CERAMIC AND GLASS PARTS

65. CERAMIC AND GLASS PARTS

65.1. DEFINITIONS
Ceramics are dened as inorganic, nonmetallic materials and are described
further in Chap. 2.4. They can be classied into the following groups: 1. Whitewares. These include, in addition to mechanical and electrical components, earthenware, china, tiles, and porcelain. 2. Glass. Glass is a mutual solution of fused, inorganic oxides cooled to a rigid condition without crystallization. It is made into a variety of hard, transparent objects. 3. Refractories. These include heat-resistant and insulating blocks, bricks, mortar, and reclay. 4. Structural-clay products. They consist of bricks, tiles, and piping made from natural clays. 5. Porcelain enamels. These are ceramic coatings on cast-iron, steel, and other metal products.

65.2. MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

65.2.1. Ceramic Parts To produce ceramic parts, rened powders of the basic raw materials are rst thoroughly mixed with some water and small quantities of selected additives, normally metallic oxides that act as uxing agents and inhibitors. Then the basic fabrication operation, such as pressing, extrusion, or casting,

takes place. Depending on the shape and dimensions, machining or grinding of the formed part also may be involved. The green ceramic part is then dried and red at a high temperature for a specied period of time. This fuses the powders into a hard, dense, strong, and homogeneous material. A typical temperature range within which alumina and other common materials are fused is 1400 to 1800C (2550 to 3250F). Pressing is the most common basic fabrication operation prior to ring. It is similar to compression molding or powder-metal pressing in that the material is compressed at high pressure into a mold cavity of the shape of the workpiece. The pressed part is then trimmed as necessary and dried. In wet pressing, the mixture is quite moist and ows somewhat as it is pressed, similarly to the behavior of plastics being compression-molded. In dry pressing there is a minimum amount of moisture, and the ceramic powders behave very similarly to metal powders in the powder-metallurgy processes. Many ceramic parts can be formed directly to the nal shape, with allowances being made for shrinkage during ring. Often, however, turning, drilling, boring, threading, tapping, and other machining operations take place to meet some special requirement. Because of the highly abrasive nature of ceramic material, carbide tools are used. Grinding also may be employed. After ring, if dimensional tolerances are particularly close, further grinding and lapping can be performed with diamond abrasives. Glaze may be added to the part to provide a smooth, glossy surface. It is applied soinetimes before ring and sometimes afterward, followed by a second lower-temperature ring operation. A more liquid mixture is used for casting and extrusion than for pressing. Casting is performed with plaster-of-paris molds that absorb water from the mixture, gradually building up a leathery cast that may be handled, renished, and red with or without a glaze. Jiggering, a process often used for dish- or bowl-shaped parts, involves the use of a rotating form, usually of plaster, against which a putty-like clay mix is pressed with a clay knife. Separate pieces may be joined together before

drying and ring. 65.2.2. Glass Parts Glass components are produced from a hot, viscous, homogenized melt. They may be processed or formed by pressing, blowing, drawing, or rolling, after which the glass is cooled at a controlled rate to anneal it (remove residual stresses) prior to nishing. Figure 6.11.1 illustrates the pressing operation.

65.3. TYPICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND APPLICATIONS

65.3.1. Ceramic Parts Ceramic parts are hard, extremely strong in compression, highly chemicaland corrosion-resistant, nonammable, and suitable for use at extremely high operating temperatures. Ceramic whitewares generally have good thermal shock resistance and low thermal expansion. High modulus of elasticity and high radiation resistance are two additional properties of importance in some applications. Most ceramics are dielectrics and, except for ferrites, lack magnetic properties. Excellent abrasion-resistant surfaces are possible. These surfaces also oer a pleasing gloss or patina and can be vitreous and nonporous. In addition to their resistance to chemical substances and corrosive materials, ceramics are relatively immune to re, heat, and weathering.

Figure 6.11.1. Pressing methods and mold types for glass. (From Errol B. Shand, Glass Engineering Handbook, McGraw-Hill, New York.)
Generally, all ceramic materials are brittle. Tensile strengths are somewhat limited. There also are some limitations in freedom of design because of processing complexities and inherent mechanical properties. Because of high ring temperatures, metal inserts cannot be molded in. The size of commercial ceramic components ranges from the very small electronic components to large nose cones and radomes. Typical ceramic parts for mechanical applications are bearings, turbine blades, cams, cutting tools, extrusion dies, thread and wire guides, nozzles for abrasive materials, wear plates, seals, valve seats, lters, pump parts, crucibles, and trays. Typical parts for electrical and electronic applications include coil forms, tubes, insulators, lamp housings, printed-circuit boards, radomes, resistor bases, vacuum-tube-element supports, and terminals. Figure 6.11.2

illustrates some typical ceramic components.

Figure 6.11.2. Typical technical ceramic parts. (Courtesy Duramic Products Inc.)

65.3.2. Glass Parts Transparency is the most important property of glass and accounts for most of its applications. Other properties are similar to those of whiteware but with less favorable strength and high-temperature characteristics. The poor resistance of glass to thermal shock can be improved by tempering, which also provides increased mechanical strength. Glass products range in size from microspheres of fractional-millimeter diameter used as llers for plastics to large plate-glass windows. Normally, pressed parts are about 9 kg (20 lb) or less in weight, while blown ware can range up to 16 kg (35 lb). Typical pressed-glass components are electrical insulators, baking dishes, food blenders, stoppers and stopcocks for laboratory vessels, eyeglasses, and ornamental pieces. Typical blown-glass components are bottles and other containers, incandescent lamps, electron tubes, laboratory glassware, and television picture tubes. Tubing and piping of glass, made by drawing, are used for laboratory, chemical industry, and high-temperature applications and thermometers. Flat glass for glazing, mirrors, tabletops, and other purposes is made either by

drawing or by rolling, which, in the case of plate glass, is followed by grinding and polishing or by oating onto molten tin and drawing horizontally. Glass powders are sintered to make lters and other porous objects. Glass bers are a major reinforcing medium for many products (see Chap. 6.6), for insulation and for ber optics. Figures 6.11.3 and 6.11.4 illustrate typical pressed- and blown-glass parts. Cellular glass is almost invariably black or dark-colored. Pore size can be varied, depending on the method of introducing porosity. Thermal expansion is the same as that of the base glass.

Figure 6.11.3. Examples of pressed glassware. (a) Block-mold glassware. (b) Split-mold glassware. (c) Font-mold glassware. (Courtesy Corning Glass Works.)
Color can be incorporated into most glass, whiteware, porcelain, and other

ceramic materials by introducing the proper pigmentation medium to the material before ring. 65.3.3. Refractories Refractory products, being resistant to very high temperature and, generally, to thermal shock, are used in such applications as furnace linings and similar insulation. For the most part, they are molded in the shape of bricks of relatively small dimensions. They also may be fusion-cast in large shapes (e.g., 1 by 2 by 4 ft) and then cut into the required size and conguration.

Figure 6.11.4. Examples of blown glassware. (a) Paste-mold glassware. (b) Hot-iron-mold glassware. (c) Press-and-blow glassware. (Courtesy Corning Glass Works.)

65.4. ECONOMIC PRODUCTION QUANTITIES

Excluding the art formsglass, pottery, porcelain enameling, etc. using ceramic mediamuch of the true industrial portion of the ceramics eld is long-established, well stabilized, and geared for ecient large-scale production. Factors such as adaptability to mass production, costs, setup times, output rates, and equipment life are summarized for various branches of the industry in Table 6.11.1.

Figure . TABLE 6.11.1 Economic Production Quantities

65.5. SUITABLE MATERIALS

65.5.1. Ceramics Technical ceramics are normally dense bodies that contain steatite aluminum oxide (alumina), beryllium oxide (beryllia), or related oxides such as mullite (3A1 2O
2O 3 3

2SiO 2), forsterite [(Mg Fe)

SiO 4], and cordierite (2MgO 2A1

5SiO 2). Silicon carbide, silicon nitride, and boron nitride are other

materials of commercial use. 65.5.2. Glass The major portion of the glass industry uses as its raw materials oxides and carbonates of silicon, calcium, and sodium, mainly as sand, limestone, and soda ash. Numerous other oxides are added to obtain special properties such

as radiation resistance, hardness, controlled expansion, etc. The principal types of glass are as follows:

Silica Glass. Silica (silicon oxide) or silica quartz (sand), when fused, forms a
glass with very-high-temperature resistance, high strength, chemical resistance, and resistance to thermal shock. Unfortunately, it is extremely dicult to form into useful shapes, and articles made from it are therefore expensive.

96 Percent Silica Glass. This type has somewhat easier formability and
slightly reduced properties compared with silica glass because of the presence of small amounts of boric oxide and other ingredients.

Borosilicate Glass. This type contains silica as the chief ingredient but has
from 13 to 28 percent of boric oxide for low thermal expansion and other oxides that provide further improvements in workability. Mechanical, electrical, and chemical resistance properties are still good, and borosilicate glass has wide usage for electrical insulators, laboratory glassware, cookware, and sight and gauge glasses.

Lead Glass. This type contains a portion of lead oxide in addition to silica
and other oxides. Normally, the lead oxide content is less than 50 percent, but it can be as much as 90 percent for glass used for radiation shielding. In portions below 50 percent, lead oxide enhances the workability of glass, and lead glass is normally called for when intricate forming is required. Optical and electrical properties are also excellent, although mechanical properties (strength and abrasion resistance) are low. Lead glass is used for thermometer tubing, neon and uorescent lights, television tubes, art glassware, and jewelry.

Soda-Lime Glass. This type contains appreciable quantities of soda, Na 2O,

and lime, CaO, in addition to the chief ingredient, silicon oxide. Soda and lime lower the melting point of the glass, reduce its viscosity when melted, and thereby improve its workability. Soda-lime glass is a good general-purpose glass and is used for window and plate glass, containers, and electric-lamp bulbs. It is economical to melt and to fabricate. Table 6.11.2 summarizes the prime characteristics of these common glasses on a comparative basis.

Table 6.11.2. Properties of Principal Types of Glass

Lime glass Lead glass Borosilicate glass 96% silica glass Weight Strength Heavy Weak Heaviest Weak Medium Moderately strong Relative cost Resistance to thermal shock Electrical resistivity Hot workability Heat treatability Chemical resistance Impactabrasion resistance Ultravioletlight transmission Poor Poor Fair Good Good Fair Poor Good Good Best Poor Fair Good Better Best Good Good Poor None None Good Best Fair Poor Poorest Moderate Best Good Good Good Lowest Low Low Low Medium Good High Better Highest Best Light Strong Lightest Strongest Silica glass

65.5.3. Other Ceramics Porcelain enamels, or frits, are low-melting, lead oxidebased glasses. Ground-coat enamels, which cross-bond a metal substrate to a topcoat porcelain enamel, always contain cobalt oxide.

Whiteware used for dinnerware and other nontechnical applications is normally similar in composition to that used for mechanical and electrical parts. Combinations of clay, feldspar, and int are used with minor variations to impart desired characteristics. Refractory materials produced from aluminum and chromium oxides are used for large tank furnaces. Silica is used when acidic atmospheres are involved, and reclay is employed for general nonnoxious high-temperature environments.

65.6. DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS

65.6.1. Ceramic Parts Although technical ceramics can be fabricated into complex shapes, it is always desirable to keep shapes as simple as possible for economic reasons. Tolerances also should be as liberal as the function of the component permits. It is important, from a structural standpoint, to avoid problems that result from the low tensile strength and lack of ductility of ceramics. Specic design recommendations for technical ceramics are as follows: 1. Edges and corners should have chamfers or generous radii to minimize chipping and stress concentration and aid forming. When parts are machined, outside radii should be 1.5 mm (1/16 in) or more and inside radii at least 2.4 mm (3/32 in). For dry-pressed parts, outside edges should be beveled in a manner similar to that employed with powder-metal parts; 0.8 mm by 45 is a desirable minimum. Inside

Figure 6.11.5. Design rules for corners of ceramic parts.

radii should be as large as possible: 6 mm (1/4 in) unless the height or width of the smaller surface is less than 6 mm. (See Fig. 6.11.5 for an illustration of these rules.)

2. Since parts may sag or be distorted if not properly supported during ring, it is preferable to avoid large overhanging or unsupported sections. Otherwise, supporting-xture costs may be excessive. 3. Pressed parts should be designed with as uniform a wall thickness as possible. Dierential shrinkage of sections of nonuniform thickness during drying and ring causes stress, distortion, and cracking. Sections should not exceed 25 mm (1 in) in thickness. (See Table 6.11.3 for wall-thickness information.)

Table 6.11.3. Thicknesses of Ceramic Products

Thickness range, mm (in) Minimum Maximum Maximum practical thickness buildup within individual part, ratio Technical ceramics Standard types Glass Glass containers Blown: 1.5 (1/16)* Pressed: 2.4 (3/32) Flat glass Picture glass: 1.1 (0.043) Doors: 2225 (7/81) Technical glass 1.5 (1/16)or as required Cellular glass As desired (cast material) Whiteware Vitreous sanitary ware 6.3 (1/4) 50 (2) 2:1 As desired; machinable 4:1 Preferably none 9.5 (3/8) 9.5 (3/8) 4:1 0.5 (0.020) 25 (1.0) or more 4:1

Vitreous dinnerware Semivitreous dinnerware Floor and wall tiles Porcelain enameling Cast-iron plumbing Steel plumbing Appliances Refractories Standard types

1 (0.040)

3 (1/8)

3:1

1.7 (0.065)

9.5 (3/8)

3:1

6.3 (1/4)

13 (1/2)

Raised ridges: 1.2:1 to 1

3 (1/8)

4.8 (3/16)

Preferably none

1.5 (1/16) 1.5 (1/16) As required; bricks and heavy cast shapes

3 (1/8) 2.4 (3/32)

Preferably none Preferably none Preferably none

*Throwaway bottles; returnable bottles are slightly thicker. Light bulbs = 0.020 in thick. Or less, as in Japanese rice or Irish Belleek ware.

4. Other factors being equal, simple symmetrical shapes without deep recesses, holes, and projections are preferable. Gently curved surfaces without abrupt break lines or angularity are normally preferred with most ceramic-forming processes. 5. When hollow pieces are cast against a male mold (e.g., cup-shaped parts), a draft angle of at least 5 must be provided to facilitate removal of the green body. If the part is left in the mold too long, drying shrinkage will draw the material against the mold, resulting in cracking. Dry-pressed parts do not require draft on either outside surfaces or the walls of through holes. Wetpressed parts should have at least 1 on exterior surfaces and 2 on interior surfaces. (See Fig. 6.11.6.) 6. Undercuts should be avoided in ceramic components if possible. Although some undercuts can be incorporated through the use of mold cores, machining is the normal method for producing them. With dry pressing,

machining is essential if undercuts are required. In all cases, costs are added. 7. Dry-pressed ceramics are subject to other design rules of powder-metal parts (Chap. 3.12) also but cannot match their close dimensional tolerances. 8. Cavities, grooves, and blind holes in pressed parts should not be deeper than onehalf the part thickness and preferably only one-third the thickness. (See Fig. 6.11.7.)

Figure 6.11.6. Draft angles for ceramic parts.

Figure 6.11.7. In pressed parts, blind holes and cavities should be as shallow as possible.
9. Extruded parts should be symmetrical, if possible, with uniform wall thickness. The minimum wall thickness for extrusions should be 0.4 mm (1/64 in) or, for round sections, 10 percent of the extrusion diameter. For long extrusions, 150 mm (6 in) in length or more, the wall should be thicker, at least 20 percent of the extrusions outside diameter. (See Fig. 6.11.8.) 10. Holes in pressed parts should be large and as widely spaced as possible. Thin walls between holes, depressions, or outside edges should be avoided. These walls should be at least as thick as the basic walls of the part, especially if the part is small and thin-walled. In any case, the minimum in internal areas should be 0.8 mm (0.030 in) and, in the case of outside edges,

3 mm (1/8 in). Machined holes should be at least 1.5 mm (1/16 in) in diameter if possible, although smaller holes can be produced. 11. It must be remembered that distortions from shrinkage can cause tting problems when holes are used for fasteners and when holes in ceramic parts are to be aligned with holes in mating parts. Holes in ceramic parts may become slightly out of round after ring. Table 6.11.4 provides recommended minimum clearances

Figure 6.11.8. Design rules for the wall thickness of extruded ceramic parts. Table 6.11.4. Recommended Clearances for Holes in Ceramic Parts When Fasteners Are to Be Used
Fastener outside diameter, mm (in) Minimum additional hole diameter (in addition to hole tolerance), mm (in) To 4 (5/32) Over 4 to 10 (5/32 to 3/8) Over 10 to 16 (3/8 to 5/8) Over 16 to 25 (5/8 to 1) Over 25 (1) 0.15 (0.006) 0.20 (0.008) 0.25 (0.010) 0.30 (0.012) 0.40 (0.016)

for holes that are designed to accept fasteners. To compensate for variations in hole spacing, multiple holes that are to be aligned with corresponding holes in other parts must be further enlarged (or elongated in the direction of the other holes). The amount of the enlargement or elongation depends on the allowable hole-to-hole tolerance of the two parts. 12. Molding of screw threads in ceramic parts is not feasible. Screw threads can be machined in green ceramic workpieces, but they constitute a potential problem, and it is better to design parts without screw threads if possible. If incorporated, threads should be coarse and not smaller than 632. Internal threads should be considered acceptable if they accept a Class 1A mating metal screw; external threads should be considered acceptable if they accept a Class 1 nut. Holes should not be tapped to a depth greater than six threads because dimensional variations in the thread pitch from ring shrinkage may cause t problems if too long a thread is used. All tapped holes should be countersunk. (See Fig. 6.11.9.) External threads also should be as coarse as possible and have a well-rounded thread form to reduce edge chipping and stress cracking. Coarse-pitch threads with a truncated form also can be used to increase the strength of the threaded ceramic part. As with internal threads, it is recommended that the number of threads in engagement be limited to six. 13. Ribs and ns should be well rounded, wide, and well spaced and have normal draft. Figure 6.11.10 illustrates design rules for ribs. 14. Grinding after ring can produce ceramic parts of high accuracy, but stockremoval rates are slow, and the operation is expensive. When the operation is nec-

Figure 6.11.9. Internal screw threads in ceramic parts.

Figure 6.11.10. Design rules for ribs in ceramic parts.

Figure 6.11.11. Minimize the area to be nish-ground after ring.

essary, it is advisable to reduce the area of the surface to be ground as much as possible and to provide clearance for the grinding wheel at the ends of the surface. (See Fig. 6.11.11.) 15. Ceramic parts can be permanently joined to metal components by adhesive bonding, soldering, brazing, and shrink tting. Shrink tting is highly satisfactory as long as the metal is on the outside (in tension) and the ceramic on the inside (in compression). Brazing is stronger than bonding or soldering and more temperature-resistant but requires a metallized layer as a base for the brazing alloy.

65.6.2. Glass Parts Guidelines for the design of pressed- and blown-glass components are shown in Tables 6.11.5 and 6.11.6. Note that tolerances and minimum desirable production quantities also are shown.

Other points to bear in mind when designing glass parts are the following: 1. Holes, cavities, and deep slots can cause molding problems and should be included in a part only if absolutely necessary. Holes are normally not punched through in the pressing operation but are machined from a thin web or hollow boss, as shown in Fig. 6.11.12. 2. As in the case of whiteware parts, best results are obtained when walls are uniform in thickness, when the part is designed for compressive rather than tensile strength, and when gently curved rather than sharp-angled shapes are employed.

Figure . TABLE 6.11.5 Manufacturing Tolerance and Design Recomendations for Pressed Glassware Table 6.11.5. Manufacturing Tolerance and Design Recomendations for Pressed Glassware (Continued)

*Maximum dimension.

Source: For Errol B. Shand, Glass Engineering Handbook, McGraw-Hill, New York.

Figure . TABLE 6.11.6 Manufacturing Tolerance and Design Recomendations for Blown Glassware Table 6.11.6. Manufacturing Tolerance and Design Recomendations for Blown Glassware (Continued)

*Weight based on density pf commercial glasses. Tolerence on diameter for circular pieces is on mean diameter and does not include outof-round.

Notes: Wall thickness cannot be positively controlled. It depends on glass distribution in

the blank and on the shape into which it is blown. Note in table that wall thickness of blown ware can be much lighter than for pressed ware. A pear-shaped piece is ideally suited to blowing. An inverted cone is undesirable. Long, thin necks make it dicult to handle the blank during the the blowing operation. In hot-iron ware, a circular section at the cuto point permits a ame burn-owhich is considerabely cheaer than other methods.

Source: From Errol B. Shand, Glass Engineering Handbook , McGraw-Hill, New York.

Figure 6.11.12. Two designs for holes in pressed glassware. (From Errol B. Shand, Glass Engineering Handbook, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1958.)
3. Lettering or other irregular surface features may be incorporated as long as they are aligned in the direction of, and not perpendicular to, the mold opening. 4. Ribs and anges can be incorporated in pressed-glass components, but they are not practicable in blown parts.

5. While bosses may be incorporated in some items like electrical insulators, they are normally not practicable for general-purpose design and manufacture. 6. Threads for bottle caps or similar connecting devices may be incorporated in blown-glass parts as they are with blow-molded plastics, and the same screw-thread designs (see Chap. 6.5) are recommended.

65.7. DIMENSIONAL FACTORS AND TOLERANCES

65.7.1. Ceramic Parts These parts are aected dimensionally primarily by drying shrinkage and ring shrinkage, which can total as much as 25 percent for high-clay ceramics and about 14 percent for porcelains. Other factors aecting the accuracy of ceramic parts are mold accuracy and mold wear. Processing variables, such as the amount of material pressed, pressing time, and pressure, aect the dimensions of pressed parts. Machining variations aect green-state machined and nish-ground parts. Table 6.11.7 presents recommended dimensional tolerances for technical ceramic parts. 65.7.2. Glass Parts These parts are dimensionally aected by gob weight, temperature of the melt and mold, mold tolerance and wear, and shrinkage of the glass on cooling. Shrinkage rates vary from the equivalent of that of steel [92 10 in/(in C)] down to that for pure silica glass [7 10
7 in/(in 7

C)].

Table 6.11.7. Recommended Dimensional Tolerances for Technical Ceramic Parts*

Porcelain; cast ceramics Standard tolerance for technical ceramics Tightest tolerance for precision electronic and mechanical applications

As-red lengths and widths, unglazed As-red lengths and widths, glazed

1/2%, NLT 0.38 mm (0.015 in)

1%, NLT 0.13 mm (0.005 in)

1/2%, NLT 0.08 mm (0.003 in)

3%, NLT 0.75 mm (0.030 in)

2%, NLT 0.30 mm (0.012 in)

1%, NLT 0. 13mm (0.005 in)

Angles As-red thickness Ground thickness

2 10% 0.10 mm (0.004 in)

2 10% 0.025 mm (0.001 in) 0.025 mm (0.001 in)

1 5% 0.025 mm (0.001 in) 0.013 mm (0.0005 in)

Other ground dimensions Hole diameter, unglazed 0 to 13 mm (to 1/2 in) Over 13 mm (over 1/2 in) Hole diameter, glazed 0 to 13 mm (to 1/2 in) Over 13 mm (over 1/2 in) Hole locations center-to-center

0.10 mm (0.004 in)

0.13 mm (0.005 in) 2%

0.08 mm (0.003 in) 0.13 mm (0.005 in)

0.05 mm (0.002 in) 0.10 mm (0.004 in) 0.10mm (0.004 in)

0.30mm (0.012 in)

0.20 mm (0.008 in)

2%

1%

1%

2%, NLT 0.13 mm (0.005 in)

1%, NLT 0.08 mm (0.003 in)

1/2 %, NLT 0.08 mm (0.003 in)

*NLT = not less than.

Recommended tolerances for various dimensions of pressed- and blown-glass parts are shown in Tables 6.11.5 and 6.11.6. Tolerances for locations and

diameters of holes are shown in Table 6.11.8.

Table 6.11.8. Recommended Location and Diametral Tolerances for Holes in Pressed-Glass Components
Recommended tolerance, mm (in) Method Hole diameter Drilled or pressed and ground 625 (1/41) Burned through and punched 36 (1/81/4) 0.8 (1/32) 0.50 (0.020) 0.8 (1/32) 0.25 (.011) 36 (1/81/4) Location within 0.8 (1/32) 0.4 (1/64) Diameter

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James G.Bralla: Design for Manufacturability Handbook, Second Edition. CERAMIC AND GLASS PARTS, Chapter (McGraw-Hill Professional, 1999, 1986), AccessEngineering

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