody.’
• African varieties of English tend to eliminate the distinction between lax and tense vowels as well as
the entire low range, so:
• pen and pain are both realized as /pen/
• look and Luke are both realized as /luk/
• bought and boat are both realized as /bot/
• fun, fad, father, farther, and fad are all realized with the vowel /a/.
Example: Nigeria's Foreign Minister
Speakers will often weave between English and their indigenous languages within the same sentence or even
the same thought, a process called code switching.
Example: Kabhi Khushi, Kabhi Gham (Sometimes Happiness, Sometimes Sadness, India 2001)
Economic and Political Orbits:
South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, English‐speaking Carribean
These countries have been home to continuous communities of native speakers of English since the first
British settlers arrived, usually with co‐settlers who were in indentured servitude or slavery. In their regions,
they reinforce the political and economic weight of English while influencing neighboring pronunciations and
lexical content.
Reverse Diasporas and the Mobile Classes
A number of countries have developed English‐speaking economic sectors through small‐ to medium‐scale
immigration by English speakers from more established areas:
• Israel, with settlement by large numbers of English‐speaking Jews from Britain, Australia, New Zealand,
and North America
ENG4820 | WEEK 15 | PAGE 8 OF 10
• Free‐trade zones in liberal Arabic‐speaking countries in the Persian Gulf: Dubai (United Arab Emirates),
Doha (Qatar), Manama (Bahrain)
• Smaller, free‐trade‐oriented European countries: Finland, Estonia, Iceland, Luxembourg
OMG! SRSLY! STP WRYING ABT TXT MSGS!
For the last time, text messaging is NOT destroying the English languages. ITS NT EVN CHNGNG IT MCH!
Text messaging is just another addition to the vast inventory of writing styles in the English repertoire, like
style developed for telegraph. IT JST GTS RID OF RDUNDNT ELMNTS 2 SAV TIME & THUMB WRK. NTHG 2 WRY
ABT! :)
The greatest effects text messaging will ever have:
• Introducing a few new words, most of them byproducts: TTYL, to text, texting, sexting
• Putting another barrier in the path toward acquiring standardized spelling of written English in primary
and secondary educational settings.
Arguably not great compared to all the other challenges; it's just easy to focus on because it cuts across
racial and economic divisions we are more reluctant to address head‐on!
THE EVOLUTION OF THE ENGLISH LEXICON
A Burgeoning of New Words
An explosion of technical jargon:
Medicine: abduction, acidotic, bradycardiac, bronchoscopy, cardiomypoathy, cordotomy, debridement,
diplopia, eclampsia, embolectemy, fluoroscope, fibrillation, gorked, granuloma, hematocrit, hypovolemia,
ileectomy, ischemia, laparotomy, lithotripsy, macrosomic, metacarpal, necrotic, nosocomial, orbital,
osteosarcoma,palp, peritoneum, renogram, retrocecal, streptokinase, subdural, thromboses, troracotomy,
ulcerative, UTI, venipuncture, ventricular
Computer and communications technology: adware, applet, bandwidth, biometric, cache, codec, diskette,
dongle, emoticon, ethernet, flamewar, frag, gigabyte, GUI, hacker, hotspot, icon, IM, inkjet, Internet, JPEG,
Java, killer app, kilobyte, laptop, LAN, malware, megabyte, nameserver, noob, OCR, overwrite, phish, port,
quadcore, quicktime, reboot, RAM, safe mode, screensaver, taskbar, terabyte, uninstall, upload, vaporware,
voicemail, wallpaper, webcam, zip
Initialisms: Words consisting of the spoken names of the first letters in a phrase; the first attested examples go
back to the 1840s:
USA, BBC, OK (of uncertain origin), SAT, GRE, EU,
Acronyms: Words spelled with the first letters in a phrase but pronounced as if they were simple words:
UMSL, NATO, OPEC, laser, scuba, phat
Clipping: Using only one syllable from an original word, which is usually but not always retained
ad, phone, demo, pub, bus, flu, fridge, fries, neocon, hi‐tech, modem
ENG4820 | WEEK 15 | PAGE 9 OF 10
Backformation: Subtracting identifiable morphemes from existing words to create new forms:
edit (from editor), televise (from television), emote (from emotion), bureaucrat (from bureaucracy)
Blends: Combining parts of separate words
brunch, smog, infomercial, prequel, shopaholic, zippergate, motel, guesstimate, breathalyzer, bridezilla
Zero‐derivation: Changing a word into a different part of speech without overt morphology
chair a committee, staff an event, to friend, to text, to decision, a good move, a long commute
Just plain made up:
blurb, google, bamboozle, etc.
Semantic shifts:
kitchen porn, nazi, Web
Genuinely novel tendencies:
Medial clipping, not matching the stressed syllable as English clipping usually does:
blog from weblog, ‘rents from parents
Reduplication, common in other languages but not historically in English:
goody‐goody, criss‐cross, tick‐tock, we’re not going out going out
ENG4820 | WEEK 15 | PAGE 10 OF 10