Lab 8: AC Power

LAB EXPERIMENTS USING NI ELVIS II AND NI MULTISIM

Alexander Ganago Jason Lee Sleight
University of Michigan Ann Arbor

Lab 8 AC Power

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Lab 8: AC Power

Goals for Lab 8

Learn about: The effects of phase shift between the input (source) voltage and the current through the circuit on the transfer of power from the source to the load Calculations of the average power absorbed by the load, and the importance of the Power Factor Compensation of the unwanted phase shift between the source voltage and the current in the circuit by way of adding a compensating impedance such as a compensating capacitor The frequency dependence of the compensation of the phase shift and of the optimization of the power transfer to the load.

Learn how to: Simulate various circuits in order to study the effectiveness of power transfer from the source to the load Relate your own sensory experience (hearing the sounds of varied loudness at various frequencies) to the measurements of voltages and calculations of the power transferred to the load Apply the concepts of Thevenin equivalent circuit to the power transfer from an AC source to the load Measure the delays between the source voltage and the current through the circuit in several circuits, at various frequencies, in order to assess and optimize the power transfer Explain your lab data using several circuit models (for example, taking into account the DC resistance of the inductor) Compare the effectiveness and reliability of several circuit models in explaining your lab data

Optional goals: Explore the effects of varied compensating capacitance on the optimization of the power transfer to the load at various frequencies Learn about the importance of using a transformer; explore what exactly changes in your circuit if the transformer is removed.

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Lab 8: AC Power

Introduction
You have already learned that, in a linear circuit with DC sources and resistors, which is shown as its Thevenin equivalent in Figure 8-1 (to the left of the terminals a and b), the maximal transfer of power from the source to the load (to the right of the terminals a and b in Figure 8-1) is achieved when the load resistance equals (matches) the equivalent resistance of the circuit:

R Load = R T
and the maximal power transferred to the load equals:
PMAX 1 (V ) = T . 4 RT
2

Figure 8-1. The Thevenin equivalent of a linear circuit with DC sources and resistors (to the left of the terminals a and b) and the load resistor (to the right of the terminals a and b). When the DC (time-independent) sources are replaced with AC (time-dependent) sources, we have to consider more aspects of the power transfer problem. In particular, when all sources in the circuit are sinusoidal and at the same frequency (see the Thevenin equivalent circuit in Figure 8-2), we can calculate voltages, currents, and power using either trigonometric equations with time-dependent voltages and currents, or complex algebra with phasors.

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Lab 8: AC Power

Figure 8-2. The Thevenin equivalent of a linear circuit with AC sources and impedances (to the left of the terminals a and b) and the load impedance (to the right of the terminals a and b). If we assume that the Thevenin equivalent voltage is the input signal, which serves as the reference with zero phase angle, we can write:
VT (t) = VT, pk cos( t)

or, in the phasor form:

VT = VT, max 0

The voltage across the load is also sinusoidal at the same frequency but, in general, it has a different phase angle:
VLoad (t) = VLoad, pk cos( t + V, Load )

or, in the phasor form:

VLoad = VLoad, max V, Load

the current I in the circuit is also sinusoidal at the same frequency but, in general, it has a different phase angle:
I(t) = I pk cos( t + I )

or, in the phasor form: 2010 A. Ganago Introduction Page 4 of 20

Lab 8: AC Power

I = I pk I

The average power absorbed by the load depends not only on the peak values of the voltage and current but also on the phase shift:
Pav = 1 VLoad, pk I pk cos( V, Load I ) 2

or, in the phasor form:

Pav = 1 VLoad, pk I pk V, Load I 2

If the phase angle shift ( V I ) between the voltage and current equals zero, the power reaches its maximum (for the given peak values of voltage and current). On the contrary, if the phase shift ( V I ) = 90 = This is the case of an individual inductor or capacitor. The cosine of ( V I ) has a special name: the Power Factor:
cos ( V I ) = Power Factor

, the average power equals 2 zero, regardless of how large the amplitudes of voltage Vpk and current I pk could be.

By definition, the Power Factor ranges from 0 to 1, reaching exactly zero for an individual inductor or capacitor, and reaching exactly 1 when the circuit or load is purely resistive. In power transfer, the goal is to maximize the Power Factor by minimizing ( V I ) . Since many loads (such as motors) are inductive, and transmission lines also incur inductance, a compensating capacitor can be added to the circuit in order to reduce ( V I ) . Note an important distinction between DC circuits and AC circuits with sinusoidal sources: A transmission line in a DC circuit adds extra resistance (see Figure 8-3), and adding another resistor does not improve the power transfer to the load.

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Lab 8: AC Power

Figure 8-3. DC circuit with a transmission line that has its resistance R Line added to the circuit.
B B

A transmission line added to an AC circuit also contributes to the circuit resistance; moreover, it adds some inductance to the circuit (Figure 8-4).

Figure 8-4. AC circuit with a transmission line has its impedance ZLine added to the circuit. The line impedance ZLine is often inductive:

ZLine = R Line + j L Line

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Lab 8: AC Power It may seem counterintuitive, but you will see it in your own experiments (not only in calculations and simulations) that, in order to maximize the power transfer to the load, it is worthwhile to add an extra impedance to the circuit: a properly chosen compensating capacitor reduces the overall phase shift ( V I ) between the source voltage and the current in the circuit (Figure 8-5).

Figure 8-5. In an AC circuit, a properly chosen compensating capacitor improves the power transfer to the load by reducing the phase shift incurred by the impedance of the transmission line.

Numerical Example
Let us begin with the circuit of Figure 8-2 (neglecting the line impedance) and assume:

VT = (100 Vrms ) 0 ZT = 10 ZLoad = 10 Thus we obtain the current through the circuit, the voltage across the load resistance, and the average power transferred to the load as the following:
I=

VLoad = I ZLoad = ( 50 Vrms ) 0 PAv, Load = VLoad I * = 250 W

(100 Vrms ) 0 = 5 A 0 VT = ( rms ) ZT + ZLoad 10 + 10

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Lab 8: AC Power Now, let us take the line impedance into account as in the circuit of Figure 8-4, and assume that it equals:
Z Line = ( 5 + j200)

Thus the current through the circuit, the voltage across the load resistance, and the average power transferred to the load can be found as the following:
I= VT ZT + ZLine + ZLoad =

(100 Vrms ) 0
10 + 5 + j200 + 10

= ( 0.06154 j0.4924) A rms

PAv, Load = VLoad I * = ( 0.6154 j4.924) ( 0.06154 + j0.4924) = 2.462 W The average power dropped by a factor of >100. Now, let us add a compensating capacitor to the circuit, as shown in Figure 8-5, and ensure that its impedance exactly compensates the imaginary part of the line impedance; in this example:
ZCompensating = j200 ZCompensating + ZLine = ( j200 + 5 + j200) = 5

VLoad = I ZLoad = ( 0.6154 j4.924) Vrms

Then the total circuit impedance becomes purely resistive; in this example:

ZTotal = ZT + ZLine + ZCompensating + ZLoad ZTotal = (10 + 5 j200 + j200 + 10) = 25 Therefore, the current through the circuit becomes in phase with the source voltage, and the average power transferred to the load dramatically increases. The results are:
I= I=

(100 Vrms ) 0 VT = ZT + ZLine + ZCompensating + ZLoad 10 + 5 + j200 j200 + 10 (100 Vrms ) 0 = ( 4 A rms ) 0 25 = I ZLoad = ( 40 Vrms ) 0

VLoad

PAv, Load = VLoad I * = 160 W

Thus the addition of the properly chosen compensating capacitor leads, in this example, to a 65-fold increase of the average power transferred to the load.

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Lab 8: AC Power This example clearly demonstrates the importance of phase shift and its compensation for the optimization of power transfer to the load. Note that exact compensation of the imaginary part of the line impedance (+j200 in the example above) by the capacitors impedance (j200 in the example above) is achieved at a particular frequency, at which the total circuit impedance is purely resistive [you will soon learn that it is the resonant frequency of the circuit]. At a higher frequency, the absolute value of the inductive impedance L increases, and 1 the absolute value of the capacitive impedance decreases, thus the total circuit C impedance
ZTotal = ZT + Z Line + ZCompensating + Z Load

deviates from the purely resistive and becomes inductive (positive imaginary part). By the same token, at a lower frequency, the capacitive impedance dominates and the total circuit impedance becomes capacitive (negative imaginary part). As a result, varying the frequency of the sinusoidal source voltage leads, in general, to variations of the average power delivered to the load.

Sneak Preview of the Lab Work

In the lab, you will study effects of the phase shifts on the power transfer using the function generator as the source of signals and a small speaker as the load. Your signal frequencies will be in the audio range thus you will clearly hear when the sound becomes louder. In other words, you will not only calculate the power values but also experience the difference between poor and effective power transfer. For lab experiments, you will connect the function generator to the speaker through an audio transformer (step-down), which is needed to reduce the effect of loading. The role of the transformer is briefly explained at the end of this introduction; for extra credot Explorations, you will be offered to repeat some of the experiments in the circuit without a transformer. The small speaker, which you will use as the load for your circuits, has 8 nominal resistance and relatively small impedance. In many calculations, you will consider this speaker as a purely resistive load. You will begin lab experiments with a circuit that has a transformer without the load and measure its output, the open circuit voltage, as shown in Figure 8-6.

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Lab 8: AC Power

Figure 8-6. The circuit with a function generator as the voltage source and an audio transformer. In this lab, you will use 3 types of circuit diagrams: (1) In the lab, you will use circuits with an audio transformer, as shown in Figure 8-6 (2) In the pre-lab, you will use simplified model circuits that neglect the source resistance, such as shown in Figure 8-7

Figure 8-7. Simplified model for Circuit #0, which you will use in the pre-lab. (3) In the post-lab, you will use the Thevenin equivalent circuits such as shown in Figure 8-8.

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Lab 8: AC Power

Figure 8-8. The Thevenin equivalent of Circuit #0, which you will use in the post-lab. As in all your studies of AC signals, you will use the oscilloscope to measure the voltages. As soon as you connect the speaker (see Figure 8-9), your oscilloscope will show a notable decrease of the voltage at the terminals a and b. In other words, the voltage across the speaker is smaller than the open-circuit voltage:
VSpeaker < VOpen Circuit

Since your speaker acts nearly as a resistive load, the voltage across it is in-phase with the current through the circuit. By monitoring the function generators signal in one channel of your oscilloscope and the voltage VSpeaker in the other channel, you can determine the time delay (and, therefore, the phase shift) between the source voltage and the current through the circuit.

Figure 8-9. The circuit with a function generator and an audio transformer with a speaker as the load.

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Lab 8: AC Power In the pre-lab, you will simulate the circuit with a speaker as the load by using its simplified model, which is shown in Figure 8-10.

Figure 8-10. Simplified model for a circuit with a speaker, which you will use in the pre-lab. In the post-lab, you will use the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit with a speaker (Figure 8-11); from the resistance of the speaker and the voltage across the speaker V SP , which you measure in the lab, you will calculate the equivalent resistance of the source R S, EQ .
B B

Figure 8-11. The Thevenin equivalent circuit with a speaker, which you will use in the post-lab. To study the effect of the line impedance, you will add an inductor in series with your speaker: see Circuit #2 shown in Figure 8-12.

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Lab 8: AC Power

Figure 8-12. The circuit with an inductor in series with the speaker, as a model of the line impedance. As you expect from the explanations and the numerical example above, addition of the inductor incurs a phase shift between the source voltage and the current in the circuit and greatly reduces the power transferred to the speaker. Since the inductors impedance is frequency-dependent, these effects also depend on the frequency. In the pre-lab, you will model Circuit #2 using its simplified model, which is shown in Figure 8-13.

Figure 8-13. Simplified model of the circuit with a speaker and an inductance, which you will use in the pre-lab.

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Lab 8: AC Power For the analysis of lab data obtained on Circuit #2, you will use its Thevenin equivalent, which is shown in Figure 8-14.

Figure 8-14. The Thevenin equivalent of the circuit with an inductance and a speaker, which you will use in the post-lab. The next step is to study the effect of a compensating capacitor, which you also add in series with the speaker: see Circuit #3 shown in Figure 8-15.

Figure 8-15. The circuit with a compensating capacitor in series with the inductor and the speaker.

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Lab 8: AC Power As before, you will perform measurements at various frequencies and observe that, at a particular frequency, the phase shift between the source voltage and the current in the circuit vanishes. In the pre-lab, you will use the simplified model of Circuit #3, which is shown in Figure 8-16.

Figure 8-16. The simplified model of the circuit with a speaker, inductor and a compensating capacitor, which you will use in the pre-lab. For the post-lab analysis of your data, you will use the Thevenin equivalent of Circuit #3, which is shown in Figure 8-17. Note that, in order to achieve a better agreement between the model and your data, we take into account the inductors resistance, which you will also measure in the lab.

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Lab 8: AC Power Figure 8-17. The Thevenin equivalent of the circuit, which includes the speaker, inductor, and a compensating capacitor.

For extra credit Explorations, you will be offered two types of lab experiments. In the first Exploration, you will double the capacitor in the circuit as shown in Figure 8-18.

Figure 8-18. The circuit offered for Explorations in the lab. For further Exploration, you can pull out the transformer and connect your circuit directly to the function generator as the source: see Figure 8-19.

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Lab 8: AC Power

Figure 8-19. The circuit without a transformer, offered for further Explorations in the lab.

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Lab 8: AC Power

The Role of a Transformer (Optional Reading)

A simple transformer has 2 coils of wire wound on the same magnetic core (Figure 8-20).

Figure 8-20. A transformer with two coils. If a sinusoidal voltage source is connected to the primary coil of a transformer, it produces the output voltage at the same frequency in the secondary coil. The ratio of voltages in its primary and secondary lines is proportional to the ratio of the numbers of turns in the primary and secondary coils, as shown in Figure 8-21. An ideal transformer does not absorb power thus the power in the secondary line equals the power in its primary line; therefore, the ratio of currents is inverse of the ratio of voltages.

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Lab 8: AC Power

Figure 8-21. Voltages and currents in an ideal transformer. If the number of turns in the primary coil is smaller than that in the secondary coil, then the output voltage amplitude is greater than the input:

n1 < n 2 V1 < V2
This is called a step-up transformer. If the opposite is true,

n1 > n 2 V1 > V2
we call it a step-down transformer. Note that up and down belong to the voltages; the ratio of currents is inverse. Thus, in a step-down transformer, the current in the secondary coil is larger than the current in the primary coil. In many cases, the user decides which coil of the transformer should be primary and which coil will be secondary. In other words, many transformers can be used either as step-up or step-down. If the primary line is connected to a voltage source V1 and the secondary line is connected to the load, the current in the secondary line is determined by the voltage V2 and the load impedance Z Load (see Figure 8-22). For simplicity, we consider a purely resistive load.

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Lab 8: AC Power In the case of a step-down transformer, the current in the primary coil is smaller than the current in its secondary coil, although the voltage in the primary coil is higher. In other words, the apparent load, which is calculated from the ratio of voltage and current in the primary coil, is larger than the load, which is actually connected to the circuit (Figure 8-22).

Figure 8-22. The relationship between the apparent load and the actual load. It means that the source connected to a step-down transformer sees the load as if it had a much larger resistance. Loading is the effect of a small load on the output voltage. It is reduced if the load increases, as in a circuit with a step-down transformer. Note that the analysis above is simplistic: it neglects the resistance of the transformers coils.

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Lab 8: AC Power

Pre-Lab: 1. Direct Speaker Connection

To model the circuit with a speaker as the load, you will use Circuit #1-MODEL for Part 1.

Assume V S, EQ = 400 mV PPK Use the speakers nominal resistance: R SP = 8

B B B B B B

A. Use Multisim to simulate Circuit #1-MODEL. Fill in the following table, where
t SHIFT is the time delay between V S and V SP , and P AVG is the average power absorbed by the speaker:
B B B B B B B B

Frequency (Hz) 1500 2500 3500 4500

B B

V SP, PPK (mV)

B B

t SHIFT (s)
B B

P AVG (mW)
B B

B. Does P AVG depend on the frequency? Why or why not?

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Lab 8: AC Power

2. Effects of Inductance
Use Circuit #2-MODEL for Part 2.

Assume V S, EQ = 400 mV PPK R SP = 8 L = 10 mH

B B B B B

A. Use Multisim to simulate Circuit #2-MODEL. Fill in the following table, where
t SHIFT is the time delay between V S and V SP , and P AVG is the average power absorbed by the speaker:
B B B B B B B B

Frequency (Hz) 1500 2500 3500 4500

V SP, PPK (mV)

B B

t SHIFT (s)
B B

P AVG (mW)
B B

B. Does P AVG depend on the frequency? Why or why not?

B B

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Lab 8: AC Power

3. Effects of Capacitance
Use Circuit #3-MODEL for Part 3.

Assume V S, EQ = 400 mV PPK R SP = 8 L = 10 mH C = 0.22 F

B B B B B

A. Use Multisim to simulate Circuit #3-MODEL. Fill in the following table, where
t SHIFT is the time delay between V S and V SP , and P AVG is the average power absorbed by the speaker:
B B B B B B B B

Frequency (Hz) 1500 2500 3500 4500

V SP, PPK (mV)

B B

t SHIFT (s)
B B

P AVG (mW)
B B

B. Does P AVG depend on the frequency? Why or why not?

B B

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Lab 8: AC Power

In-Lab Work
Part 1: Circuit Parameters and Direct Speaker Connection
Obtain a 10 mH inductor, a 8 speaker, and an audio transformer from your instructor. [We use a Triad MIL-T-27E SP-48 Audio Transformer.] Turn on the NI ELVIS II. From the NI ELVISmx Instrument Launcher, launch the DMM. Use the DMM VI to measure the following components: R L (resistance of the inductor) = ______
B B

R SP (resistance of the speaker) = ______

B B

L (inductance of the inductor) = _____ mH L SP (inductance of the speaker) = ______ mH

B B

Build the following Circuit #0:

Leave the speaker disconnected for now. From the NI ELVISmx Instrument Launcher, launch the FGEN and OSCOPE. On the FGEN VI, create a 1.5 kHz, 10 V PPK sine wave with 0 V DC offset.
B B

Power on the PB. Use the OSCOPE VI to measure V S and V Open Circuit . Adjust the OSCOPE parameters so that you clearly view the waveforms.
B B B B

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Lab 8: AC Power Record the peak value of the Open Circuit voltage: V OC = _______ V PPK
B B B B

Power off the PB. Connect the speaker to the circuit at the nodes labeled a and b, to form Circuit #1.

Power on the PB. Adjust the OSCOPE so that you can clearly view the waveforms. Use the cursors to measure the phase shift between V IN and V SP .
B B B B

Record the value of t SHIFT and V PPK in the following table:

B B B B

Frequency (Hz) 1500 2500 3500 4500

V SP, PPK (V)

B B

t SHIFT (s)
B B

Phase Shift ()

Adjust the frequency of the FGEN VI to each of the other frequencies and repeat the measurements, to complete the table.

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Lab 8: AC Power

Part 2: Effects of Inductance

Build the following Circuit #2:

Use L = 10 mH Create a 1.5 kHz, 10 V PPK sine wave with 0 V DC offset on the FGEN.
B B

Adjust the OSCOPE parameters so that you can clearly view the waveforms. Use the cursors to measure the phase delay between V S and V SP
B B B B

Record the V SP, PPK and t SHIFT in the following table:

B B B B

Frequency (Hz) 1500 2500 3500 4500

V S, PPK (V)
B B

V SP, PPK (V)

B B

t SHIFT (s)
B B

Phase Shift ()

Adjust the frequency of the FGEN VI to each of the other frequencies and repeat the measurements, to complete the table.

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Lab 8: AC Power

Part 3: Effects of Capacitance

Build the following Circuit #3:

Use L = 10 mH C = 0.22 F Create a 1.5 kHz, 10 V PPK sine wave with 0 V DC offset on the FGEN.
B B

Adjust the OSCOPE parameters so that you can clearly view the waveforms. Use the cursors to measure the phase delay between V S and V SP
B B B B

Record the V SP, PPK and t SHIFT in the following table:

B B B B

Frequency (Hz) 1500 2500 3500 4500

V S, PPK (V)
B B

V SP, PPK (V)

B B

t SHIFT (s)
B B

Phase Shift ()

Adjust the frequency of the FGEN VI to each of the other frequencies and repeat the measurements, to complete the table.

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Lab 8: AC Power

Part 4: Explorations More Capacitance

Build the following Circuit #4:

Use L = 10 mH C = 0.22 F Create a 1.5 kHz, 10 V PPK sine wave with 0 V DC offset on the FGEN.
B B

Adjust the OSCOPE parameters so that you can clearly view the waveforms. Use the cursors to measure the phase delay between V S and V SP
B B B B

Record the V SP, PPK and t SHIFT in the following table:

B B B B

Frequency (Hz) 1500 2500 3500 4500

V S, PPK (V)
B B

V SP, PPK (V)

B B

t SHIFT (s)
B B

Phase Shift ()

Adjust the frequency of the FGEN VI to each of the other frequencies and repeat the measurements, to complete the table.

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Lab 8: AC Power

Part 5: Explorations Without the Transformer

Build the following circuit:

Where L = 10 mH C = 0.22 F Create a 1.5 kHz, 0.4 V PPK sine wave with 0 V DC offset on the FGEN.
B B

Adjust the OSCOPE parameters so that you can clearly view the waveforms. Use the cursors to measure the phase delay between V S and V SP
B B B B

Record the V SP, PPK and t SHIFT in the following table:

B B B B

Frequency (Hz) 1500 2500 3500 4500

V S, PPK (V)
B B

V SP, PPK (V)

B B

t SHIFT (s)
B B

Phase Shift ()

Adjust the frequency of the FGEN VI to each of the other frequencies and repeat the measurements, to complete the table.

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Lab 8: AC Power

Post-Lab: 1. Direct Speaker Connection

In the lab, you built Circuit #1:

In the pre-lab, you modeled it with Circuit #1-MODEL:

In the post-lab, you will use the Thevenin equivalent Circuit #1-EQ for data analysis:

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Lab 8: AC Power

A. From your lab data, calculate the average power delivered to the speaker for each
frequency (1500, 2500, 3500, 4500 Hz). Use the actual speaker resistance measured in the lab for this calculation. B. Compare your results from Part 1.A above and your in-lab data to your pre-lab calculations (Part 1.A from the Pre-Lab). Specifically, compare the values for P AVG and t SHIFT . Discuss their agreement/disagreement. Explain possible sources of error. C. Use your lab data for V OC and V SP from In-Lab Part 1 to calculate the Thevenin equivalent resistance of the transformer output. Repeat your pre-lab simulation using the following circuit:
B B B B B B B B

Use V S = V OC which you measured in In-Lab Part 1

B B B B

Complete the following table: Frequency (Hz) V SP, PPK (mV) 1500 2500 3500 4500
B B

t SHIFT (s)
B B

P AVG (mW)
B B

D. Compare your results from Part 1.A above and your in-lab data to your new
simulation results (1.C from the Post-Lab). Specifically, compare the values for P AVG and t SHIFT . Discuss their agreement/disagreement. Does accounting for the Thevenin resistance improve the circuit model?
B B B B

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Lab 8: AC Power

2. Effects of Inductance
In the lab, you built Circuit #2:

In the pre-lab, you used its simplified model:

In the post-lab, you will use the Thevenin equivalent Circuit #2-EQ for data analysis:

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Lab 8: AC Power

A. From your lab data, calculate the average power delivered to the speaker for each
frequency (1500, 2500, 3500, 4500 Hz). Use the actual speaker resistance measured in the lab for this calculation. B. Compare your results from Part 2.A above and your in-lab data to your pre-lab calculations (Part 2.A from the Pre-Lab). Specifically, compare the values for P AVG and t SHIFT . Discuss their agreement/disagreement. Explain possible sources of error. C. Repeat the pre-lab simulation using Circuit #2-EQ:
B B B B

Use V S = V OC which you measure in In-Lab Part 1.

B B B B

Complete the table. Frequency (Hz) 1500 2500 3500 4500 V SP, PPK (mV)
B B

t SHIFT (s)
B B

P AVG (mW)
B B

D. Compare your results from Part 2.A above and your in-lab data to your new
simulation results (Part 2.C above). Specifically, compare the values for P AVG and t SHIFT . Discuss their agreement/disagreement. Explain possible sources of error.
B B B B

E. Discuss whether taking R L and R T into account improved the circuit model. Why or
B B B B

why not?

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Lab 8: AC Power

3. Effects of Capacitance
In the lab, you built Circuit #3:

In the pre-lab, you used its simplified model:

In the post-lab, use the Thevenin equivalent Circuit #3-EQ for data analysis:

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Lab 8: AC Power

A. From your lab data, calculate the average power delivered to the speaker for each
frequency (1500, 2500, 3500, 4500 Hz). Use the actual speaker resistance measured in the lab for this calculation. B. Compare your results from Part 3.A above and your in-lab data to your pre-lab calculations (Part 3.A from the Pre-Lab). Specifically, compare the values for P AVG and t SHIFT . Discuss their agreement/disagreement. Explain possible sources of error. C. Repeat the pre-lab simulation with the Thevenin equivalent Circuit #3-EQ.
B B B B

Use V S = V OC which you measured in In-Lab Part 1.

B B B B

Complete the table. Frequency (Hz) 1500 2500 3500 4500 V SP, PPK (mV)
B B

t SHIFT (s)
B B

P AVG (mW)
B B

D. Compare your results from Part 3.A above and your in-lab data to your new
simulation results (Part 3.C above). Specifically, compare the values for P AVG and t SHIFT . Discuss their agreement/disagreement. Explain possible sources of error.
B B B B

E. Discuss whether taking R L and R T into account improved the circuit model. Why or
B B B B

why not?

F. Discuss whether adding the capacitor helped transfer more power to the speaker
(relative to Circuit #2). Why or why not?

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Lab 8: AC Power

4. Exploration: More Capacitance

In the lab, you built Circuit #4:

A. From your lab data, calculate the average power delivered to the speaker for each
frequency (1500, 2500, 3500, 4500 Hz). Use the actual speaker resistance measured in the lab for this calculation. B. Explain your results.

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Lab 8: AC Power

5. Exploration: Without the Transformer

In the lab, you built the following circuit:

A. From your lab data, calculate the average power delivered to the speaker for each
frequency (1500, 2500, 3500, 4500 Hz). Use the actual speaker resistance measured in the lab for this calculation. B. Explain your results.

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