TRANSLATORS'

PREFACE.

npHB
^

translators
to

feel

that

no

apology
the study

is necessary of thas the history

for

any

rea-

sonable

effort
clearer
to

encourage view

of the

mathematics.
teacher,

The
the

of

the

science

afforded

inspiration

improve
the

his

methods
the these
the

of

presenting
of the

it, the

increase
to

interest
combat

in

class-

work,
"

tendency
are
a

subject
reasons

stagnation
the

of

curricula,
renaissance

few

of

the

for

approving
This

present

of

study.

phase
"

of
it must

scientific
be

history

which
rather

Montuda by
De

brought literary
in

into

such

repute
his

confessed
writers
in in

his

style

than

by

exactness

"

and

which

like

Morgan

England,
Baltzer

Chasles
Germany,

in

France,

Quetelet

Belgium, Italy in

Hankel

and
as

in

and
on,

Boncompagni

encouraged
day. This

the

century

wore

is

seeing

great

revival
as

our

new

movement

is

headed

by

such

scholars
but

GQnther,

EnestrSm,

Loria, Cantor,

Panl

Tannery,
Vorlesuttffen

and

Zeuthen.
Uber

especially
der

by

Moritz

whose

Gesckichte

McUhemcUik

must

long

remain

the

world's
In
any

standard.
movement

of
either

this
the

kind
time
such

compendia
or

are

alwajrs
power

necessary
to

for the
in

those

who

lack

the

linguistic
have

read

leading

treatises.

Several
But

works

recently

appeared in

various

languages.

the

most

systematic The
to

attempt

this

direction

is the

work kind
tales

here

translated.
upon

writers
a

of
of

most

books hand-

of
to

this

feel

called
no

collect

store

anecdotes,
the
real

incorporate
the

of

historic

valne, the
a

and

to

minimize
omits
the

history

of

science. the
He

Fink,

on

other table

hand, in

biography
to

entirely,
the

referring

reader

to

brief

appendix
the

or

encyclopedias.

systematically

considers

growth

of

arithmetic,

algebra,
as

geometry,
should be

and

trigonometry,
somewhat

carrying beyond

the the

historic

development,
the At

done,

limits

of

ordinary the
It

course.

best,
a

the

work for

of

the

translator

is

rather
critics

thankless
of
matter.

task.
For

is

target

critics

of
work

style

and

for

the

style

of

the
It

German

the
one,

translators

will
too

hardly
to

be

held

responsible. side
to

is not

fluent

leaning

much

the

scientific

make

it lend

always

easy
more

reading. readily
to
err

Were
to

the

work

less
form,

scientific, but the

it would
translators

itself
have

better
the

English
a

preferred original.

on

tide

of

rather
As

strict
to

adherence
matter,

to

the

the

it has

seemed
has

unwise made

to

make
correct

any
a

able considernumber of and

changes.

The

attempt

been

to

unquestionable
the

errors,

occasional
have
to

references
been
'

have

been
It has

added,
not

biographical
however,

notes

rewritten. large in
number

seemed

advisable,
notes.

insert

of

bibliographical

Readers
their and

who

are

interested
the
English
The

the
De

subject
Morgan,

will
AUman,

naturally

place
Ball,

upon
Heath,

shelves other

works

of writers,
leading the

Gow,
be,

and,
German

as

far

as

may

works

in

other
in the

languages.
footnotes,

authorities offers

are

mentioned
at

and

French

language

little

present
The

beyond
translators

the

works
to

of

Chasles

and
their

Paul

Tannery.
to

desire

express

obligations

Professor

Markley

for

valuable
as

assistance
the

in

the

translation
the work, least
to

Inasmuch EUmentar-McUhemoUik,

original
is

title

of

Geschichte
English

der

misleading,
beyond the

at

ers, read-

the

work

going thought

considerably
best
to
use

the

limits

of

the
A

elements,

it has

been

as

English

title,

Brief

tory His-

of

Mathematics,

W.
D. March,

W.

Beman. Smith,

Ann
New

Arbor,
York.

Mich.

E.

PREFACE.

TF
^

the

history
or

of

science

possesses
into

value

for

every
to

one

whom
"

calling knowledge
in

inclination

brings

close;^ for

relations all

it,

^if the

of further

this

history

is imperative

who
or

have
the

influence

the

development
them
to

of advantage,
of

scientific
then

principles acquaintance
especially

methods
the
to

of and
man

employing growth who

as
a

with important

rise the

of wishes

branch
to

science

is

teach

the

elements realms.

of

this

science

or

to

trate pene-

student following

into

its higher

The
to

history

of

elementary
an

mathematics historical
survey

is intended
the the

give

students
parts

of of this

mathematics science little

of
of

mentary ele-

and

to

furnish

the

teacher
to

ments eleconnectedly

opportunity, points
them

with

expenditure long

of

time,
to

review and
to

for teaching

the

most

part suitable

familiar

him

utilise

in

his

in

comments.

The

enlivening

influence
has

of
never

historical disputed.

remarks

upon there
more

this

elementary

instruction for Baltzer the

been

Indeed
the

are

text-books
those
to

elements

of

mathematics

(among
devote

recent

of

and
the

Schubert)
science

which
in

considerable
notes.

space
It is

the

history desirable

of

the

way

of

special historical

certainly
there

that offered

instead

of

scattered

references

should

be

connected

presentation
one

of the
the

the

history

of

elementary
not
as
an

mathematics,

not

intended

for

use

of

scholars,

equivalent
but
only
as

for

the

great picture,

works

upon

history
tones

of

mathematics,
clearly

first

with

fundamental

sustained,

of

the

principal

results
In

of

the

investigation
book the

of attempt

mathematical
has

history.
to

this
of

been

made

differentiate

the
There

histories

the

separate

branches

of

mathematical

science.

are

considered

in

order geometry the and be

number-sjmtems and

and

number-symbols,

arithmetic,
as

algebra,
within
a

trigonometry,
of
a

allowing,
single

as

far
the

possible,

narrow

confines orientation.
that

branch
a

of
procedure
survey

elements,

rapid
may

sure

Against

such general On

the
the hand,

objection
culture
in
a

raised
a

in

this

way

the

of

history history

of
of

certain

epoch

will

suffer.

the
one

other
confined

elementary

mathematics,
an

especially

within
whole
well be

such with

modest all their

bounds,

exhaustive of
past
and

description
future
cannot

of

periods

correlations

presented.
is
not

It

the

purpose of
that

of

this

work
and

to

set

forth

the

interesting Although
it

historical
cannot

development be denied
a

mechanics

astronomy.

by

this

separation
to

of
the

related

branches the hope

there
may

is

wanting expressed

certain that

definitiveness this

work,

yet

be

lack

will
have

not

be

felt few

too

keenly.

The
contact

mentary ele-

parts

of

mathematics

only

points in

of

with

these only

branches,
that Further, the

and

our

endeavor

is

to

present

brief

compass

which in

is most the

essential.

interest

of

presentation
which
often
must

as

condensed
great

as

sible, pos-

biographical

notices
treatment

lend be

attraction
to

to

more

extended
and
work received there

of but

subject

relegated

the

appendix
The

treated its
the

briefly.
in
certain

had

inception

suggestions of by
a

which

the

author club in

at

semi-monthly

meetings

mathematical
Dr. A.

Tttbingen,

founded thanks
due

and
ought
to

conducted
here
the
to

Prof.

Brill,

for

which

suitable is
especially
have

be

expressed.
of
the

Acknowledgment

president
for the
certain

club of

whose
"

in-

terpretatioDs work. These

through

been

decisive
furnished
lectures

parts the the

the

present
tunity, oppordiverse

meetings the the

author

desired

connected

with
the

most

branches

of with

science

and
to

through
recent

discussions
to

which
penetrate

often into

followed,
those

references
thought which

literature,

circles

of

to-day

dominate

the

higher

branches

PACK

atiTe
71.

Numbers Roman Negative

and 74.

70; Arithmetic

Archimedes's
71. 72
;

Notation Hindu
Involution 74;

for

Large
71
;

Numbers Symbolism

Arithmetic and

7a;

Numbers

Evolution 74.

73;

mutations Per-

Combinations
Arithmetic Numbers

Series.

Chinese

metic ArithSigns

Arab
of

74 ; "Algorism"

75;

Radical

76;

Theory

76;

Series

76.

2.

Algebra
The

77
Egyptians
of 77.

The
First
of

Greeks
Degree

Form

of

the

Equation of

77 Second gree De-

Equations

the

78

; Equations

the

Degree
81

(Application
; Indeterminate

Areas)
Equations

7$ ; Equations

of

the

Third
of

(Cattle
of

Problem
83.
88.

medes; ArchiAlgebra

Methods
84. Chinese

of

Solution Algebra
87.

Diophantus)
Arab
Algebra

Hindu

C.

Second

Period.

To

the

Middle

of

the

Seventeen

tury. 'ii Cen-

1.

Genera]
Symbolism
and

Arithmetic
of

95
Italians
Numbers
Z03
;

the

and

the
99

German
; Imaginary

Cosaists

95

tional Irraloi

Negative
; Series

Quantities
of

Powers

103

Stifel's

Doplication

the

Cube

104

Magic

Squares

105.

2.

Algebra
Representation

107
of Equations
Complete by

107;

Equations
Solution
of

of

the

First
of of

and the the gebraic Al-

Second
Third
German

Degrees

108;

Equations
iii

and

Fourth

Degrees
113

the

Italians
of
a

Work

Cossists
Equations

; Beginnings

General

Theory

of

X15.

D.

Third

Period.
to

From
the
1x7;
1x9;

the
Present
Pascal's

Middle
Time.
Arithmetic
Numbers

of

the

Seventeenth

tury Cen-

Symbolism Numbers deAnungsieAre

Continued

Triangle
123; 129;

iz8;
Grassmann's of
133;

Irrational
Aus^

Complex
izy
;

Quaternions
131
;

Calculus Numbers
; Elimination ;

Logic

131;

Fractions
14X
; Symmetric

Theory

of
X42

Tables
143

of

Primes
of
148 Z50;
;

Functions

ory ; The-

Invariants
of

and
Least

Covariants
Squares

145 149

Theory

of of

Probabilities

Method
Infinite of

; Theory

Combinations
151;

Series

(Convergence
Equations
of

and 155; the

Divergence)
Cyclotomic
163
;

tion Solu-

Algebraic

Equation
of

160

Investigations
X64; of the

Abel

and of

Galois the
Fifth

Theory

tutions Substi-

Equation Roots
168; 166

Degree
107;

165;

mation Approxiand

Real Calculus

; Determinants

Differential
174;

Integral
of

Differential
Functions

Equations
180;

Calculus

Variations

178;

Elliptic

Abelian

Functions

IV.

GEOMETRY.
PACK

A. B.

General First

Sanrej Period. Period.

The
the tion and the the Loci
graphic

190

Egyptians

and
Greeks

Babylonians

192

C.

Second

The
of
to

193
and
Pythagoras
of of 194
;

Geometry

Tbales the
196;

AppHcatlen and theTrisecArchimedes

of

Quadratrix
of
an

Quadrature
the
199

the

Circle

Angle

Element*

Euclid
of

198

his

Successors
of

; the

Theory the
209;

Conic
of

Sections
an

aoa;

Duplication

the
the
of of

Cube,

Trisection Plane, Order

213.

Angle

and

Quadrature
209;

of

Circle
the

Solid,
aia;

and'
the

Linear
Stere""-

Surfaces

Second

Projection

Hipparchus

D.

Third
Fourth

Period. Period.
Gerbert
and

Romans, From
Leonardo
222;

Hindus, Gerbert
218; of

Chinese,
to

Arabs
.
.

214

E.

Descartes
Stifel22o; Vieta Opening

218

Widmann Problems
of

and

and
of

Kepler
the

Solution
225;

with

bat

One

Compasses

Methods

Projection

226.

F.

Fifth

Period.
Descartes's

From
Analytic 234

Descartes
Geometry Geometric

to

the

Present
....

228
of Indivisibles

230;

Cavalieri's
Works
240;

Method
Newton's

; Pascal's

237;

In-

"estigations and
other
242;

239; Curves Minor

246

Cramer's
241
;

Paradox
Geometry
.

Pascal's of

Lima^on

Analytic

Three
of

sions Dimen-

Investigations
; lA^hixxs,*
s

243;

Introduction
CalcUl

tive Projec250;

Geometry

Barycenirischer Pliicker's Malfatti's

258
; Descriptive
an

Bel251;

lavitis's

EquipoUences
Developments

250;
256;
der

Investigations Problem
Geometry
Curve
264
; Conformal

Steiner's
Standt's
Form-theory

256:

Von

Geometrie
and

Lage

259
261;

Deficiency
263
; Bnumerative
;

of

Algebraic

Gauche

Curves

Geometry
Geometry Geometry 275;

Representation
of

266

Differential

(Theory
270

of

ture Curva-

Surfaces)
273; Situs

267;

Non-Euclidean
of
n

; Psendo-

Spheres
Analysts

Geometry
zy^-,

Dimensions

Geotmttria
276;
Geometric

and

Contact-transformations
276; 279.

Theory

of of

Probability

Geometric

Models

477;

the

Mathematics

To-day

V.

TRIGONOMETRY.

A.
B.

General
First

Survey Period.
The

281

From
282.

the

Most
The

Ancient
282.

Times
The

to
Hindus

the
284.

Arabs
The

282

Egyptians

Greeks

Ktl

HISTORY

or

MATHEMATICS.

rAGB

second

t"ftriod.
the
Vt"M"

Prom

th"

Middle

Agea

to

the

Middle

of
287

Sev"iit^nth
R""iottKMit"aei

Ontury
Trtgoeomtttie
TkUm

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H^;

ifl^:

TMltl

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the

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ol

the

Se\*eiiteeDUi

Cen294

l"ty

lli" Present

k^"""ltt^^kAl
l""^it
.v*^x%**

Noit^"

wy;

"

323

of in

Stormy
a

periods
soil,
general

that
out

only
of

after

long

centuries
which
a

and
escaped

foreign
the

Greek

works
could

had
new

destruction, take
root.

seed,

and

full

of

promise,
would

One
entering inheritance

naturally eagerness
came

expect upon
to

to

find

the

Romans

with
which

the

rich
the
so

intellectual

them
sons,

from

conquered
willingly enthusiasm
we

Greeks,
to

and

to

find

their
masters,

who

resorted

Hellenic

showing

an

for

Greek

mathematics.
any

Of
The
to

this,
Romans
the

however,

have

scarcely

evidence.
value

understood
statesman

very

well
geometry

the

practical and
the

of shows
no

Greek
itself

surveying
later

"

thing

which but

also

in

Greek is to
the

schools

"

real

mathematical
Roman

advance

be
Romans

found

anywhere often

in

history.
an

'

Indeed, Greek
to

had

so

mistaken

idea

of

learning
later

that

not

infrequently in
a

they
entirely

handed
distorted.
More

it down

generations

form

important the

for

the

further
the

development

of

mathematics
to

are

relations

of

Greek

teachings the
Arabs.

the

investigations distinguished

of

the

Hindus

and
by
a

The

Hindus for

themselves What

pronounced

talent

numerical
them

calculation.

especially
to

tinguis dis-

is their
the
they

susceptibility
Babylonian
incorporated

the

influence

of
the

Western Greek, what

so

science,
that they

and into

especially their
sources
own

system

received

from

outside

and

in

the

great

rivalry
that

for time

the

advancement

of

mathematics.
the
seventeenth

From

until

the

middle

of

century

the
that

German
is

mathematicians
teachers

were

chiefly
schools

calculators,

in
however,

the

reckoning
were

{RecfunschuUn).
and

Others,
is
deserving
to

algebraists, that loftier

the

fact

of reach

emphasis

there
heights.
nenty

were

intellects
Among
them

striving

still
forth

Kepler

stands

pre-emiand

but

with

him
is

are

associated
that
at

Stifel,
this and time
common

Rudolff,
on

Biirgi.
soil

Certain
elementary

it

and

man Ger-

arithmetic
by the
to

algebra,

vitally
standing
The begins Descartes

influenced
very

Italian

school,

attained

conducive period
the

subsequent

progress.

modern
about

in

the
of

history
the

of

mathematics
century.

middle
the

seventeenth

projects

foundation
Newton

theory

of
appear

the
as

ana

lytic

geometry.

Leibnitz

and

the has

discoverers
now come

of when but from

the

differential geometry,
a

calculus.

The

time rarely,

science appreciated along

and

only

and

even

then

imperfectly,

after

its banishment

Greece,
prosperous

enters

with

analysis

upon

period
of

of this
there

advance,

takes

full
its

tage advanresults.
able

latter
were

sister
periods

science
in
which

in

attaining
geometry

Thus through

was

its
at

brilliant
least, into

discoveries
the

to

cast

analysis,

temporarily

shade.

fhe
divides

unprecedented
the

activity
period into

of
two

the

great
parts:

Gauss before

modern

I.

NUMBER-SYSTEMS
SYMBOLS.

AND

NUMBER-

AN

inezfaaostible
the
hmnan

piofusioii
mind

of
has

eactemal
foimd
its

infliienoes
legitimmte

^^^

npoo

ezpressioo
in

in

die

fonnatioii

of

speech

and is
true

writinf^ tliat
a

numbers
of
a

and

nnmber-symbols.

It

counting
a

certain

kind

is found

among among

peoples
the
"^

of

low

grade

of

civilization
ducks
can

and
count

even

lower

animals.
where
have

''Even
the
nature

their

young. of

But

and consequence

the

condition

the

objects
of
the

been

of

no

in

the

formation
has

number

itself,

there counting
an

human

counting
was even

first

begun.

The

oldest reckoning,
cases

in

its

CMrigin
also

cess pro-

of
elementary

adjoining,

possibly

in

special
upon

multiplication,
or

performed

the

objects
such

counted
as

upon

other

objects
fingers.

easily

employed,

pebbles,

shells,
most
common

Hence these

arose

number-names. belong
to

The
the

of

edly undoubt;

primitive

domain
of

of

language

with

the

advancing
was

development

language

their

gate aggre-

gradually

enlarged,

the

legitimate

combina-

"Haakel,
i874*
has
a

Zmr Hcrcsfler

Gfacku-kte
referred
upon

der
to

MmthtmrnUk
as

hm

Aittttmm
/VunirxW

mmd

M^MmiUr,
CtiUm^m

P-

7'

HankeL

TTlor**

also

Tafaiabie

chapter

coantiaK.

In

the

verbal

formation stand
the

of

number-system
prominently
of
use

tion addias

and

multiplication
for

out

itive defin; very

operations
rarely
rarely
10

composition
come

numbers
and
called still in

does

subtraction For
et

into 18

more

division.
8

example,

is

Latin

-fin French

{decern
10

ocid)^

in

Greek
in

8-|-10
German
8

(ojcraj-xa^-Scica)
10

8
20

{dix-huif)^
"

{acht-zehn)^
Breton
in

in
3

Latin
6

also

{duo-de-viginti),
Welsh
while
2*9

in

Lower

{tri-otnc*K)y
3

in

{dew-naui)^
is called
in the times

Aztec
Basque

15

{caxtulli'om-ey)^
in Danish
the
greatest

50

half-hundred,
In spite
of

two-and-a-half diversity when

a

twenty.* the

of
not

forms,

written
to

representation
mere

of

numbers, shows

confined
law

the
to

rudiments,
the

general

according
in

which

higher the

order

precedes

the

lower

the

rectio di-

of the

writing,
are

f
written

Thus by

in
the
the

four-figure Phoenicians
former

number
at

thousands
by
to

the

right,
right

the

Chinese
the

above,
latter
to

writing
downward.

from

left,

from law Romans

above

A
sub-

striking
tractive
etc.,

exception

this
the

is

seen

in

the

principle the

of

in is written

IV,

IX,
before

XL, the

where

smaller

number

larger.
Among from right in
the
to

Egyptians
in
the

we

have

numbers with latter

or

running varying
the
numbers

left the

hieratic

writing,
In

direction
were

hieroglyphics.
written
each unit,
out

the

either
for

in

words
as

represented
as

by

symbols

repeated

often

neces-

yv^v^y^^v^vvvvy
1
4

10

100

14

400

For
the the

numbers
mere

exceeding

100
a

there

was

also,

besides
;

juxtaposition,
representing
the

multiplicative
number
for

principle hundreds
as

symbol
at

the the

of

was

placed
case

left

of

symbol

hundreds

in

the

of
no

400

already

shown. for
zero.*

The The

Babylonians

probably
system
a

had

symbol with the

sexagesimal played
scholars
such

(i.
the

e.,

base
the

60), which
Babylonian

part

in

writings

of

(astronomers
later.
letters
were

and

mathematicians),
The

will
whose

be

mentioned
twenty-two

Phoenicians,
from
wrote

derived

the

hieratic
numbers
"

characters
out

of

the
or

Egyptians,

either numerical
the the
tens

the

in

words

used

special

symbols horizontal,
two

for

the

units

vertical
later

marks,

for

Somewhat

the

Syrians
to

used

twenty-

letters
1,

of
9, 10,

their
20,
.

alphabet
90,
. .

represent

the 500

numbers
was

2,
. .

100,
...

400

400-1-100,
by the
the

etc.

The
for The

thousands units with

were

repre

sented
comma

symbols
right.

subscript

at
same

Hebrew

notation

follows

the

plan.

The

oldest
were,

Greek
in
general,
I

numerals the

(aside
initial
n

from

the

written mental fundafor

10

words)

letters
5

of

the
A

numbers.

for

1,

for

(wivrt),
as

" (Scica),
"

and
I., p.

these

were

repeated
I., p.

as

often
t Cantor.

necessary.

Cantor,

84.

t Cantor,

113.

I., pp.

113-114.

KUUBER-SYSTEMS

AND

NUHBER-SyHfiOL

These numerals

are

described by the Byzant

marian Herodianus of
two
as

(A.D. 200)and
numbers. appeared. One

hence

Herodianic
systems

Shortly after used the

new

of the Ionic alphabet numbers

from

to

in their natural ord 24. The other arrani but actually ii

letters apparently at random

fixed arbitrarily; thus, o^l,

20,
no
....

p=2,
etc.

....,"

100,

special symbol The

Roman

"r=200, for the zero.

Here

toe

numerals* The
zero, a

were

probably pe

from
are

the

Etruscans.

noteworthy

the lack of the

the subtractive symbol

was

whereby

the value of

dimit

placing before it one XL=40, itselfdid

XC=90),
not

of lower order (IV ^^ in cases where the even

a

signify such

subtraction;

the the multiplicative effectof a bar over = 000, "! 100 000). Also for cer (5r!nr=30

tions there

were

special symbols and

the Roman

names.

ing
X

to

Mommsen
the

represent

number-syml finger, the hand, and th proceeds

to

hand.

Zangemeister

from

the which

that decern is related perpendicular

every
or

decussare

oblique crossing, and

ar;

straight or number

curved line drawn

system

across

t\

of

in the decimal

multi]
on m"

number

by ten.

In fact, there

are

representations
500,
to

of his

1,

10,

and
*

1000,

as

well

as

of

and

prove

assertion. in
elementary

Of

especial

interest
of
the

arithmetic

is the
these

number-system Aryans

Hindus,
owe

because
the

it is to

that
now

we

undoubtedly
use.

valuable symbols

position
for 1
to

system
were

in

Their

oldest

merely
as

abridged
figures

number-words,
to

and
been

the

use

of

letters

is said
A.

have The
zero

prevalent
is

from

the its
400

second

century

D.f

of

later

origin
till after

introduction A.

is not

proven

with
numbers

certainty
was

D.

The

writing
to

of

carried in

on,

"chiefly
ways.

according

the

position-system,
Aryabhatta
1
to

various
represented

One
the

plan,

which from

records, by
the and

numbers
of the
40
...

25

twenty-five
the

consonants

Sanskrit

alphabet,
by the

ing succeedand

tens

(30,
A

100)
vowels
of

semi-vowels

sibilants. multipliers
3,
gi

series

of

and

diphthongs
ten,

formed

consisting
gu

powers

of
In

ga

meaning
there

300,

30

000, the

gau

3-10i".J

this

is
it

no

application in
use

of
two

position-system,
methods of

although writing
of numbers

pears apin

other
the

among

arithmeticians
are

Southern
by
the

India.
fact that

Both

of

these

plans

distinguished

*SitmungshtHcht*
in
centum,

der

Berliner and

Akademie

vom

lo.

November Latin, 1874,

1887.
derives of

Wordsworth,

his
for

Fragments mille,

Specimens
quinquaginta
to

0/

Early

C
the of

for

and

for

from
x* He

three
says:

letters
"The

Chalthis
of

cidian
notation
course,

alphabet,

corresponding quite
that signs,

0,

^, and
or

orig;in

is, I believe,
we

uncertain,

rather

purely
centum

arbitrary, determined in
form."

though,
the

observe

the

initials
at

of

mills
were

and
very

final

shape

taken

by

the

which

first

different
"

tSee

EnqycUfpatdia

Britannica,

*'

under

Numerals

decimal
a

system
to

in Sanskrit
the

resembles

number-game,
this endeavor

mania bring and

grasp

infinitely into the

great.
realm
are

Of
of

to

the

infinite

tion number-percepalso
among

representation, and

traces

found

the find

Babylonians its

Greeks.
in

This

appearance

may
or

explanation

mystic-religious

conceptions

philosophic
The
to
a

speculations.
ancient

Chinese
few

number-symbols
fundamental decimal
elements
system.

are

confined arranged
Here
the

comparatively
perfectly

in

developed
takes place

combination
sometimes
ehe
san

sometimes Thus
30
*

by
san

tion, multiplica3,
cAe=10;
a

by
13,

addition.
but
san

denotes

che
arose

Later,
new

as

result

of

foreign
whose

influence,
figures

there
show

two

kinds

of
to

notation

some

resemblance

the

ancient

Chinese
were

symbols..

Numbers
from
from
The
one

formed
downward
to

from
but

them after

not

written
fashion

above

the
the

Hindu
highest

left

right

beginning
the only the

with

order.
is

kind
but

comprising
is found

merchants' in writings and

one

figures
of
a

never

printed
character.
are

business

Ordinarily

ordinal lines

cardinal
above
of
4,

numbers

arranged
when notation
000,

in
necessary,

two

another, small

with
In

zeros

in

the

form

circles.
6,

this

11=2, X

j.

"4.=10,

/j=10

0=0,

and

hence

7) O

^j^

20

046.

of

Arab-Hindu
Sanskrit

origin,
sunya^

which
the

included

zero

(Arabic
were

aS'Sifr^
called
these

void).
the appear

The
fifteenth
more

latter
century

ciphers

(JZiffern). From
numerals
monuments

on

Arab-Hindu
on

frequently but

in

Germany
time
oldest
near

and
become with

in

churches,

at

that

they

had

not

common

property.*

The Katharein

monument

Arabic
to

figures from
1007.

(in

Troppau)
this

is said
are

date

Monuments

of

kind
A

found

in and

Pforzheim free
in
use

(1371),
of
the
for

and
zero

in

Ulm
the

(1388).
thirteenth of

frequent
is

in

century

shown

tables

the

calculation
of

the

tides

at

London
year 1471

and
there

of

the

duration in in

moonlight,
a

t
work
at

In

the

appeared

logne Co-

of
the

Petrarch
top.

with
In 1482

page-numbers
the

Hindu arith
in

figures
metic

first
was

German published
of

with

similar

pagethe

numbering ordinary
which
the
at

Bamberg.

Besides
used of

forms appeared

numerals

everywhere

to-day, 1489,

exclusively
forms the
:

in
7

an

arithmetic

following the time

for

4,

5,

were

used the

in

Germany
and

of

struggle

between

Roman

Hindu

notations

The by

derivation
the examples

of

the below
the

modern
which apices,

numerals
are

is illustrated in

taken

succession Arab,

from

the
DU
as

Sanskrit,

the

Eastern

the

Unger,
to

Methodih Unger.
GeschickU

tUr

prakiucken

Arithmttik^

x888,

p. 70.

Hereafter

referred

tGlinllier,

des

matkematuchen

Unterriehis

im

deuttehtn

Mittel-

Western

Arab

Gi

eleventh, tbiiteen

In the sixteeni metic and its nets tion among alt thi
was

thismeans

fu

ditions for the dei

the schools and in

n.

ARITHMETIC.

A.

GENERAL

SURVEY.

THE
the

simplest
have

number-words
always been the

and

elementary

counting

common

property

of

people.

Quite
methods

otherwise

is it" however,

with
are

the

different from

of

calculation and
As

which their centuries to-day

derived
to

simple

counting,
problems.

with the

application
passed,
every

complicated
part knows,

that child

of

ordinary descended

arithmetic

which closed
to

from

the

circle
the
common

of

particular
people,

castes

or

smaller

communities
an

so

as

to

form
the

important

part

of
of

general

culture.

Among

ancients
wholly
a

the
with

education

the

youth Only

had

to

do

almost
sought priests

bodily

exercises.
through and of

riper

age

higher

cultivation

intercourse
in

with
part

and
common

philosophers,
knowledge
to

this

consisted
people

in

the
to

to-day:

learned At

read,

write, of the

to

cipher. first

the

beginning

period

in

the
the the

historic Egyptians. invention

development

of

common

arithmetic Greek writers

stand

To

them

the of

ascribe
of

of their

surveying,

astronomy,

and
the
most

arithmetic.

To

literature

belongs

also

ancient

book

on

Arabs

who
a

besides

the

Hindu
by

numeral-reckoning

also

employed The
fifteenth

calculation
from

columns.
to

time

the
forms

eighth
the

the

beginning
period. This
the

of

the

century

second
an

is

noteworthy

period of

of

transition,

epoch

of

transplanting

old
of

methods
combat

into
between

new

and
the

fruitful

soil,

but

also

one

well-tried arithmetic
Ages.

Hindu
operations
At

methods

and

the

clumsy

and
from

detailed the

handed
first
only

down

Middle

in

cloisters

and be

cloister-schools

could

any

arithmetic
Roman

knowledge
sources.

found,

and there
from

that
came

derived
new

from
suggestions
to

But
Arabs,

finally
so

from

the

that
was

the

eleventh
to

the
of

thirteenth
abacists,
a

centuries

there singular
as

opposed
complementary

the

group

with of

their

methods,
Hindu

school

algorists

partisans

of

the

metic. arith-

Not

until
of

the the

fifteenth

century,

the

period

of of

investig

original of

Greek

writings,
of the the

the
the
period early

rapid
arts

development
and
of commercial history

astronomy,

rise

of

relations,
of

does begin. the their

third
As

in
as

the

arithmetic
besides
for

the

thirteenth

century

cathedral
own

and

cloister-schools
and

which
wants,

provided
there

religious
speaking,

ecclesiastical
schools
for
to

were,

properly

arithmetic.
needs

Their the who

foundation

is to
of

be

ascribed
towns

the

of

brisk
were

trade

German

with

Italian

merchants

likewise

skilled

were

found
or

only deductions.

rules

and

examples,

almost

never

proofs
The change
where

seventeenth

century

brought
Schools

no

essential
as

in
they

these

conditions.
not

existed
up by

before
horrors

had

been War.

swallowed
The

the

of

the

Thirty-

Years*
on

arithmeticians contrived
easier

wrote

their

books

arithmetic,
to

perhaps the

calculating

machines
or

make

work

for and

their
poems.

pupils,
A

composed of

arithmetic

conversations

specimen

this BeutePs

is

given

in

the

following
the

extracts

from
of

Tobias

Arithmetical

seventh

edition

which

appeared
"

in

1693.*
lehrt im Rechen

Numerieren
Zahlen

schreiben

und

aussprechen.**

"In
Dies

Summen
moss

bringen das WOrtlein

heisst

addieren vollf iihren.

'*

Und

*'

Wie

eine
eine

Hand

an

uns

die

andre

w^schet

rein

Kann

Species

der

andem

Probe

seyn.'*

*'

We

are

taught

in

numeration and

Number

writing
etc.,

expression,**

etc.

Commercial
tion

arithmetic
the
study method
of

was

improved
and

by

the

cultiva
and form

of

exchange
of the
rules
nature.

discount,
The
the

the
of

abbreviated
instruction

multiplication.
same,

remained
to

i.

e.,

pupil

reckoned

according

without

any

attempt

being

made The

to

explain

their

eighteenth

century

brought

as

its

first

and

from

Pestalozzi's

principles
'"is

the

most

extreme

sions. conclufaulty;

His
processes of

sequence

in many
The

respects

his

unsuitable."*
speaks
first

historical
of the

development

arithmetic
:

in

favor
in

ciple counting-prinhas

the

reckoning

every

age

been

an

observing

and

counting.

B.

FIRST

PBRIOD.

THE

ARITHMETIC

OF

THE

OLDEST

NATIONS

TO

THE

TIME

OF

THE

ARABS.

/.

The

Arithmetic

of

Whole

Numbers.

If
cani!iot to

we

leave

out

of
with of

account

finger-reckoning,

which
ing accord-

be

shown

absolute

certainty,
the

then

statement

Herodotus of
an

ancient

Egyptian
pebbles
angles
on

computation
a

consisted
whose

operating
were

with
at

reckoning-board
computer.

lines
the

right

to

the

Possibly
In the

Babylonians

also

used
latter,

similar
as

device.
the

ordinary
the

arithmetic
decimal

of the

among by

Egyptians,
we

'

system

prevails,
with

but

its side
a

also

find,

especially

in

dealing
arose

fractions,
doubt
in
of
year

sexagesimal
working Babylonian
days
out

system.

This

without
observations

the the
360 the

of

the

astronomical

priests, the equal

The

length for
one

of

the

of

furnished

occasion
parts,

the of

division

of
was

circle

into
the

360

which
sun

to

represent celestial

apparent

daily

path

of
the

the
construc-

upon

the

sphere.

If in

addition

ducts.

Thus
as

the

calculation

was

effected

(in modern

form)

follows: 237
20

126

"

(100 +
20

6) (200 +
3000

30

7)

000+

+700

+ +
":

000+

600

+140 +
42

1200+
29

180

862

According
Romans made number
a

to

Pliny,
to

the King whose

a

fingef-reckoning
Numa;'^ the

of
latter

the
had
the

goes
statue

back
of

Janus
of the
30,
.

fingers

represented

of

the

days

year

(355).

Consistently
1
to

with
9 finger12,...

this

Boethius
10,

calls
20,

numbers

from

numbers,
19, 21,

joint-numbers,
numbers.

11,

22,
. .

29,
.
.

composite

In

ele

U
^
*

t i t t
c X

i
t

ixl "#

e"

I
Cb

a-i

a%

(H

(lA

a%

a%

a\

c\

mentary

teaching usually
covered

the

Romans dust

used
on

the

abacus^
one

board

with

which

could

mentary put in

division
modem

are

seen

from

the

following

example

form

M
=

J5L
20
"

1^""!
6 =10+
^

JIL.
6

14

20

-10+ ~^"+20
"

"

117
_

30
6

17
~"

47

20

5^^

"

20"6 12

^20"6
19

47
_

+
"

7
_

20"

6""

"^

20

"^

20
"

1?
=

14

1+^14

1
^

'-^^^184-

The
the abacus

swanpan
of
the frame

of

the

Chinese
This
with

somewhat
calculating
ten ten

resembles
machine inserted.

Romans.

consists
A
cross

of wire

ordinarily
each each

wires

separates
;
on

of

the
part

wires
two

into
on

two

unequal

parts

smaller

and

each

larger

five
no

balls for

are

strung. and
as

The

Chinese

arithmetics
but

give

rules

addition

subtraction, the

do

for

multiplication,
with
the

which,
order,
a

with

Greeks,
which

begins

highest
of

and

for division,

appears

in the
The of

form

repeated
of the

subtraction.
Hindus,
after the

calculation
the

introduction
a

arithmetic rules
for
case

of

position,
the

possessed

series

of suitable
In

performing of
a

fundamental
figure

operations.

the

smaller

in

the

minuend

subtraction

is

performed so-called

by

borrowing

and

by
"*"

addition

(as

in

the

Austrian

subtraction).
to

*The

Austrian

subtraction

corresponds

in

put

the

ntnal

method

of

of

the

product
are

to

which

other

units
or

from

later

partial
out

product

added
so

(in
at

sand end

dust), rubbed
the computation
In

and
the

corrected,
result

that

the
the

of

stands

above

multiplicand. in
below the the

division,

which

is the

never

performed
stands
right
as

complementary

fashion, advances

divisor
the

dividend
goes

and
on.

toward and

the

calculation
above

Quotient

remainder
somewhat
as

appear

the

divisor

in

i^:;=28^,

follows:*
13 14 28

,461 16
16

Al Al

Nasawif
Khowarazmi.

also

computes

after
methods the Eastern
manner,

the

same

fashion
the

as

Their

characterise

mentary ele-

arithmetic
In

of
the

Arabs.
but

essentially in

same

with

more

or

less

deviation

the

actual

work,
Hindu of

the

Western

Arabs

computed.
Ibn
al

Besides Banna
teaches

the
a

figure-computation by

sort
to

reckoning
the
a

columns.
are

Proceeding
in
karrur;
a

from

right

left,
;

columns
group

combined

groups
the

of

three

such

is

called

/a-

number

of

all

the

columns

necessary

to

record

number
922

is the
the the

mukarrar.
or

Thus
number

for
of

the

number

3 849

takarrur

complete
wrote
a

groups

is

2,

tnukarrar

"=i^

Al
,

Kalsadi

work

Raising

of

the

Veil

of

the

Science

of
has

Gubar,^
here

The

original
over

meaning
that

of of
the

Gubar
written is

(dust)

passed

into

calculation
it that

with addition,
and
the

figures.
subtraction

Especially

characteristic

in

{=tarh,
the operated
193 upon,

taraha
are

=zto

throw

away)
above

multiplication numbers

results
as

written

in
238

the

following
238

examples
193
=

45

and

"

45

is written,
238
193
'

is written,
45

238'
193

45

Several
sadi,
In

rules among

for
them

multiplication
one

are

found

in

Al

Kal-

with

an

advancing

multiplier.

division

the

result

stands

below.

FIRST

EXAMPLE.

SKCOND

KZAMPLB.

7-143=1001

1001
=

143

is written,

1001
21

is written,

32
1001

28

7
143

777
143

777

2,

Calculation

With

Fractions.

In

his

arithmetic which They show made

Ahmes how

gives
the

large

number
dealt

of

examples

Egyptians
use

with

fractions.

exclusive

of

unit-fractions,

i.

e.,

fractions
a

with

numerator

1.

For
found,
a

this
in

numerator,

therefore,

special
o,

symbol

is
hieratic

the
so

glyphic hierothat
in

writing
the

in

the

point,

latter

unit
a

fraction
placed

is represented above

by

its denominator
these

with
there
are

point

it.

Besides
i

found
the

for

and

the

hieroglyphs
are

and
special

If;*
symbols
The

in

hieratic

"nriting
to

there

likewise

corresponding
problem which

the Ahmes

fractions
solves

^, ^, ^,
is this,

and
to

^.
arate sep-

first
a

fraction

into

unit

fractions.

". This

g.,

he

finds

i +
an

A"

"tir

rhyis for
not

separation,
solved
cases.

really
Ahmes The

indeterminate

problem, but
only

by

in

general

form,
of

special

fractions

the
system,

Babylonians

being
the
outset

entirely
a
mon com-

in

the

sexagesimal

had
be

at

denominator,
In the
a

and

could

dealt only

with
the

like

whole

numbers.
was

"nritten

form sign

numerator

given
a

with

special
that the

attached.
came

The

Greeks first with

in the

wrote

fraction
stroke

so

the

numerator

single
line
twice,

at

right

and

above, with
two

followed
strokes,

same

by
thus
was

the

denominator

ten writthe

ifjca'jca"
omitted and The
one

^.
the

In

unit

fractions

numerator
once:

denominator fractions
to

written be added

only follow

y'=J.

unit after

immediately

another.
I^

jciy"

pi^'

cxS"

i +

+
use

Th
was

^h
made

^'
of

arithmetic
later

proper,

extensive

unit-

fractions,

also

of

For

carefally

drawn

symbols

see

Cantor,

I. p.

4s.

sexagesimal Of
there
use

fractions
use

(in the
between mention.

computation
the
terms

of of
a

angles).
fraction such of
an

the

of

bar

is

nowhere
to

any
occur,

Indeed, only
the

where

appears but

it

marks

result

addition,
The
an

not

division.*
the

fractional
of

calculations
the
use

of
the

Romans

furnish
system. had

example

of

duodecimal

The

fractions
and

{minutim)

-^"
names

^9

"

"

"

1^

special
duodecimal
tff,

symbols.

The

exclusive due
to

use

of

these

fractions
a

was

the

fact

that
was

the

mass

of
twelve

copper
uncia.

weighing
The
l="w,

one

pound,

divided
and
=

into
twenty-

uncia

had
semis,

four

sicilici

four

serif uli,
etc.

^=s
the

^z=z/rienSf J
special
names

quadranSf
were

Besides
the

twelfths

given

to

fractions

^,
of

^,
such

'^^

,^, ^^9
fractions

vh*
was

addition

and

subtraction
but

comparatively

simple,

their

multiplication
of this

very

tailed. deconsisted

The in
the

greatest

disadvantage
that

system

fact

all
system

divisions
could

which
be
or

did

not

fit
by

into

this

duodecimal either

represeiited
only

mimitise

with

extreme

difficulty

mately. approxi-

In

the

computations
derived
stands

of

the

Hindus

both
appear. but

unit
The is not

tions frac-

and

fractions
under the

likewise
numerator

nominato de-

separated
.

from preferred
to

it

by

bar.

The

Hindu

astronomers

calculate of

with
the

sexagesimal
Arabs

fractions. Khowarazmi

In

the

computations

Al

gives

special

words
All

for

half,

third,
with called

ninth

(expressible
ible non-divis-

fractions).*
by
were

fractions
9,
are

denominators
mute

2,

3,
.
.

fractions
e.

they
as

expressed of
17

by

circumlocution, Nasawi
another,
numerator,

g.,

i^
numbers

parts

parts.
one

Al

writes
at

mixed
the top

in

three

lines,
below

under
the

the

whole
the

number,

this For

below

this

denominat

astronomical
system
were

calculations
used

fractions

of

the

sexagesimal

exclusively.

J.

Applied

Arithmetic.

The besides

practical

arithmetic
cases

of

the

ancients life,

included

the

common

of

daily

astronomical
be

and
over

geometrical
here because

problems.
they
are

The

latter

will

passed
In

mentioned
are

elsewhere. developed
series how
to

Ahmes
also the

problems
sums

in
of
some

partnership
of the

and

simplest
showed

determined. obtain

Theon
approximately degrees
gnomon. by

of
the

Alexandria
square
root

of

number

of

angle
the

the

use

of

sexagesimal
were

fractions
concerned

and

The problems

Romans

principally
The

with

of

interest
developed and of
still

and

inheritance.

dus Hintion posimade and Arabs.

had

already

the
the

method

of
three,

false

ijtegula falsi)
a

rule

of

and

study

of

problems
were

alligation,

cistern-filling,

series,
Along

which
with

further

developed

by appear

the

the

practical

arithmetic

frequent

ARITHMETIC.

35

traces

of observations
knew
the

on

the of

theory

of

numbers.
of
a

The
by

Egyptians
2.

test

divisibility

number
as

The
even,

Pythagoreans

distinguished
perfect, redundant each the
22
was

numbers
and equal

odd

and

amicable, amicable
aliquot

defective.*
to

Of

two

numbers
parts of

the
1
2

sum

of

the

other
44

(220
55+110

gives
=

-f284

-|and

+5
,

10+11
1

20
4

+ +

+
=

284

gives
was

+
to

71

142

220).

perfect

number

equal

the of

sum

of

its aliquot
parts

parts
was

(6

1 +
or

3).
than

If the
the
or

sum

the

aliquot
then

greater
was

less

number

itself,

the

latter

called

redundant

defective

respectively Besides
standpoint
on

(8"l
this, commenced

4;

12

"l
from

3 +

4+6).

Euclid
some

starting

his

geometric

damental fungreatest

investigations
measure

divisibility,
least
common

the

common

and

the

multiple.
out

The

Hindus
with

were

familiar

with

casting

the them

nines

and

continued
went
over

fractions,
to

and
Arabs.

from
However

this nificant insig-

knowledge
may form,

the

be

these

beginnings
germ

in that the

their

ancient

they

contain

the numbers

of

vast

development
century

in

the
has

theory

of

which

nineteenth

brought

about.

"Cantor,

l..

p.

156.

C.

SECOND

PERIOD.

PROM

THE

RIGHTH

TO

THE

POURTEENTH

CENTURY.

7.

The

Arithmetic

of
the

Whole

Numbers.

In

the

cloister
schools

schools, of the The the

episcopal
and

schools,

and

the ian gave only

private period

Merovingian
almost

Carlovingwho
were

it

was

monks

exclusively
proper

instruction.
slight

cloister

schools advancement
contrary,

of

importance
:

in
on

the

of the

mathematical

knowledge

the latter

episcopal
ods, methresults.
mathematical of

and

private
seem

schools,
to to

the

based
very

on

Italian

have

brought

beneficial
of the

The

first

foreshadow of
the

something
monks

knowledge

is

Isidorus
to

Seville.
con-

This

cloister

scholar

confined the

himself of

making
Roman

jectur

regarding

derivation
at

the the

numerals,

and
computation

says of

nothing
his

all about

method
Venerable

of

contemporaries.
only
some

The
extended shows
how

Bede

likewise
on

published

observations
to

finger-reckoning.
by
to

He
aid of the

repre

sent

numbers

the

fingers,
assumes
a

proceeding

from

left

right,
with

and

thereby

certain
as

acquaint

finger-reckoning,
and

mentioning
*

his

predecessors
digitalis^

Macrobius

Isidorus. the
East

This
the

calculf^s

appearing

in

both

and

West

in

exactly

the
the
;
at

same

fashion,
of
church

played
feasts
digitalis

an

important the

part

in that

fixing
time
ticus

dates

by
and
same

priests

of

least

computus

computus
sense.*

ecciesias-

were

frequently

used
the

in

the

With
Bede

regard
not

to

fundamental himself.
and reckons
numerals,
de

operations
Alcuin in
a

proper much

does

express

makes
very

of

number-

mysticism with the in he his Roman

cumbrous
was

manner

Gerbert

the
rules,

first in

to

give

Regula

ctbaco

computi

actual

which

depended

upon he

the
teaches spread

arithmetic

part

of

Boethius's
reckoning,

work.

What
was

is
by

pure
reason

abacusof

which

widely abacus, by

his
an

reputation.
accurate

Gerbert's
description

of pupil of

which

we

have
was

his

Bernelinus,
figures

table

which

for
with

the

drawing
sand, but
of

geometric
for

was

sprinkled

blue

calculation
three
were

was

vided di-

into
for
seven

thirty

columns

which
The

reserved
twentyto

fractional
columns of three.

computations.
were

remaining

separated the head of

from
each

right
group D
,

left

into

groups

At
to

stood

like-,
C

wise

from The

right

left

{singularis)
used,

{decern)
so-called

{centum).

number-symbols
for
1
to

the

apices,
In

are

symbols with

9,

but

without

zero.

calculating

this

abacus
out,
so

the
that
was

intermediate
finally
only

operations
the result
counters.
remained;

could

be

rubbed
or

the

operation

made
were

with performed

The

fundamental
by

operations
use

pally princirespect

the

of

complements,

and

in

this

division
of the

is especially quotient
division.
=

characteristic

The

formation
mentary comple-

.]-|^

33^

will

explain

this

In

the

example

given

the
on

complete
the
are

performance
figures

of
to

the

complementary

division
out
as

stands
goes

left ; the indicated

be

rabbed
on

the On of

calculation
the

on

by

period

the

right.

right

is found in
the

the

abacus-division
below

without

the

mation forof

the

difference

divisor,

it the

explanation

the

complementary

division

in modem

notation.

ARITHMETIC.

39

In the
a

tenth

and

eleventh
authors
on

centuries belonging
-reckoning

there

appeared
to

large

number who
wrote

oi

chiefly
with

the

clergy
but

abacus

apices

without
In

the

zero

and

without apices
were

the

Hindu-Arab
with
numbers

methods. the

the

latter the
or

connected

abacus
of
one

itself

with

the

representation

of the

figure,
symbols

while
stood

in the

running

text

Roman

numeral

for numbers
the

of several plan

figures.
Roman

The
is
so

contrast

between that Oddo,

or

apices-

and writes
XXXV"

the
:

striking
5 times
7

for example, 5, he

"'If

one

takes and

7,

7 times

gets

(the

written

in

apices).*
the abacus-reckoning by
special
system

At
castom
not

the of

time

of

there certain

arose

the pecnliar
which
use

representing in
the the
Roman

signs of Thus,

numbers
and this in

do

appear
far

symbols, for

ued contintown-

into

Middle

Ages.

example, by

the

books

of Greifswald

250

is continually

represented

CCC^
of

'

The

abacists

with

their

remarkable

methods

vision diup

completely
to

dominated of
the
was

Western
century.

reckoning
But abacus, method
to
zero

the

beginning

twelfth

then

complete heir

revolution
the

effected.
e.,

The
Roman

the
of

of

computus^
and

i.

the

old
was

calculation
way
to

number-writing,

destined
use

give
and
a

the

algorism processes

with
of People the

its sensible reckoning,

of
not

its

simpler

but

without
tern Wes-

further

struggle.

became
names

pupils

of the
who

Arabs.

Among

'

of those

extended

Arab

'methods

of

calculation
of

stands
of

forth

especially
because
of
he

pre-eminent
translated

that

Gerhard
a

Cremona,
of

into

Latin

series
was

writings the

Greek
of
no

and

Arab

authors.* who

Then
to

formed

school

algorists

in contrast

the

abacists
possess

possessed the

complementary place
-system

division with
of
zero.

but

did
most

Hindu
material
by been

The

lasting
was

for the

extension
in
from

Hindu

methods This

furnished
''has

Fibonacci
the have

his Liber which

abaci.

book

mine
drawn

arithmeticians
;
on

and

algebraists
it has
come be-

their wisdom
the

this account

in general Among
whole
worthy

foundation

of

modern the
four

science."'}'
rules

other
numbers

things and

it contains

for
It is

fractions notice he
of that

in detailed

form. ordinary by

of

especial

besides

subtraction

with the
and
creator

borrowing
next

teaches the

subtraction
subtrahend regarded

increasing

figure

by
as

one,

that

therefore

Fibonacci
method.

is to be

the

of this elegant

2,

Arithmetic

of

Fractions.

Here, been
bert

also,

after

Roman

duodecimal
by the abacists
a new

fractions
Beda,

had

exclusively

cultivated

Ger-

and his
to

Bernelinus,
exercises
separate

Fibonacci
to

laid

foundation He showed

in
how

preliminary
a

division.
unit

fraction

into dealing

fractions.
small

cially Espenumbers

advantageous

in

with

*HankeI,

p. 336.

t Hankel,

p. 343.

is his

method the

of

determining
denominator
and
factors the

the

common

tor: denominaby each

ure meas-

greatest

is

multiplied
common

following
of least each
common

denominator pair
of

greatest

rejected.
24,

(Example
9,

the
5

multiple

of

18,

15,

8,

is 24*3'

360.)
3'

Applied

Arithmetic,

The

arithmetic
the this

of

the

abacists
of the

had
date

for

its

main sides Be-

purpose

determination
are

of

Easter.

found,

apparently
the

written which
also

by suggest

Alcuin,
man Ro-

Problems

for

Quickening
In

Mind

models. furnishes

this
the

department
most

Leonardo

nacci Fiboregula

prominent
belong
more

rule
to

(the

falsi\
algebra

but
than

his

problems
to

the

domain

of

that

of

lower the

arithmetic.

Investigations
hardly
the

in

theory
the
school

of

numbers of abacists.
was

could On

be
other

expected
hand,
out

from
the the

algorist

Leonardo

familiar
an

with

casting

nines,

for

which

he

furnished

ndependent

proof.

D.

THIRD

PERIOD.

FROM

THE

FIFTEENTH

TO

THE

NINETEENTH

CENTURY.

7.

The

Arithmetic

of
the

Whole

Numbers,

While

on

the

whole

fourteenth

century

had

tivity
Peurbach
Luca

begins

with

the

fifteenth

century,

marked and

by

and

Regiomontanus
in Italy. As

in

Germany,
the

by
cesses pro-

Pacioli
are

far

as

individual
sum

concerned,

in addition

the

sometimes
subtraction

stands

above

the

addends,

sometimes
and

below; "borrowing";

recognizes
multiplication
settled Peurbach
Numeration

"carrying" various
methods

in
no

prevail

; in division

method
names

is yet
the

developed.

The

algorism

of
:

following

arithmetic
mediation

operations

additio^

subtraction

duplatio^ multiand geometric

plicatio, division progressio

(arithmetic
of roots
was

series),besides
invention aid of
of

the

extraction fractions fractions.

which
performed
upwards-

before
by

the the

decimal

sexagesimal the

His the

division divisor
;

still used
it
was

arrangement

of
manner

advancing

performed explanation where

are

in the

following
on

(on

the

left

the

of the process, figures

to

the

right Peurbach's
in the
to
course

division,
the and

be

erased
a

of

reckoning

indicated
oral

by

period
would

the

right

below)

The

statement

be
=

somewhat
2, written

like this:
above8;
out

36
2-6

in
=

84
12,

twice,
24" 12

2-3
=

6, 8"6

12,

write

above, of the
casting

strike
result
out

2, etc.
as

The

proof
other

of the

accuracy

is the
not

obtained
nines.

in the method
oral

operations

by

This in which

of upwards-division

which in

is

difficult

presentation

is still found before

the

metics arith-

appeared
century.

shortly

beginning

of the

nineteenth

36

8479|236
6

24
12

1.1
Q

1.3.4. 3.4 2.2.9.9

^^
19
15 49

I 235

30
19

In
entered
to

the
the great

sixteenth
Latin
mass

century schools
to
a

work

in

arithmetic
extent
common

had
;

considerable of
the

but

the

of
men

children
nor

people any thought

neither
before

school

statesmen

gave of
de any
anno

1525. is the

The

first regulation
Schuelordnungk
as a

value

in

this

line

Bavarian arithmetic

1548
into

which the village

introduced

required
an

study

schools. reckoning, upon

both

Aside
this

from

occasional
was

use

of finger-

computation
counters
or

either

computation

lines
cases

with
the
To

figure-

computation.
in numeration with drawn
counters
a

In

work

began
an

with

practice

in figures.

perform

operation
was

series

of
base. the

horizontal
Reckoned
1st,

parallels from 3d,

. .

upon

able suit-

below line
.

upward represented lines they

each

counter

upon
1, 10,

2d,
but

the

value

100,
.

between

the

.,

represented

resentation
in

of

41

096^.
the
was

In

subtraction
was

the
put

minuend,
upon

multiplication Division line- reckoning

multiplicand
treated
was
as

the

lines.
This

repeated
lost

subtractions.

completely

in

the

seven-

^f-e-

oSo
^o

o
teenth arithmetic accompanied
first. century
or

when

it

gave

place by

to

real it had

written
been the

figure-reckoning

which

in

the

better

schools

almost

from

In
Ages

the
use was

ordinary also
At
was

business
made of

and

trade

of

the

Middle
score-

the

widely-extended
of the

reckoning.

the

beginning
usual its in

fifteenth
on

century

this

method

quite

Frankfort
even

the
the

Main,
nineteenth

and

in

England
century.

it

held

own

into
were

Whenever

goods
amount
was

bought

of by
wise lengthdebtor

merchant notches
so

on

credit
upon
a

the stick

represented
split in two

cut

which

was

that

of the and
the

two

parts

which
one
so

matched,
that

the

kept

one

creditor

both

were

secured

against
In
the

fraud.*
the

cipher-reckoning
generally
some

computers
more

of

the

teenth six4

century

distinguished
9,

than
named

operations;

counted

i.

e.,

the

by

Peurbach the

and

besides,
of
the

as

ninth
root

operation,

evolution,

extraction

square

by

the

formula
the

(" +^)*
cube
^.
root

=a*-|-2a^-|-^,
by
the

and

the

extraction
=

of

formula

{a +
but

d)*

cfl +
were

(a +
only
says:

b)

Bat

nitions Defilocutions. circum-

appeared, Thus
shows

these
mateus
one

repeated
'"

Gram
multiply

Multiplication by
one

how

to

number
to

the

other.
number

Subtraction
from
the

explains
other
was so

how the

subtract
shall is done

that

remainder

be

seen.*'*

Addition

performed
the
case

just
of
a

as

to-day.
in
to

In

subtraction
it this

for
was

larger
in

figure

the

trahend, sub-

the
10,
to

custom

Germany

complete

figure figure,

to

add
same

this

complement

to

the
the

minuend

but

at

the

time
the

to

increase
by

figure

of

next

higher
counting-on

order

in

subtrahend In
case more

nacci's (Fibo-

method).
for this

sive comprehen-

books,

borrowing which

was

also

taught.

Multiplication, table,
Most

presupposed performed
was

practice

in the

multiplicatio
ways.
a

was

in
as

variety

of with
left.

frequently
in by

it

effected

to-day
the

cent desLuca

steps

movement

toward

Pacioli

describes
among

eight
those
one

different
above

kinds

of

multiplication,

them
methods,

mentioned,
on

with
p.

two

old
other

Hindu

represented
or

29, method.

the

cross-multiplication
the latter
method there

the

lightning
grouped
all

In

were

the
tens,

products

involving
those

units,
hundreds.

all

those

involving

all

involving

The

multiplication

248-189

c=9-3+10(9-4
+ 1000(2-3

+
+

3-3)+
1

100(9-2
10

3-4

1-3)

-4)+

000-21

was

represented
S

as

follows:

In

German

books
methods

are

found,

besides
of

these,

two

noteworthy

of

multiplication,
with
in the

which
the

one

begins
products
place,

on

the

left

(as

Greeks),
in
the

partial

being
as

written by the

succession
example

proper

shown 839
243

following

243-839:

166867

839-243

2-810*

2-310" 4-3-10"

+
+

2-9-102
4-9-10

8129
232
14
2

H-4-8-10"

3-810"

3-3-10

+3-9.

203877

In

division

the

upwardsalthough
in

division
Luca

prevailed;
Pacioii
form.
in 1494

it

was

used
the

extensively,

taught

downwards-division After
to

modern the
a

the

completion

of

computation,
proof
was

in
demanded.
the this

conformity

historical
was

tradition,

At

first
account

this

secured
the

by

casting

out

nines.
method,

On

of

untrustworthiness

of

the
of

inverse

operation
use

was

recommended.
was

In given
called
they up.
were

course

time

the
of
use;

of

proof

entirely
so

Signs
yet

operation
in into
the

properly

not

in

eighteenth

century

passed

from
however,

algebra in

elementary

arithmetic.
has the
some

Widmann,

his

arithmetic
been

signs
time

and

"

which

had

probably
since

in

use

among MS.
has

the of
the the
de

merchants,
the

they

appear

also
a

in

Vienna

fifteenth
for
-!-

century.*

At
In

later

time

Wolf

sign
word

minus.

numeration is due
the
to to

the

first

use

of

"million"

in

print
Among

Pacioli the

{Sutnma
word
a

Arithmetical
"

i494)-

Italians

lion "milconcrete

is said
viz.,

originally
ten tons

have

represented Strangely

mass,

of

gold.

enough,

the

words

"byllion,

tryllion,

quadrillion,
as

quyllion,
well
as

sixlion,

septyllion,
are

ottyllion,
as

nonyllion,"
as

"million,*'
the be

found

early

1484
1000

in

Chuquet,

while is
to

word

"miliars"
back
The
in
to

(equal

to

millions)
Lyons
was

traced

Jean

Trenchant

of
century

(1588).t
especially
the

seventeenth

inventive

instrumental

appliances
the

for

mechanical of

formance per-

of
Napier's

fundamental
to

processes

arithmetic.
of
were

rods

sought

make

the

learning
rods

the

multiplicatio

superfluous.
prisms

These
on

rangular quadsmall
9.
...

which
for

bore
one

each
numbers

side

the 1,
2,

multiplication-table

of

the

*Gerhardt, referred
to
as

Geschicktg Gerhardt.

"Ur
Statement

Mathematik
now

in shown StudUn

Dentsckland,
to

1877.

Hereafter

be

incorrect.
Termino-

tMflUer.

Historisch-etymologiufu

Uirr

mathematisch*

For with

extracting
the squares

square

and
cubes

cube
of

roots

rods

were

used

and

one-figure

numbers

inscribed which

upon

them.

Real simple

calculating
turning of

machines
a

gave
that

results
account
were

by

the

handle,
and

but

on

must

have
by

proved

elaborate and

expensive,

devised

Pascal,

Leibnitz,

Matth"us

Hahn
A

(1778).
simplification
of

another
were

kind

was

effected for

by

calculating-tables. problems,

These
also
as

tables
very

solving

accompanied
such

by

extended
von

multiplication-tabl
Hohen-

those

of Herwart

burg,
from

from
1 to 999

which
could

the be

product
read

of

any

two

numbers

immediately. of the
of
the
two

For
century

the the

methods

of computation

eighteenth

arithmetic
and

writings
are

Sturms,
In
the
was

and

of Wolf

Kflstner,

of

importance.
the

interest made various

to

of

commercial

arithmetic

endeavor
division
new

abbreviate expedients.
however,
or

multiplication
Nothing
unless reckoning
as an

and

by
was

essentially the

gained, arithmetic

it be

so-called

mental

oral

which

in the later

decades

of this period

appears

independent
has
the

branch.
as

The

nineteenth

century only

brought

novelty of
the
and

in elementary so-called division,

way.

arithmetic

introduction
counting

Austrian
methods

subtraction
for which

(by

on)
paved

Fibonacci
=

had
136

the

The
saying,

difference
7 and
as

323"187

is

computed
43083
:

by

6, 9 and

3, 2 and
the

1 ; and

185
:

is arranged

in the

first of

following

examples

division
in the The
was

by

fraction of other for the

by
the

by

the

use

of its reciprocal,

and

works way

writers.

introduction
systems

of

decimal

fractions
and
duodecimal

prepared

of

sexagesimal
employment be

fractions, with corresponding

such
was as

since
can

by

their

tions opera-

fractions

readily

performed
numbers.

by
A

the
notation

operations
has become
to

with

whole

usual

in decimal
who,

fractions
division requisite
knowledge

already
integers

known

Rudolff,* of
a

in
off

the

of

by

powers

10,

cuts

the

number

of places of decimal

with

comma.

The

complete
with

fractions
the

originated

Simon
unity

Stevin
to

who
extent
were

extended desired. called

position-system

below

any
.

Tenths,
,

hundredths,
terzes
. .

thousandths,
.

primes

sekondes,

; 4.

628

is written
of sines,

4(0) 6(1) 2(2) 8(8).

Joost

Burgi,

in his tables
used

perhaps

independently in the
form
as

of

Stevin,
3.2.

decimal

tions fracof
to

0.32
a

and

The is
to

introduction
be

the

comma

decimal

point

assigned

Kepler.

"f

In

practical

arithmetic,

aside
were

from

logarithmic

computations, in computing
were

decimal
and

fractions

used
tables.
at

only They

interest

in reduction-

brought

into
nineteenth

ordinary
century

arithmetic

the

ning beginwith
the

of the introduction

in connection

of systems

of decimal

standards.

"

Gerhardt.
first
use

tThe
of Pititcut,

of

the

decimal

point

is found

in the

trigonometric

tables

i6z2.

Cantor,

II., p. 555.

der different Reciprocation

ventionis, Augment!,

names.

He

introduces

'^Regula

Residui,
In-

is, Excessus, Transversa,

et

Divisionis,
Ligar,

Quadrata,

Fusti,

Equalitatis,

Legis,

Augmenti

Decrement!,
Cubica,

Sententiarum,
Lucri,
Pagamenti,

Suppositionis,
Alligationisy

CoUectionis,
Falsi," declare
so
*

that

in later years

Stifel did

not

hesitate
Problems
solved

to

these

things
parts
many

simply
and

laughable.^
were

of
by the
to

proportional
use

alligation
as

of
number

as

proportions
groups
to

corresponded

the

of

be

separated.

For

the four

computation
methods,
to

of
among
or

compound
them

interest
computation

Tartaglia
by the steps

gave from
the

year

year,

computation
he

with
does
was

aid

of

formula

a^,

although
of

not

give

this

formula.
most
were

Computing
form.

exchange

taught
of

in its

simple

It is said
the

that

bills migrated

exchange
into

first used
after

by

Jews

who

Lom-

bardy
century.

being
The

driven

from

France

in the

seventh

Ghibellines
into

who

fled

from and

Lombardy
from

introduced

exchange
spread,

Amsterdam,

this
were

city its
brought

use

In

1445

letters

of exchange

to

Nuremberg.
rule

The method

chain
which

{Kettensatz)
by

essentially

an

Indian
was

is described
the

Brahmagupta,
century,

developed
not

during
come

sixteenth
use

but

did

into

common

until

two

centuries

later.

The

methods

of

notation

differed.

Pacioli

and

Tartaglia

"Treutlein,
t Unger,

DUdtutaclu
p. 90.

Gwr,

Schlfimilch's

ZrtVfcArt//, Bd.

34, HI.

A.

In for

the

sixteenth
regula

century
virgimmm

we

also
the

come

upon

exftmples
in

the

and

regula

falsi
in

writings
"

intended

for

elementary which, the

instruction
was

arithmetic,

writings

into

ordinarily, author. The

introduced

all the
of of these

learning
rules,

of

significance
in the of realm

however,

does but
few

not

lie
that

tary elemenIn
the

arithmetic,
same

in

equations. contained squares,

way,

arithmetic of
as

writings
magic
a

tions direcmost

for of
them

the
also

construction contained,

and

side-issue,
questions

certain

metic arithcalls
mere

puzzles them

and

humorous

(Rudolff
are

Schimpfrechnung),
of and
a

The

latter

often

disguises
hound obtaining

algebraic
the
hares,

equations
of the has keg

(the
with

problem three

of
taps,

the
of
certain

number

which

been

changed

by

operations,

etc.).
century

The

seventeenth

brought
of

essential

tions innova-

only

in

the

province
century

commercial
was

computation. possession of
correct

While

the methods

sixteenth in
at

in

all

computations end of
a

of

interest

when

the there
was

amount
were

the

given

time
when

was

sought,
principal

usually obtained,
sum.

grave

blunders
is, in

the
the
was

to

be

that
The

computing
in
100

discount

on

given

discount

100

computed

somewhat
two

in
10

this

manner:*

dollars
;

gives
is to
pay

after the

years

dollars

in

interest
deduct

if

one

100
a man

dollars
than

immediately,

10

dollars."
that

No

less

Leibnitz

pointed

out

the

discount

through
to
a so

the

establishment
political
and

of

insurance in

associations,
which
an

called

arithmetic,

tion calculaimportant

of
place.

contingencies
.

annuities

held

The
a

first

traces

of

conditions
date
back
to

for
the

the

evolution
prefect
century

of

political
who

arithmetic*

Roman

Ulpian,
A.D. But

about
a

the

opening
table among

of

the Roman Romans

third

projected
there
are no

mortality
traces

for
the

subjects, f
of
the

life

suranc in-

institutions
Ages
that
a

proper.
appear

It is not
in the

until legal
From

Middle

few

traces

regulations the teenth four-

of

endowments
century

and
there

guild existed which

finances.
travel

and

accident
in
to
ransom

suranc in-

companies of
the

bound
of
a

themselves, certain
the
sum,

considerati

the from

payment

insured Among

captivity
guilds
mutual
of

among the

Turks
Ages

or

Moors. idea

the for

Middle

the loss

of

association
and
To
a

assistance

in fires,

of

cattle shape.
among

similar still
more

losses

had

already
degree

assumed
was

definite
the
case

marked artisans

this

the

guilds
"

of

which established

arose

after
regular

the

tion Reforma-

guilds

which

sick

and

burial

funds. We
annuity century
a

must

consider
In

tontines
the

as

the

forerunner the

of

insurance.
an

middle
Lorenzo
to

of

seventeenth

Italian
of
persons

physician, in

Tonti, contribute

induced
sums

number

Paris

of

*Karup,

Theoretuches

Handbnch

dUr

Lebentvtrsichtrung.

1871.

later

works the

of

this

kind,

and

hence

Halley

is

justly

called The products

1699

inventor

of

mortality life-insurance

tables. institutions In
the
years
were

first of
there

modem

English
arose

enterprise.
two

1698

and

unimportant

companies

whose
the

field
1705,

of

operations
there

remained
appeared its

limited.
in London

In
the

year

however,

able" "Amic-

which
1866. The
'*

continued
Royal

corporate
"

existence
"

until
ance Assur-

Exchange
two

and

London for

Corporation,"
marine
insurance,

older

associations

fire

and

included
are

life insurance

in their There
was

ness busisoon

in 1721,
felt among need resulted
by

and
the

still in existence. of
such

managers for

institutions tables,
a

the
fact

imperativ

reliable
work

mortality
being in

which

in

alley's

rescued

from

oblivion

Thomas
the

Simpson, first table

method. these of

and

James
on a

Dodson's rising

ing projectscale,

premiums, The oldest

after
used

Halley's
as a

company
was

which the
'^

basis

scientific
Assurances

innovations
on

Society

for Equitable

Lives

and

Survivorships,"

founded While eight

on

in

1765.
at

the

beginning
companies work
in

of

the
were

nineteenth
already there
was

century

life

insurance

carrying
at

their

beneficent
not
a

England,
of

the

same

time

single

institution
of
the progress

this
which

kind

upon

the

Continent,
in the

in
science and

spite
of

had the

been
Ber-

made noullis,

insurance
In

by

Leibnitz,
there

Euler

others.

France

appeared

in

6o

HISTORY

OF

MATHEMATICS.

AT

THE
OF THB

BKOUfNIMO
YBAK

HUMBSR LIFE CO'S.

INS.

OP

MUMBSR

OF IN

FOK

THX

SDM MUMBBRS

PBK80M8
IN8UBBD

ROUND

(MIIXION
170 800 900
4260

MARKS)

1852
1868 I860 1890

IS
20
82 49

46.980
90.128 806.488

There

were

in

1890

IN

NUMBER
INSURANCE

OF

LIFB
go's.

AMOUNT
IN

OF

IN8URAMCB
FORCE

Germany

49

4250 900 8250 3200

million
"

marks

Great France
Rest

Britain

and

Ireland

76 17

pounds
"

francs
francs

of

Europe
States

68

"

United

of

America

48

4000

"

dollars

All

that has

the
been

eighteenth

century

developed

or

covered dis-

further

advanced practical

in

the

nineteenth.
lies

The

center

of

gravity

of

calculation

in

commercial
in
an

arithmetic.
exceedingly

This
rich

is also

finding
which
in all
new

sion expreshas

literature

been

extended but which

in

an

exhaustive nothing

manner

ifs details,
except
current.

contains

essentially

the

methods

of

calculating

interest

in

accounts

62

HiSTOKT

or

The

third

period
from

begins
the

witii
of In
the
was

I"i^r
die

itz

and

Newton
cen-

and
tnxy

extends
to

middle

seventeenth

the

present
a new

time.
light

first

and

larger

part fields

of

this

period
ap
to

diffused
only

over

which

that

time

had
oi this who

been
the

partially
of

explored

by

the

discovery

methods

higher

analysis. certain the lofty

study

At

the

end

of

first epoch
devoted but

there

appeared
to

mathematicians
of
of

themselves
to

combinations
view

failed

reach and in
the

the

points

of

Leibnitz.
the

Euler

grange, La-

thereupon, of
seven

assumed
Euler

leadership

field
than
of

pure

analysis. hundred

led

the

way

with
all

more

dissertations
The
the
name

treating

branches

mathematics. drew
from

of
Newton

the

great

Gauss,
Euler

who

works
for

of

and
genius, of
more

the the

first

nourishment
of

his
second

creative

adorns
the third

beginnin

the the

epoch of

period. large

Through

publication
a

than
ones,

fifty

memoirs
mathematical
he

and

number

of
but

smaller

not

alone
astronomy,

on

subjects
set

also

on

physics
of

and

in

motion

multitude

impulses
there

in
opened

the

most
new

varied fields

directions. in

At

this
like

time,

too,

which

men

Abel,

Jacobi,
others

Cauchy.
made

Dirichlet,

Riemann,

Weierstrass beautiful

and

have

"a

series

of

most

discoveries.

ft

10

20

40

1.20 2.40
4.

1.36
2.56

1.52 3.12

2.0S 3.28

2.24 3.44

The
to

system take
3.28=3

of

notation
X
^

is sexagesimal,

so

that
this
monuments

we

are

28=208.*

Besides
Babylonian

there

have
the

been

foond

on

ancient

first

sixty

squares
system

and
of

the

first

thirty-

two

cubes

in the The
the the
name

sexagesimal
spoils

notation.
are

of

Greek

treasures

far

richer.
comes

Even from

of

the

entire

science
In

i^/lo^/iarun^
time
was

Greek

language.

the

of

Plato

the worthy

word
of

fjui0rjfMra
scientific
Peripatetics,

included instruction.
when

all

that

considered
not

It
the

was

until

the

time

of

the

art

of

computation
geometry,

(Jogisiic^
astronomy

and

arithmetic,
music
were

plane

and

soh'd

and

enumerated
that the word

in

the

list

of

mathematical

sciences,

received Heron of

its special Alexandria while

cance. signifilogistic
so

Especially
appears
as

with

elementary

arithmetic,
involving
the algebra
of

arithmetic

called

is

science
arithmetic

theory

of

numbers.
almost

Greek
always

and

appeared although
of

under

the

guise
and

geometry,
method

the

purely
was

arithmetic
not

algebraic

thinking times.
quantities
those

altogether

lacking,
with
the the

especially
representation
even

in

later

Aristotlef
by

is familiar letters

of when
;

of

alphabet,

quantities

do

not

represent

line-segments

he

says

in

for

example,

are

enunciations
among
ac

in

words
others
ad

and
to

geometric
the

figures,

and

correspond
d,
.

sions expres-

"j(^-|-^-f

,')=:ab -\-

-\-

'\-

(" +

^)*

Geometry

was

with the the

the

Greeks

also

means

for

vestig in-

in for

theory remarks Pythagoreans

of

numbers.

This

is

seen,

instance,
Among

in

concerning
a

bers. gnomon-numout

the
cut

square
a

of

which
a

comer

was

in

the also

shape used

of

square

was

called
for

gnomon.

Euclid
ABCDEF

this

expression from the

the

figure

which
by

is obtained
out

parallelogram
DB'FE,

ABCB The for

cutting of is
a

the

parallelogram

gnomon-number when

the

Pythagoreans
the upon

is

2"

1 ;

ABCS

square,

square

DE=^n

can

be

made the
=

equal

to

the

square

on

BC=^

"

by
A"

-|the rectangles
!
=

adding
=

square since like

BE=1

X
we

and

C^

lX""

have

""-f
solid

2"+
numbers
of
two

("+
used and

1)".
for
three

Expressions

plane

and

the

contents

of

spatial

magnitudes

ency

to

objectify

mathematical

thought'

by

means

of

geometry. All that

century
was

known
B.

concerning

numbers
in

up
a

to

the

third
survey.

C.
,

Euclid
he

comprehended
speaks

general

In

his

Elements

of magnitudes,

out, withhe stands undersurfaces

however,

explaining

this
besides
numbers.*
between

concept,

and
angles,

by and solids,
even

this
the

term,

lines,

natural

The prime

difference
and
least

tween be-

and
the

odd,

composite
common

numbers,

method
the

for

finding
common

the

multiple

and
of

greatest right

divisor,

the

construction

rational
the

angled
"

triangles
all
are

according
familiar
out

to to

Plato

and
A

Pythagoreans

.these

him.

method

(the

"sieve")
with

for

sorting

prime

numbers

originated
down
all
out

Eratosthenes. odd multiples of the

numbers

It consists from 3, 3

in
on,

writing
then

the all

and

striking stated
a

of

5, 7
.

Diophantus
^' represent

that
square

numbers and
can

form

a^

+
of
of

2"J^

-|form
squares

also

that

numbers
a sum

the
two

(""

^") (r' + -jin

two

//")
;
=

represent

ways

for

{ac +

W)*

{ad

"

bc^

{ac

"

bdy

-f

{ad-\- bcf
of quite the

("" +
the

^") (^ +
in

^").
the

The
mentary
oreans

knowledge series
was

Greeks

field
The

of

ele

comprehensive. series
of
even

Pythag

began The
sum

with

and

odd

num,,

bers. triangular

of

the

natural
sum

numbers the odd

gives numbers
the

the

number, the
sum

the of
the

of

the
hetero-

square,

even

numbers
i

gives

*TreatleiiL

mecic

(oblong)
they

number also

of

the

form
as

n{n-\- 1).
sum

Square
two
successive

numbers

recognised
numbers. made

the

of

triangular

The
a

Neo-Pythagoreans
not

and

the

Neo-Platonists
but

study

only

of

lygonal po-

also

of

pyramidal in
series
sum

numbers.

Euclid

treated
He tained oband

geometrical the

progressions
sum

his

Elements.

of

the
the

14-2
of this
results

44-8is
a

"

"

noticed
number,

that
a
**

when

series from

prime

perfect
last

number"
term

ing multiply=

it 7x4

by

the

of

the

series

(1-f- 24-4
cf. p.

7;

28;

28

4-2

4-44appear form

7 4- 14; frequently geometric

example,

35).

Infinite

convergent

series
in

in the

works

of

Archimedes
are

the

of
;

series
in

whose

ratios
the
area

proper

fractions
of

for
a

calculating
the

of

the

segment

parabola,
^^

where
to

value He

of
also

the

series

14-i-f
a

found

be

1^+*
of

"

"

^.

performs
sum

number

calculations
for the

for

obtaining
of
are
a

the

of
areas

an

infinite
and

series

purpose

mating estisubstitute

volumes.

His of
so

methods
integration,

for in

the
cases

modern
of

methods
this

which
like

are

used

kind,

that

expressions

I xdx
0

^c^,
0

I x^dx'=i\i ^^
are

and
essence

other

similar
quite

expressions
to

in

their

import

and

familiar

him.*
the he

The back
to

introduction
Pythagoras,

of since

irrational
recognised

is

to

be

traced the
hy-

that

"Zeuthen,

Die

Lehre

von

den

Kegelschnitten

im

Altertum.

Deutsch

von

potenuse

of

right-angled
with

isosceles The

triangle

is

commens in-

its
proved
7,
.
. .

sides. the
17.*

Pythagorean of
the

Theodorus

of
roots

Cyrene
3,

irrationality

square

of

5,

Archytas

classified

numbers devoted

in
to

general
irrational in domain

as

rational

and
a

irrational.

Euclid exhaustive
which
as

quantities

particularly
a

investigation
to

his
of

ments^ Ele-

work much
the

belongs
to

the

Arithbooks

metic
among
are

as

that

of

Geometry.
eighth
and wrought-out that
is,

Three and
in the

thirteen,
arithmetic
appears
a

the

seventh,
contents,

ninth,
tenth
of

of

purely

book
""

there

carefully

theory of of

Incommensurable
as

Quantities,"
well
end
manner as a

irrational

quantities,

consideration book
the

geometric
shows in
a

ratios.
very

At

the

of

this
that

Euclid
side
;

ingenious
are

of

square

and

its diagonal

incommensurable
the

the the
two

demonstration
case a rational

culminates

in

assertion
between

that these
same

in

of

relationship number
an

quantities properties
measurement

must

have

at

the

time

the

of

even

and
circle

an

odd

number,

"f

In

his
quite
;

of

the

Archimedes
values
1351

calculated
for
square
/^

number

of

approximate

roots

for

example,

265

Nothing

definite,

however,

is

known

concerning

the

Cantor,

I., p.

170.
so8. Montncla the who
says square

t Montncla,
in
the
of

I., p. conviction

that
root

he
of

knew
2

an

architect
be

who

lived
as a

firm

that and

could
by

represented method

ratio

finite

integers,

assured

him

that

this

he

had

method

he

used.

Heron

also

was

acquainted
of

with
instead

such

approximate

values

(J
he

instead

l/2,
shrink

fj

of

l/3);*
of

and

although

did

not

from for

the
square

labor

obtaining
the

approximate

values

roots,

in

majority

of

cases

he

contented
.

himself
b

with
g.,

the

well-known
l/8'

approximation
1=8

i/a*=t^=fl5db^,
Incase
greater the formula he

i/63
was

"

"

^.

exact

necessary,

Heron

used
Incidentally

|/'^"q:T=
identity

^^l.-|-l.

i+._
and

used

the

i/a'^=:al/^
=

asserted,
=

for
10

example,

that

1/IO8

i/P^
find the

61/3
Heron's

6-ff

-f

^ +
the
number,

^.

Moreover,

we

in

Stereometrica

firs

example

of

square
144,

root

of however,
by

negative

namely

l/Sl

"

which,
put that

without
computer
as

further
8

consideration, which
among shows

is

down

the

les

"ji^,

negative
It

quantities

were

unkno

the

Greeks.
but
than

is

true

that

Diophantus

employed
was

differences,

only

those

in

which
Through

the

minuend
we

greater
are

the

subtrahend. with
;

Theon

made
the square

acquainted
root

another

method

of

extracting in
use

it

corresponds
exception
are

with
that
as

th

method

at

present,

with
fractions

the

th
was

Babylonian

sexagesimal until the

we

used,

customary

introduction
find

of

decimal
traces

fractions.

Furthermore,

in
and

Aristotle
in
a

of
an

th

theory

of
at

combinations,

Archimedes
quantity

at te

the

representation

of

which

in

ses

beyond

all and

limits,
then

first

in

his

extension entitled

of

the

ber-system^

in
the

his

work

tlm/i
Archimedes

nfi

(Latin
arranges together

arenarius,

sand-reckoner).
orders
10^

the

first

eight
;

of

the

decimal

tem

in
then

an

octad

octads
are

constitute

iod,

and
to

these
same

periods

arranged

again

ording

the solves

law.
the

In

the

sand-reckoning,

himedes
of

problem
that whole sand the the
can

of be

estimating
contained He
the all

the

ber

grains

of

sand
the

in

ere

which
that

includes
10,000 grains

universe.
take
sum

assumes

of finds

up

space

of

poppy-seed, be
or

and
000 000

he

of

the
of

grains
his
tem, sys-

10

units
is

of

eighth

period

10**.
.

It

possible
to

that
create

Archimedes
a

in
to

these the
in

ervations of

intended infinitesimal

counterpart

ain

quantities
a

which
not

appeared accessible

summatiojis

of

series,

counterpart

the

ordinary

arithmetic.
with

In

the
the
are

fragments

which

we

are

acquainted

writings
but

of few

Roman

surveyors

{agrimensores)
these

re

arithmetic
and Greek
there

portions,

having

do

with
they

polygonal
are

pyramidal origin,
was

numbers. and
the the of

viousl Obstyle
no

of that

faulty
Romans

parts

proves

among
matters

quate
The

comprehension

of
the
matters

this

kind.
are

writings rich
was

of

Hindu

mathematicians
arithmetic.
at
an

exceedi

in

of

Their

symbolism

quite

highly

developed

early

date.*

ryabhatta later
The

calls

the

unknown
or

quantity
abbreviated
is is
to

gulika j^a

(** littl
much
or

ball"),

yavaiiavaiy

("as

as").

known
If
one

quantity
quantity

called

rupaka
to

ru

(''coin'*).
placed method
a

be

added

another,

t is

after
is

it

without

any

particular

sign.
only
of the

The

ame

followed

in
the

subtraction, coefficient

in

thi

ase

dot that

is

placed positive

over

hend subtratities quan-

so

{dhana,
can

assets)
be

and

negative

{kshaya^
of
a

liabilities)
quantity
power
is

distinguished.
special
va^

The

powers

also
varga

receive
or

designations. third
ghata,

he

second
the

the
gha

ghana

ha,

fourth the

va

va,

the
va va

filth

va

the

sixth

ghCy

seventh The

gha

ghata
root

(^ghaia
is called

signifies
karana

addition).
ka.

irrational

square

In

the

Qulvasutras,
books
of
the

which
Hindus,

are

classed
which

among

the

religious contain
the

but

in

addition

certain

arithmetic
appears

and in

geometric

tions, deduc-

word

karana

conjunction
da^karani
to

with

numerals;

dvikarani=^\/2,
If
several

trikarani=^\/^,
quantities
^^/
or
are

1/10.

unknown

be

dis tin

the

first

is
kalaka

called

the

others

are

named
or

after

the

colors
ox

ka

(black)
example,
bhavita

nilaka

(blue),
meant

pitaka
the

pi

(yellow);
x-y^

for

\yy

ya

kabha

is

quantity

since

or

bha
' *

cate indi

multiplication.
as a

There

is also

word
mere

for

equal placing

but

rule under

it is

not

used,

since

the

number
In

another of

denotes
the

their
of

equality.

the

extension

domain

numbers

to

i c

cessful.
obtained
them
aware

They them
as

used
as

them
roots

in
of

their

calculations, but
never

equations,

arded

proper
a

solutions.
root
can

Bhaskara
be
does

was

that

square

both

positive
exist
square is

negative,
ordinary
a

and

also

that

l/^^^
He

not

for

number-system.
as

says:

"The

positive
and

well
square

as

of
root

negative

number

tive, posi-

the
positive,
root

of

positive
There for

number
can

is
be
is
no

ble,

and
a

negative.
number,

are
"

of

negative

this

no

are.

The

fundamental
there

operations

of

the
to

Hindus,

of and

ich

were

six,
In

included

raising
of

powers

racting

roots.

the

extraction
the

square for

and

cube
and
separating

ts

Aryabhatta

used he
was

formulae the of

(a +

^)'
of three

-\-

b)^j
the

and

aware

of

advantage
two

number respectively.
tnula^

into

periods
Aryabhatta

and

ures fig-

each,
varga

called
root

the
mula

square

and

the

cube

ghana

(mula^
of

t,

used

also

of

plants).
square

Transformations
roots
were

expres

involving

also

known.

askara

applied

the

formulaf

was

also

able

to

reduce
to

fractions

with
a

square

roots

the

denominator
In
some
cases

forms
the

having
approximation
those

rational

nator. denomifor

methods
the

are

root

closely

resemble

of

Greeks.

Problems

in
found

transpositions,
among
among

of

which
occupy

only

few

races

are

the the

Greeks,

consider
made

ble

attention of and formulae

Indians.
and and propositions
have
reference
as

Bhaskara

for

permutations repetitions,

combinations*
was

ith

without
a

he

acquainted

ith

quite
of
cubic

number
which

of

involving
to

th

heory

numbers,

quadratic

nd

remainders
But

as

well

to

rational
that
we

right-

ngled

triangles.
the
Indians

it is

noticeable concerning
numbers.

discover

mong

nothing
or

perfect,
The
the

amicabl

defective, figurate

redundant which
especial
we

knowledge

of

numbers, with
contrary,

certain zeal, is

of

Greek

chools

cultivated

likewise

wanting.

On

the

find
summations

in

Aryabhatta,

Brah-

agupta
as

and
well

Bhaskara
the

of

arithmetic
3*

eries,
2*

as

of
The

series

1*

2*

-|also

-|-

.,

3*

-|-

-f
works

4"
of

geometric As

series

appears

he

Bhaskara.

regards

calculation

with

ero,

Bhaskara

was

aware

that
in

-|r-

oo.

The

Chinese
of
arithmetic

also

show

their
;

literature for

some

races

investigations

example,
powers
as an

th

binomial
by

coefiBcients
Chu
There

for kih
is
more

the
the
to

first

eight
1303

ar

given

shi

in

year

"old

method." Here

be

found

among
the
was

th
name

Arabs.

we

come

at

the

outset

upon

Al

Khowarazmi, into

whose
Latin

Algebra, by

which of

probably

translated

iEthelhard

Bath,f

opens

th

the

words*

"Al

Khowarazmi this
as

has

spoken.^*
as

In

Latin to-day

translation
appears

name

appears
or

Algoritmiy

algorism

algorithm^

word

pletely

separated

from

all remembrance
for
any method of

of

Al

Khowarazmi,

and
commonly

much

used

computation

employed
rules.
In

and
the

proceeding
of the

according
sixteenth

definite

beginning in
a

tury
a

there

appears

published
Algorithmus,'*

mathematical
a

^^philosophus
that

nomine

sufficient
of of
our

of

the

author But

knew

the

real
all
was

meaning knowledge

the the
own

algorism.
seems

after

this,
it

to

disappear, it
was

and

not

until

tury

that

rediscovered

by

Reinaud

and

Bon-

mpagni.t
Al the calls

Khowarazmi Greek
a

increased
Indian the

his

knowledge A
known

by

ing study-

and

models. unknown
In

quantity

number,
mal

quantity
Al

Jidr
we

(root)
the there
mal

its

square kab

(power).
for the

Karkhi

find
and

ression

(cube)
these

third

power,
mai

formed
kab

from

expressions
mal
mal

mai=^x^,
etc.

=zx^y

kab-=iX^y

kab-=x^y

He but
There

also

ts

simple

expressions
at

with
of

square

roots,

out withis be
a

arriving
in that
by

-the

results
Khayyam

the from

Hindus.

sage

Omar
the

which
was

it is

to

in*

red

extraction

of
the

roots

always

per-

med

the

help

of

formula

for

(a-\'by,
the introduc-

Al

sadi
*

contributed
I.,

something

new

by

Cantor,

p.

671.

tion

of before be

radical
the

sign.
number
as

Instead

of
the

placing
square

the
root

word
was

jidr

of
was

which
custom,

to

extracted, of the

the

Al

Kalsadi

makes places

use

only
over

initial
as,

letter

"^

of

this

word

and

it

the

number,

2 Among

1/2;
Eastern the

^2

1/2^,
Arabs

=21/5.
mathematicians
occupied
to

the

the
of

who

investigated

theory

numbers
attempt

themselves

particularly
right-angled
a

with
triangles

the

discover

rational

and

with
or

the

problem

of

finding
a

square

which, still
example,

if

increased
a

diminished
An
mous anony-

by

given
writer,
of

number,
for

gives
gave

square.
a

portion
Al

of

the

ory the-

quadratic
the

remainders, proposition
the
sum

and
that

Khojandi
the

also hypoth

demonstrated

upon
two

esis

of
another

rational
third cubic
Avicenna

numbers
power.

of
was

cubes
some

cannot

be

There is

also

knowledge

of
by

remainders,
of of the

as

seen

in
excess

the

tion applicanines gives in

proof

by

of

the

formation

powers.
can

This be briefly

mathematician
represented

propositions

which

the

form*

(9""l)"=l("^^//9), (9"+l)"=(9"
al
Banna has

(9"=fc2)"=4(w^^9),
+

4)"=(9"+
of by eights
the
a

7)8

1(^^^9),
kind

etc.

Ibn

deductions

similar
and
were

which

form

the

basis
domain

of

proof
of

sevens.

t
acquainted

In

the

series

Arabs

least

with
the In

arithmetic
series

and
of
squares,

geometric
cubes,

progressions and fourth

with

wers.

this

field

Greek

influence

is unmistakable.

2.

Algebra,

The

work possessed

of
of

Ahmes

shows
of

that

the

Egyptians degree,

equations

the

first

and

ed

in

their

solution
x

methods called
hau

systematically

chosen.
an

unknown in
the

is

(heap);
:

equation*

pears

following 37,
that
were

form

heap^

its

|,

its

\, its

its
The

whole, ancient of
save

gives

is

\x-^^x-\-^^x-{-x=z2"1.
acquainted

Greeks

with
form.
developed

the

solutio

equations in

only

in

geometrical

where, No-

proportions, of
that
was

do
the
the
ever

we

find degree

example

of

equations

first

which
linear by

would equation
the intersection

ow

unmistakably
one

root

of

th

unknown

determined
but
in

of

two

straight second

lines

the

cases

of

equations

of

the

and

third
In the

degrees

there of

is
notation

an

undance

of

material.

matter

ophantus

makes of

the the
unknowns

greatest

advance.
quantity
to

He

calls If
he
6

coefficients
are

unknown

irXQ^os.

re

several of
the

be

distinguished,
6

es

use

ordinal
An

numbers

ir/ooiros

apiOfxps,
his works

Tcpoi,
the

TpCroi.

equation
:

appears

in

abbreviated

form

*Matthiessen, Gleichungen,

GrumdMUge

tUr

antiken

und

modern*n
to
as

Algebra

dtr

HtUra-

1878,

p.

269.

Hereafter

referred

Matthiessen.

K^pS^alarj

w*^'8-gi/*V,
classifies

i.

e.,

2""

jc"

4jp"

12.

Diophantus

equations
to

not

according
of he

to

the

degree,

but
terms.

according
For

the

number

essentially

distinct

this
can

purpose

gives
to

definite
their
members

rules

as

to

how that

equations is, have

the

be

brought

plest sim-

form,

form

in

which

both
terms.

of

the

equation

only
to

positive

Practical

problems

which
found in

lead
the
some

equations
of
the

of

the

first

degree Heron

can

be

works

Archimedes

and

the

latter

gives

of
one

so-called
of
certain

''fountain
passages

problems/
in

which

remind

the

work

of

Ahmes.

Equations

of
of the
to

the

second and
a

degree

ere

mostly of
was

in

the

form in

proportions,

this

method

operation
well

domain
the
to

of

geometric
They

algebra

known
how

Greeks. by

undou

understood
equations
a'
_

represent

geometric

figures

of

the
a'

form
'

d'
__

where

all in

quantities
two

are

linear.

Every
e.,

calculation proportion,
of
an was

means

equal
more

ratios,
than

i.
the
was

in

really

nothing Pythagorean
the

solution

equation.

The

school geometric
;

acquainted

with
means

the

arithmetic,
quantities

and is, they

the
were

harmonic
to

two

that

able

solve

metri geo-

the

equations

a-^b
*=
"
"

2.ab
,
,
.

25

x^r=.aby

je

its
the

six

surfaces,

its

eight

comers^

and
it
from

its

twelve

es,

geometric

harmony,

because

presented

al

measurements

in
terms

all

directions
mean"

this

fact,

is

said,

the

"harmonic

and

"harmonic

proportion" 12

were

derived,

the 2-6-12

relationship

being:
2ad

12"8
=

-g"

-g-, whence
of
ten,

^ 8=

i.

e.,

x=

-^-^,
proportions
nothing gives
the
was

^^.
later

number
to

distinct
although Euclid

crea inwas

essentially thorough

new

ned

thereby.
that the

analyses

of tions equa-

portions,
of

is,

of

geometric
of
as

solution

of

first

degree
are

and

incomplete

quadratics

;
as

se,

however, the

not

given
of

his

own

work,

but

result

of

labors the method

Eudoxus. the degree

largely

The
the

solution
geometric
by the

of

equation
of

of

second
areas,

applying
by

loyed

ancients,

especially

Euclid,

serve de-

particular In

attention.
solve
the

'order

to

equation

Euclid's

method, form
A
:

the

problem

must

first

be

put

in

following

"To
known

the

segment in figure

AB=a
such shows
a

apply
way

the

rectangle
CZT

DB'
be
FH^=^

area=^',

that
for
by

shall

quare."

The

that

C*Ar=|-,
the

t:"

2:c-|-+ (|-)*=i^" +

(|-)*;but
^^,
"

Pythagorean

proposition, which
applying
we

^-|-(|-)*
have
x^=^"

whence

jff^=r=J
The

+
obtained
root

jp

from

^.
case

solution
the
square

by

areas,

in

which

always

regarded
than
a

as

positive,

is

accordingly of

nothing

ore

constructive

representation

the

value

In

the form

same

manner

Euclid

solves

all

equations

the

and

he

remarks
to
our

in

passing

that appears,

where
the

U^

"

(j)*

according
possible

notation,

condition
quantities
for the

fo

solution

is

^"y. but

Negative there is

are

nowhere

considered in
the
case

;
two

ground
solutions applied

inferring
Greeks

that

of

positive
they

regarded

both
to

and

that

also

their
numerical
of

method

of

solution

quadratic
applying
able
db
to

equations
their
solve
not

with
knowledge

coef

By
they
j[;2

proportion,

were

only

equations
the
more

of

th

form

=b

f7"T

0,

but

also

of

general

form

for

as

the

ratio

of

two

line-segments.

Apollonius

omplished

this

with

the

aid

of

conic,

having

the

ation

Greeks

were

accordingly
the

able

to

solve

every
two

general
essentially

equation
different

of

second

degree

having

coefficients,

which
to

might

also

contain

erical

quantities,
geometrically.

and

represent

their

positive

ts

The

three

principal first
to

forms freed

of

equations
geometric

of

the
statement

second

degree

be

from

completely

solved,

are

x^-\-px=q,
solution
being
to

s^=pX'\-qy
in
to

px

x^-\-q.
area,

consisted
apply
a

applying
line
a

an

the

lem prob-

given either

rectangle
a

in
area

such
or

manner

that
or

it

would
than

contain given
area

given by
the
a

greater these

less

this

constant.

three

conditions

there

arose

technical
after

ressions

vapapohj,
came

inrepfioXij,
refer
to

IWciaj/k,

which

himedes
In

to

conies.* and second Diophantus, degree

was

later

times,

with
of

Heron the

the partly

ution
from
the

of

equations
the geometric of
an

ed

representation,
arithmetic

and

passed
proper

form

computation
sign

hile

disregarding

the

second

in

the

square

ot).
The equation
on

of

the

third

degree,

owing
played
an

to

its

pendence

geometric

problems,

im-

portant

part

among

the

Greeks.
the

The

problem
of the

of

the

duplication

(and
especial
more

also

multiplication)
This problem
the

cube

attained

celebrity.

demands

nothing

than
=

the

solution
that

of

continued
of
the

port pro-

a:jc

jp:j^=^:2a,
jf*
=

is,

equation is
very
one

""

2^J"

(in
was

general considered

^tf*).
an

This

problem important

old

and the

especially

by

leading
in Minos is
to

Greek

mathematicians.
of

Of
in

this

we

have

evidence
King

passage
say

Euripides
the
**

which
of Glau-

makes

concerning The

tomb
enclosure

cus

which for
a

be tomb

rebuilt*:
:

is
in

too

small

royal

double

it, but
solutions

fail
of

not

th

cubical
j(*
=

form.''
2a^

The

numerous

the

equation

obtained
and

by

Hippocrates,

Plato,

Me-

naechmus,

Archytas
in time

others, horizon
that

followed

the
so

geometric

form,

and in

the

was

considerably in
of

extended of

this

direction
of
a

Archimedes

th

study

sections

sphere

solved

equations

th

form

by

the

intersection
doing
so

of also that
between

two

lines

of

the the

second

degree,
to

and

in

investigated
there
0

conditions be
no

fulfilled
three

in

order

should and
a.

root

or

two

or

roots

Since
Archimedes

the

method obtains

of

reduction equation

by

means

of

which
=

the

:r*

"

a^-\-l^^c
to

can

be

applied
of the

with

considerable
the

ease

all

torms

of
set

equations forth these

third

degree,

merit

of

having

equations

comprehensive
their

manner

and
by
to

of

having

solved

one

principal

groups

geometric
Greeks.*

methods

belongs

without
We
the

question
the

the
of

find

first

trace

indeterminate

equations
of

cattle

problem

{Problema

bovinum)

medes. Archi-

This

problem,
a

which in the

was

published
at

in

the

year
as

1778

by

Les-

g,

from

codex

library Greek

WolfenbUttel,
anthology,

the

first
twenty-

of

unprinted
distichs.
In

fragments

of

is given

in

all
to

probability show
numerical

it originated

directly
this
one

with
how,

medes Archi-

who

desired

by

means

of

example

ceedin proarrive
The

from
large

simple numbers something had

a

quantities,
the

could
of

easily

very

by

interweaving

conditions.

blem
The Bulls
the the

runs

as

follows bulls in

f
cows

sun

herd

of
were

and

of

different
the

colors,

(i)
{X)
(Z)
white

the

white

{W)
the
the

number
were

{\+\) (i+J)
were

of
of
the

black

yellow

(K);
(K);
yellow
zu
=

black dappled

{X)

dappled
the

yellow
the

(Z)
Cows

(i-ff)
had
the

of
same

V)

and

( Y).

(2)

Of

which

colors
=

v,x,y,z),

{\ +

\){X+x),
IV+X

x=^(\-\-i){Z+z),
is
to

(i +
Y+Z

J)

y).

y=(k+\){^+T^)number. problem
presents nine

be

square;

triangular
The

equations

with

ten

unknowns

Z=={i

i)PV-\.Y i){Z-\-z)

zv

i){X+x) J)(K-f:y)

x=(i

=(4

*Zeatbeii,

Die

Lehre
1886.

von

den

Kegelschnitten

im

Altrrtum.

Deutsch

von

Fischer-Benzon

bovinum

According

to

Amthor

the

solution
=

is

obtained the
a

by

Pell's
=

equation
0

/*"

2-3-711-29-353""

l.

assuming

condition

ii

(mod.
with tions, condi686.

2*4657),
of
we

in

which

process

there

arises If

continued
omit cattle
5

fraction
last
837175
two

period

ninety-one
get
as

convergents. the

we

the
916

total

number
much

of

number

which

is

nevertheless

smaller

than

that

involved

the

sand-reckoning

of

Archimedes.

But

the with
to

name

of

Diophantus

is most
of this

closely kind.

connect

systems

of

equations indeterminate but

He

endeavors
means

satisfy whole

his

equations
merely

not

by

of

numbers,

by

means

rational

numbers

(always
"

excluding

negative
must

quanti-

ties)

of

the It

form

where
that
to

and

be

positive
not

te in

appears

Diophantus

did

proceed

in

this

field

according

general
out

methods,
cases.

but
At

rather

by

ingeniously
his

following

special

least

those

of first

solutions
second
of
no

of

indeterminate

equations

the

and
permit

degrees

with

which

we

are

acqu

other
not
a

inference.
little

Diophantus
by

seems

to

have

been those

influenced
Hypsicles. before
the

earlier
It
may

works,

such be

as

of

Heron that

and
even

therefore there

assumed
an

Christian

era

existed

indeterminate build.*
in the

analysis

upon

which

Diophantus

could
algebra
and

The

Hindu

reminds Heron.
As

us

many
case

respects of
are

of

Diophantus
the
as

in

phant Dio-

negative

roots

of they

an

equation
are

not

admitted

solutions,
in

but

consciously

set

ide,

which
transformation containing

marks

an

advance equations,
powers
works

upon

Diophantus.
of

of
the
as same

the

combination

ms

of
of

the

unknown,
The

is

so

performed is Bhaskara
the

in

the

Diophantus.
an

llowing
to

representation
:*

of

equation

according

va

va

va

ru

30
1.

e.

va

va

va

\ ru
+
S,
or

2x*"x+30=zQx^
of
also the

+
first

0x

2:v""

:c-f-30
not

8.

uations but

degree

appear

only

with

with

several
equations
In

unknowns. of
the

The the

Hindu
degree

thod

of

treating

second
place,

ows
^

material

advance.
the
ax^

first

ax^-\-dx
the

is

considered
forms

only

typef
bx-^-

instead

of
ax^

three
=

eek

bx==c,

-\derived
^^,

c=ax^y

"^

^"^"

om

this

is

easily
=

^a^s^

-\-^(ibx^=^iac, -f
^ whence

and

en

(2d5j[:

-f

^)*

4"r

it follows

that

*""

_"

1/4^7+^ Ta
He
knows

"

askara
the

goes square

still
root

further.

considers
when
root
are,

both

signs
be

and
two

also
values

it cannot
however,

tracted.

The
by him

of

the

mitted
"

as

solutions his

only

when

both

are

positive, pear ap-

evidently
exclusively

because

quadratic with
also

equations

in form.

connection Bhaskara fourth

practical
solves
cases

problems

geometric the third

equations
where

and

degrees

in

these

quations
by

can

be

reduced

to

equations

of

the

second

egree

means

of
of

advantageous
auxiliary analysis
Here

transformations quantities.
of
contrast

and

he

introduction The

indeterminate
prominent.

the

Hindus
to

is Diophantus

especiall

in

nly

solutions

in

positive
of

integers
the

are

admitted. with by
two

In de

equations
unknowns

first been

degree

ore

had
him

already

solved

Arya-

hatta,

and
the

after Euclidean

by

Bhaskara,

by
finding
the

method
the

hich

algorism is
used
;
so

for
that

greatest

ommon

divisor

method

of
with

tion solu-

corresponds
of of
the

at

least

in

its

fundamentals Indeterminate

th
equations

ethod

continued
second

fractions. degree,
for

example by

those

of

th

orm

xy=ax-\'by-\-c^
a

are

solved
then of

arbitrarily
x,

as si

value
by the

to

and'

obtaining
areas,

or

metr geo-

application
cyclic end, of
method
but

or

by

cyclic

method.*
to

This
the

does

not

necessarily-

ead

desired

may

nevertheless,

by

kilful

selection
It the

auxiliary
in

quantities,
solving

give
the the of
the

ral integ-

values. of
1
=j^.

consists equation
This is

in

first

place,

nstead

ax^-\done

b=^cj^,
the

equation

x^

by

-\-

aid

cally empiriwhich

assumed equations by

equation of the
the
same

aA^

from

-\-B:=C^,
form,

other

aA]^-\-

B^=.

CI,
equations

can

be

deduced the

solution

of
means

indeterminate

of

first

degree.

By

of

skilful

combinations

equations

aA\-\-B^=Ci

furnish

solution

of

The

algebra has

of in

the
common

Chinese,
with
are

at

least

in

the that

earliest
equations

riod,
of later

this
second

the solved

Greek,

the

degree
appears

geometrically. been developed the

times
of

there approximation

to

have

method

for

determining
For
the degree

roots

higher

algebraic
equations
an

equations.

solution
the

of Chinese

indete

of

the

first

veloped
the
**

independent

method. and
in

It

bears
is

the

name

great
tse,

expansion'*
who

its

discovery

ascribed
D. the This

Sun

lived
be

the

third

century

A.
by

thod

can

best

briefly

characterised
a

lowin fol-

example

Required
15

number

which

when

vided
5, 7.

by
Let

7,

11, kiy

gives
kzj

respectively be

the
that

remainders

k%y

found

so

ll-15"^i
"

15-7'"^2
=gi

"

7-

ly-

=^2

tS:"

have, the

for further

example,

/'i=2,

^j

2,

^j

8,

and

tain ob-

results
=

1115-2 15-

33.0,

'330-2=

660,

7-2

210,
616,

210-5

1050,
4312, 247

7-11-8

616-7
6022

1050+4312

6022;

-_^-^
the

=5+

^-^^-^;

1=247

is

then

solution

of

given

equation.

In

xhcwriz.rg
use
as

of the

their

eqnaikms
of
a

the
sign

Chinese

make

little

H:nd:is

of

equality. the the

The

positiTe black.

coefcienrs
As
a

vere

vrirten

in

red,

negative absolute

in

rule

far

is

placed
beside

beside
the

term

of
first

the
power l-tx*
"

equation
;

and
rest

jnuw
can

coefficient
from
S

the

the

be

inferred

the

examp

2Tx=17,*

where
:

and

indicate

the

color

of

the

coefficient

The Greeks.

Arabs

were

pupils
made
use

of of

both
the and

the

Hindus

and
of

the

They

methods developed

their them,

Greek

and

Hindu in find
Al the

predecessors direction
the

especially
we

of of

methods
the who,
word

of

calculation. in

Here

origin

algebra
the

the

writings

of speaks of

Khowarazmi

in

title
i.

of
e.,

his

work,

of

^^al-jabr

wa'i

muqabaiah,"

the

science

redintegration
two

and

equation. operations
of equations.

This

expression

denotes
Arabs

of

the

principal

used When

by

the

in

the

arrangement

from

the
jc*

equation

:x^'\-r=x^-{-px-\-r
is formed,
this
gives is

the

new

equation

=^*

H"/^

called
from

al

viuqabalah;

the

transformation
q-=iX^
the
was

which
equation

the
a

equation

px

"

px^=x'^
of
great

-{- q,

transformation

which

considered

importance

by

the

cients,
to

was

called
the

al-jabr,
which

and deals

this in

name

was

extende

science

general

with

uations.
The earlier
as

Arabs

wrote

out

their

equations

in Latin

rds,

for

example,
:

Al

Khowarazmi*

(in

the

anslation)
et

nsus

quinque
bx

radices

equantur
=

viginti
24;

quatuor

:r"

+
Omar
Khayyam,

Cubus,
""

latera

et

numerus

aequales
c
=s

sunt

quadratis

+
times

^:c

-f
there

a:fl.
Arabs

later

arose

among

the

quite
the
most

an

tended

symbolism. progress
x
was

This
the
j'idr, they

notation

made
Arabs.

rked

among called
words
x^=
-o.

Western
its

The from
the

known of

square

mal;

itials

these

obtained
which
but
**

the

tions abbreviafollow

x^=(^,
one

Quantities
are

rect di-

after

another

added,

special

sign

used

to

denote
letter
/am.

subtraction.
of In
ada/a

Equals"

is
by

denoted
means

the
a

final

(equality),

namely, 3x^=12x

final

Al

Kalsadif
by

e3

and

x*-\-x=7^

are

represented

the

proportion

12

84

is
.x:

given

the

form

.^.".84.

-.12.

-.7.

Diophantus
to

had their
terms.

already degree, This

but

classified
according of

equations,
to

not

ccording of
,

the

number

their
completely
to

principle
among Al

classification
the

we

ind

developed this

Arabs. forms
the

cord Ac-

principle
groups
:

Khowarazmi*
of

the and

following

six
degrees

for

equations

first

second

:fl=^ax ofl=^a
ax'=bf and Arabs by

(**a
(**a
X*

square square
ax
=

is
is d,

equal
to

to

roots"),
a

equal

constant"),
bXy
to
ax

-^

ofl +
equal solve

a=^

b-=^3fly

-\-

("' roots
The

constant

are

square").
of
one

knew

how

to

equations only
because

the

firs

degree

four

different
interest, been

methods, and that

as
a

of

which

has

particular it has for

in

modern
approximation

algebra

developed
of higher

method

of
This

equations Hindu
Banna the

degree. is found is

method

of

solution,
Ibn al

in

its

origin,

in

particular called

in

and
scales.

Al

Kalsadi
It

and
over

there

the

method

of
as

went

into
regula

the

Latin

translations

the the

regula

falsorum
ojc

and
^
=

falsi.

To

illustrate,

let be
b

equation numerical
az%

be

givenf
;

and if
we

let

z\

and
az\

z%

any

quantities

then

place

-|-

=yif

=^j,

z^yi"ziyt
x=
,

yi"yi

as

can

readily

be

seen.

Ibn plan for

al

Banna

makes

use

the

following

graphic

the

calculation

of

th

value

oi

x:

Yz

z,

Z2

geometric quantity
be
as

representation,
somewhat

which
resembles
a

with
pair

j^

as

negative

of
=

scales,
z%,

uld

follows,
OA=x:

letting

OjBi=zi,

OB^

B\C\

B^C%=yi,

Cz

om

this

there

results

directly

fZlii
=

21.
"j

*"

y%^

at

is,
other

that
the

the
same

errors

in

the
as

substitutions
errors

bear
the

to

ch

ratio

the

in

results,

method

apparently

being

discovered

through

geometric

considerations.
In the
case

of gives

equations
in
the

of first

the
a

second
purely

degree

Al

owarazmi

place

ical mechan-

solution

(negative
and
then
a

roots

being

recognised
of
a

but
geometric
of

not

mitted),
He
of

proof

by
an

means

gure.

also

undertakes,
In the

investigation
of

the

mber

solutions.

case

o^-^-c^^bx^
Khowarazmi

from

which
two

jp=|dil/(^)'
solutions,
one

"

r,

obtains

or

none

(i)'"'.
gives solution
takes
x
=

(4)'=^.
proof

(i)'"'.
for

He

the
of

geometric
an

the

correctness

o
where

the

equation
two

like

x*'^2x
by
the

lb,
means

he

3,

in

forms,

either
or

of

perfectly

symmetric
case,

figure,
AjB=x,

by

gnomon.
we

I have

the

first

tor

BC=^,

jBD=:1,
A

:r"

4-i-ar
we

4-(^)"
have

15+l,
+
2
"

(:r +
1
"

l)a
==

16;

in
In

the

second

;i:'

a;

+
form

!"

15

1.

-(ajc*"

the
r

treatment

of of

equations

of

the

"

bx**

zt

the

theory

quadratic
at

equations

receives

still

further

development

the

hands higher
they

of

Al

Kalsadi.
than the

Equations
form in

of
which

degree

second,
to

the

presented
or

themselves problems them

with

the

Arabs

in

the

geometric
were

stereometric
solved by

the

Greek
but

type,

not

cally, arithmetithe

only Here

by

geometric
Omar
Khayyam*

methods

ai
most

of

conies.

proceeded following

systematically. the

He

solved

the

equations

of

third

degree

geometrically

3^,

x^-{- qx
x^"qx^=zry

=zpx^,

o^ "

px^=

r,

x^

"

/^'+

r=zqxy

^=iX^,

o^-\-r=px^^
the
cases

x^"ipx^=^qx-^r.
expression

following
in
"A

is these

method
:

of

which

he

ploys

cube
is

and
to

square
roots,

are

equal

to

roots;"

cube

equal

squares

and

one

number,"

the

equations

x^
to

-\-px^

qXf

jc*

=px^
calls

+
all

f^

''

be

expressed.
;

Omar trinomial

binomial

forms
forms
to

ple
calls

equations composite
even

and He

quadrinomial
was

equations.
by

unable

solve

latter,

geometric
degree.

methods,

in

case

they

ched
The

the

fourth

indeterminate back
to

analysis
In

of

the

Arabs

must

be

ced

Diophantus.
the and
only

the
and

solution second
numbers,

of

indeterminat
degree like

equations
Karkhi

of

first

gives and
were

integral

fractional irrational

phantus, Arabs in

excludes

quantities.
of without
systematic propositions
having

familiar
to

with

number

regard

Pythagorean

triangles

investigated

this

field

in

thoroughly

er.

C.

THE

SECOND

PERIOD.

TO

THE

MIDDLE

OF

THE

SEVENTEENTH

CENTURY.

As

long

as

the

cultivation

of

the

sciences

among

he

monasteries,
century
to

during
the

period
no

lasting

from

th

ighth
any

twelfth,
the

evidence
theory

appeared
of numbers. end
seven

of

progress the
century,

in

general
world
men

As

in

learned

Roman

after

the

of

th

fifth

so

now

recognised
grammar,

liberal

rts,

"

the

trivium^

embracing
quadriviuniy

rhetoric

and

dialectics,

and
music

the and

embracing
But

arithmetic,
through

geometry,

astronomy.*

Arab

influence,

operating writings, and

there

in

part

directly in
Italy

and
and

in
later

part

through
France

followed
a

also

in

Germany

golden
is

age

of

ical mathematin

activity
of

whose that Divina

influence
time.

prominent
Dante,

all

th

literature
of

Thus
Comnudia

in

the
among

fourth

canto

the

mentions

th

personages
"...

who

slow

their and
in

eyes

around
port

Majestically
Bore

moved,

their

eminent

authority,"

Euclid,
There

Ptolemy,

Hippocrates

and

an

Avicenna.

also

arose,

as

further

development

of

certai

famous in
rare

cloister, instances, Paris,

cathedral
independent

and

chapter
of
them,

schools,
the
and

and

firs

universities,

at

Oxford,
course

Bologna,

Cambridge

which
the the

in

the

of

the

twelfth from famous the

century

associated
of

separate

faculties,

and
became

ning beginas

thirteenth
Before

century

Stu-

dia

generalia.'\
*Muller,
1887.

long

universities

were

also

es

HistoriKh-ttymohguche

Studien

iiher

matkentatiscke

Ttnmino-

ogie,

lished

in

Germany
1386

(Prague,
Cologne,
1419 1472;

1348;
Erfurt,

Vienna,
1392 1456

1365;

delberg,
1409

1388

zig, LeipBasel,

Rostock,

Greifswalde,

9;

Ingolstadt,

Tubingen

and

Mainz,

1477),

which

for

long

while
an

mathematical
to

instruction

stituted
We

merely
must

appendage
upon
a

philosophical
von

researc

look

Johann

Gmunden
to

as

first

professor exclusively

in
to

German department in

university of

devote

self
the

the

mathematics.
upon

year

1420

he

lectured

Vienna
upon
was

mathematical all

branches

only,
a

and

no

longer

ments depart-

of

philosophy,

practice

which

then

universal

I,

General

Arithmetic,

Even

Fibonacci
rules,
or

made

use

of

words
them
we

to

express
means

hematical

represented other

by

of Luca

e-segments.

On
who
was

the far

hand,
to

find

that

ioli,

inferior

his

predecessor

in

thmetic
R,
ten

inventiveness,
for

used
and
radix

the

abbreviations

./.,
early
as

plus^
years

minuSy

(root).
Nicolas

As

4,

before in

Pacioli,

Chuquet
the
not

had

tten

work,

all
in

probability which
there

based

upon

resear

of signs

Oresme,

appear

only

and

(for plus

and

minus),

but

also

express

like

l^MO,

]^M7lor

f/10,

l/l7.

he

expressions
equivalent.*

equipolence,

equipolent,

for

equivalence

and

Distinctively German
in

symbolic soil. the minus In

arithmetic German
Coss,

was

developed

pon

general
the

arithmetic

and

algebra,
for plus

fleutsche
are

symbols

+
They

and
were

and
use

characteristic,

f
was

common

while
The

the

Italian known

school
appearance

still
of

ing writthese

and

m.

earliest

igns

is
Vienna

in

manuscript

{Re^la
from

Cose

vel

Algebre)
of
the

he

library, In

dating
the

the of

middle the

te fi

century.

beginning
Faulhaber

seventeenth

entury

Reymers Peter Roth

the

and
sign

used

the
signs.

sign

-*-,

and

-ff

as

minus

Among

the
centuries,

Italians in

of

the
of
was

thirteenth
the

and
the

teent four-

imitation

Arabs,

course

of

an

arithmetic Nevertheless,
Luca
to

operation

expressed
were

entirely gradually

words.

abbreviations Pacioli
the
In
was

tr in

and

acquainted
first twenty-nine
treatise
aire
.

with

such powers

abbreviations
the

express

of

unknown
and
jc, x^,

quantity.
jc^,

his

the

absolute
respectively

term

x^y

x^,

x^^
,

always
or
co^

represented
cubo
censo

by

numero

or

"*,

cosa

censo

ce,

or

cu^

censo

de

censo

or

ce,ce,

frimo

relato

/J.'r*,

de

cuba

or

ce.cu
.

The

Germans
Marre der
Math.,

made
Boncompagni's
1881,
p.

use

of

symbols
XIII.

of

their
Uber die

own

"A.

in

Bulletino,

Jahrbuch

Fort

chritte

8.

tTreatlein,
referred

**Die
to

deatsche
as

Coss,"

Sckldmilch's

Zeitschrift,

Bd.

34,

HI.

Hereafter

Treutlein.

is

ention.
term

Rudolft
the
manner

and

Riese the

represented
unknown

the

lute abso-

and

powers
:

of
Dragmay

quantity
in

in

following

abbreviated
root

ing, writ-

^;

radix

(or
a

coss,

i.

e.,

of
an
r

the with long

equation)
a

is

ressed
;
zensus

by
by

sign

resembling
cubus

little

flour-

by
/

with

flourish

on

in
be

the

shape

of

an

(in
by by

the

following
de

pages
zensu

this

represented
by

merely
sursolidum

c)\
)8
or

zensus

(zensby

zens)

55,
by

zensikubus

jr

sursolidum

)o\% or
555
two
;

3";

zensus

zensui

de

zensu

(zens-

nsdezens)
There
are

by

cubus

de

cubo

by

cc.

opinions

concerning According
to

the
the
one,

origin
it
was

of

of

mathematicians.
an
r

ginally

{radix)
to

written
an

with
x,

flourish
the

which

dually

came

resemble

while

original

ning

was

forgotten.
the

Descartes,
in

in

the

seventeenth
sense.*

tury,

first

used

our

present the
an

The
it is customary
a

er

explanation

depends
to

upon

fact

that
j

in

Spain

represent

Arabic

by

Latin

where

whole

words the
quantity
more

and

sentences

are

in

question
is
represented

instance
by
to

12a;,

in

Arabic
by
12

C/^
sai.

12

xaiy

correctly
x

ing Accord-

this

view,

the

of
the

the

mathematicians
sai^=xaiy

would
but

an

abbreviation
is
the
now

of

Arabic

this

ory

abandoned.
older

By

cossistsf
any

these

abbreviations
;

are

trod in-

without

explanation

Stifel,

however,

"

Treutlein.

G.

Wertheim

in

SckWmilck't

Zeitschri/t,

Bd.

HI.

A.

considers

it

necessary

to

give
root,"

his
used

readers

suitable
the by

ex-

pl
power

The

word
quantity

*'

for

first
means

of

an

unknown

he

explains ''because

the

geometric of
"

progression, the
puts

all
the
:c*,

successive
first
the
as

members
root ;

series

develop

from

from

he

for

x^y

x^,

x^,

jc*,

signs

\Xy

I5,

Ir,

Ijj,
.
.
.

and

calls
to

these

"cossic

numbers,"
to

which

can

be

continued
order-

infinity,

while
that

each
nent. expo-

assigned
In

definite
the

number,
of series"

is,

an

German
the
manner

edition
**cossic

Rudolff's
to

Cossy

Stifel

at

first

writes
in the

the

seventeenth but

power

already

indicated,

also

late

as

follows:

1
.

lit.
makes

mU.
use

mUU.
of
the
nearest

1212(2(11.'

etc.

He

also

letters

and
to

C
our

in

writing
present where

this

expression. is
the
to

The

approach

notation

be
**

found

in

Burgi
'*

and

Re5'mers,

with

aid

of

exponents"
^x^
"

or

characteristics"

th
4:

polynomial

%x^+l2x^
in
VI

+
manner

l^x^-\-'ix^^lx
:

"

represented

the
V

following
IV
III

II

8 In

+
we

12

"

-1-10
find for

-f
jc,

4-7
x^,

"

Scheubel
ter,

x^y

x^,

x^
,
.

pru
$

sec,
,

quar,

quin,
latuSy

and

in

Ramus

/,

q^

c,

bq^

abbreviations

for

quadratusy

cubuSy

biquadratus,

solidus.

The
19a;

product
"

(Ix^
represented

"

^x

+
in

2) {bx
its

"

3)

=r=

^^x^
"

36a:

is

development

by

Gram-

-|-

GRAMMATBUS

STl

FEL

7x,

2iV

75
"3x
bx

_3/r/.+
by

+
"3

hpri,"ZN
"

^r.

15^.+
21JC.+

10/r/.
^f"ri."^N

35r"

155
"

lOa;
9;c"

"

2I5+
365

6 6

ter."Z^x,

19/r/.

"

6iV

35^"

19:ir"

RAMUS

1q"

3/+
5/"

2
3

35^"15^+10/
"

21^+

9/"

6
6.

35^"

36^+19/"
century
to

As

early
use

as

the special

fifteenth

the

German
the

Coss
extraction ;

of
the

symbol

indicate
for

of

root.

At

first
.4 the

was

used
was

l/4

this

iod
means

placed
of
a

before

number

soon

extended

stroke
merely
a

appended
y^4
more

to

it.
Stifel

Riese
takes

and
the

olf

write
step

for

l/4.

st

towards

general
Arithmetica

comprehension
integral

of
where

ical

quantities

in
fourth,

his

the

ond, |/ j6"

third,

fifth,
6,

roots

of

six

are

represented
the symbols

i/'^6,

1/556,

|/f

while

elsewhere

used
first

as

radical
occur

signs.
in Rudolff

These

symbols, the
other the

of
three

which
in
a

two

and

of

Stifel, third,

indicate fourth

respectively
roots

third,
numbers

fourth,

ond,

and

of

the

which

Rudolf

gives

few

rules without

for

operations

witk

radical

quantities, he

but

demonstrations.
a
numerus

Like

Fibonacci

calls

an

irrational
as

number

surdus.
:

Such

expressions

the

following

are

duced intro-

Stifel

enters

upon

the and

subject
even

of

irrational
to

numbers

with

especial Euclid,
but

zeal

refers in all

the

speculations

of

preserves

his

developments distinguishes

well-grounded of

independence. irrational

Stifel
:

two

classes

numbers

principal
In
the

and first

nate subordiclass the

{Haupt-

und

NebenartetC).
irrational irrationals

are

included

(1)
binomial

simple

numbers

of

form

v^,

(2)

with

the

positive

sign,

l/53lO

V^"
of

1/56,

^jl2

|/a2,
as

(3)

square

roots

such

binomial

irrationals

1/5

"

1/56

1/58

^"^T^;
the
roots

(4)

binomial

irrationals

with square

negative of
such

sign,

y/5510

"

1/556,
as

and

(5)

binomial

irrationals,

t^5V56-i/$8
subordinate
class

l^

1/6-1/8.

The

of

irrational

quantities,

ing accord-

iA2

+
"

1/53
1/56

+ +

i/j5,
2
"
"

1/52

1/55^

1/^3,

1/55

1/5^-1/^8

1/5512

=t/i/6+2-e/e/8+e/i2
Fibonacci evidently quantities admit
from obtained

his
and
as

knowledge like
roots

of
them of he

gative
not

the

Arabs,

negative

quantities
the he

the

an

ation. gives the

Pacioli

enunciates

rule,

minus
use

times
it only

us

always

plus,

but

makes of the

of

expansion

of
proceeds
roots

expressions
in
the

form he

{p

"

^)

"

s).

Cardan

same

way;

recognises them
no

negative

of
or

an

equation,

but

he

calls
to

timationes

falscu

fictae,*

and

attaches

them

ependent

significance.
absurdi,

Stifel Harriot is

calls
the

negative
first
to

quantities

numeri

consider
them
to

ative
one

quantities
side of
an

in

themselves,

allowing

equation. consequently

Calculations
do
not
same

involving begin

ative

quantities

until

seventeenth
numbers
;

century.

It

is
to

the

with
them

nal irratioamong

Stifel

is the

first

include

bers

proper.

Imaginary

quantities
proves

are

scarcely

mentioned.

dan Car-

incidentally

that

(5 + i/:=a5)
goes into he
di

"

(5"

i/~T5)=40.
farther. Although
not

belli

considerably
the
nature

ering

of
1

imaginary
di
menoy

quantities,
and
treatment
"

of

ch

calls
he

l/

"

piu

1/
of

"

meno,

gives

rules

for

the

ex-

pressions
solution The

of

the

form

d\/

"

1,

as

they

occur

the

of

the

cubic

equation.
early

Italian

school

made

considerable
powers.

va ad
Nicole

in had

calculations
long since
In

involving

Oresme"*"

instituted his

calculations

with

fractional

exponents.

notation

it appears

that

he

was

familiar

with
JL

the

formulae

1.
n

1.

1.

JL

far\^

In

the

transformation advance
by

of

roots

Cardan

made

the

fir

important

writing

and

therefore

i^a*
upon

"

=/*

"

^,

""*

"

^.

Bom-

bellif

enlarged

this

observation

and

wrote

a-\-V^^=p-^V^^,
which
the
equation follows

a"V^^=p^V

"

from

V
=

a^

=/*
he

-|- q.
discovered

With

reference
that

to

:r*

15:p-|-4

a;

1^2-|-|/^^l2l
=

+
+
2
"

^2"
|/"

121

t/ITi

l/m

=4.

For

in

this

case

+
.^

5,

(/"+
l/"

l/=^)' ^)*
=

V^=12i,
121,

(/""
through

2
"

i/"

become

addition

/*

"

3/^

2,

and

with

^=

"

/*,

4/*

"

15/

2,

and

consequently

(by

trial)/

=2

and

f =cl

The
to

extraction
the Arab,
or

of

square

and Indian,
the

cube

roots

ing accordwas

rather
In

the

method,
of

set

th

by

Grammateus.
root,

process

extracting
the
number

square

for

the

purpose
are

of

dividing
over

into

periods, figures,
the

points counting

placed
from

the
to

first,

third,

th,

etc.,

right
to

left.

Stifel*

eloped it

extracting
undoubtedly table

of
for

roots

considerable
that
as

nt;

is

this

purpose

he

ked

out

of
for

binomial
example,

coefficients
the

far

as

-\-^y,
:

in

which,

line

for

(tf+

^)*

ds

I55

1
.

The

theory
upon

of

series

in

this of
the

period

made

no

vance ad-

the
sum

knowledge
the

Arab^.
the

Peurbach

nd

the

of

arithmetic
examined of odd
the numbers

and

geometric
of
natural^

gressions.
of
them
even

Stifel
and
power

series

bers,

and

deduced
to

certain
was

series.
through

In

regard with
=

these orem the-

ies

he
that

familiar,

Cardan,
2"1

the 1.

l-f2

2"

2"

+ ..+

2-"

With

fel

geometric
is
not

progressions
found in Euclid's

appear
treatment

in

an

application

ch is

of
are

means.

well the

known,
two

geometric
a

means

inserted
means

tween bethe

quantities

and

by

of

ations

where

"^t^
the numbers

Stifel
6

inserts
18

five in the

geometric
following

means

between

and

ner man-

1
*

27

81

248

729

/3^1
6

\/y3

y/y^
v'r648

\/3^7
\/3l08

y/^c"V
v'tl944

^3^43
v^3tll837408

\/3^29
18

v^3^:139968

which

the

last

line
6.

is

obtained
makes

from

the of

preceding
solution selects
means

by

multiplying
the
the
to

by

Stifel

use

this
He

or

purpose

of
of the

duplicating

the

cube.

for

edge be

given between

cube
6

; three

geometric

re

inserted
of
This
the

and

12,

and
be
^

as

^=:F
=

J
=

the

edge

required
is

cube constructed
:

will

6#^2

l/r432.

length
following

geometrically

Stifel

in

the

manner

In

the

right
let
AF=FE, AB

angled
=

triangle
AC=12;

^CJ?,

with
AD

the
=

hypotenuse DC,
AE

BC,

^,

make

ED,

F/=JE,
AL

JK=JC=/L,
geometric which
an mean

Then
between

AK

is

the
and

first,
12.

the

second

This

construction, is
6

Stifel

regards

entirely

correct,

only

approximation,
^Z
=

since
=

AK=n.b

instead

of

^2

7.56,

3l/l0

Simple
known

facts
to

involving

the such
as

theory

of

numbers
relating

were

so

Stifel,

theorems

to

rfect
A

and

diametral

numbers

and
product

to

magic
of
two

squares.

diametral
sum

number
whose
squares

is the
is

numbers
the 39"

of

rational
=

square,

uare

of and

the
hence

diameter,
25.60

e.

g.,
1500

65"

25"

60"

+
are

",

and

39.52

2028

ametral

numbers

of

equal

diameter.

Magic
in

squares

are

figures

resembling
an

chess

rd,

which
so

the

terms

of

arithmetic
sum,

progression
taken

are

arranged
or

that
or

their

whether always
number
one

gonally
magic is

by

rows

columns,
an

is

the of

same.

square

containing
to construct

odd
than

cells,
an

ch

easier
can

containing
following
ner man-

number,
:

be
the

obtained
beneath

in
the

the

Place

in

central

one,

and empty

other

numbers,

^cell in their

natural

order,

in

the

lready
"^

occupied, Possibly
this

pass

Yerdcally
squares
were

downwards
known
to

over

two

ells.
;

magic
there

the

dus Hin-

but

of

is

no

certain in
the

evidence, fourteenth

Manuel

Moscfaopulus^
upon

(probably
the

century)
He
gave

touched

subject
the

of

magic

squares.
of these

definite

rules

for

construction
a

figures,
La-

hich
and

long

after

found

wider

diffusion
the

through
Ages

hire

Mollweide. formed Stifel

a

During
the first

Middle

magic
number-

squares

part
was

of
the

wide-spread
to

mysticism.

investigate
had but

them

scientific
the
was

way,

although

Adam Germany,

Riese

already
he

tr in

subject
to

into

neither
for

nor

Riese

able We the

give

simple

rule
assume

their

construc

may

nevertheless
century

that

towards known

the
a

end
few

of

sixteenth

such

rules
as

were

German

mathematicians,
of

"

for

instance,

the

Rechenmeister

Nuremberg,

Peter

Roth.

In

the

ear

1612

Bachet

published for
squares

in

his

Problemes

piaisanis
odd
not

general cells, finding

rule
but

containing that
he

an

number
succeeded
an

of

acknowledged

had

in

solution
was

for

squares

containing
to

even

number. beyond

Fr^nicle
Bachet.

the

first

make

real
for

ad-

ance

He

gave

rules

(1693)
squares

both

classes

of

squares,

and

even

discovered

that

maintain

their

characteristics

after

striking

off

th

Unger,

p.

109.

t Montucla,

Histoire

de"

MathSmatiques^

1799-1802.

X Cantor,

I., p.
Leben

48a
und

fGiesing,

Schriften

Leonardo's

da

Pisa,

z886.

er

rows

and

columns. rules

In

1816

Mollweide
De
quadratis

collected
magicis^

scattered

into by

book,

ich

is distinguished
More

its

simplicity
are

and
to

scientific

rm.

modem
to

works

due

Hugel

(Anscon-

ch,

1859),
a

Pessl

(Amberg,
and Vol.
the
".*

1872),
to

who

also

ders

magic

cylinder,

Thompson by is

{Quarterly
whose

urnal

of
square

Mathematics,

X.),
pn

rules from

the

gic

with
the

side

deduced

the

are

with

side

2.

Algebra.

Towards

the

end
Algebra

of

the
or

Middle the
Coss

Ages is
The

the opposed

Ars

major.
to

te

maggiore.

the

dinary theory
or

arithmetic
of
Ars

{Ars

minor).
either

Italians
Algebra,

called like
common

equations
magna,

simply
et
census

the

abs,

Ars

rei

(very
settled

ter

the

time
La

of

Leonardo
della

and
cosa

fully

in

Regio-

ntanus),
cossica
or

regola

{cosa=:res,
German

thing),
algebraists

Regula

cosae.

The

the

fifteenth
Coss, the

and
Algebra,
term

sixteenth
or,

centuries

called

it Coss,
Logistic.

gula

like

the

Greeks,
and

eta

used

Arithmetica

speciosa,
the
von

Reymers treating The

ithmetica

analytica,

giving
title

section
der

of

uations
of

the

special

Aeguation.

thod

representing form.

equations Equality
by
was

gradually
generally,
;

took
even

on

modem
cossists,

by the
sym-

expressed the seventeenth

words
century

it

was

not

until

ddle

of

that

special

ol

came

into
the

common

use.

The

following

are

examples

of
:*

different

methods

of

representing

equations

ardan

Cubus/
:

rebus

aequalis

20,

**+

6jr=20

ieta
IC"

8^+16
:

A^aequ.

40,

jk"

8jc"
"

16jc

40;

egiomontanus 16

census

et

2000

aequ.

680

rebus,

16jc"

2000

680a:;

Reymers

XXVIII

xn

VI

ni

l^r
jc"
=

65532 65532^"

+18
+
18jri0

-5-30
"

h-18
"

+12
18jc"

-5-8;
12a:"

30jc"

8;

Descartes

z^ri

az

"

bb
"

i?-=.az

"

^* j^

y_8y"
* *

l^j;+8y*x0,
* *

y_8^"
^0,
x^
"

8j^

^6 " jc*

bx

__^^
*
*

=0 =0

*
"

"0,

x^

"

Hudde

x^y^qx,r^

x^
the modern
last

qx-\'r.
in the

In

Euler's
of

time the

transformation
form

ment develop-

had

already

been

accomplished.

Equations
We

of
may

the

first

degree

offer call

no

occasion
to

fo

remark.

nevertheless
the

attention

th

peculiar

form

of

proportion

which
former

is

found
'*

Grammateus

and
GrundnUgt

Apian.

"f
antiken

The

writes
Algebra,

Wie

Mattbiessen,

der

und

modernen

ed.,

189

ch

hadt

zum

b,

also

hat

sich

zum

^y"

and

the

tter

places

4-12-9-0

for

1.
=

onardo in

of

Pisa

solved the
same

equations
way
as

of
the

the

second

gree de-

identically
two

Arabs.*

dan Careven

recognized
one

roots

of

quadratic but
he

equation,

en

of
root

them
as

was

negative;
an

did

not

regard

ch

forming

actual
roots,

solution.
and of Stifel
the
roots,

Rudolff
stated

cognized
that,

only

positive
the

explic

with
with than

exception
two

case

of

quadratic

equations
have
more

positive
root.

no

equation
the

one

In

general,

solution

was

affected

in

the

manner

laid
24 2

down

by
**

GramProceed

teusf

in
divide

the

example
24iV

12jp-|by

J^jp*:

us:

2JJ
12

sec,

which
by

gives
sec,

lOfdr
which

10|^"j).
the gives

Also

divide

pri.

2J^
the

ves

result

5^^ (5^
^^

^).
add
is

Square

half

of

^,

ich
which

V^V^"
square

which
root

fl

10|,
this

giving
to

W^,
of
^,
or

the 7 is

^|.

Add

|,

and

the

number

represented
24A^,

by

pri.
sec

Proof

x7iy=84iV^;
by
49
**

add
must

=108A^.
108
A^."

2^

multiplied

also

give

This

German
in

Coss" Leipzig

was

certainly

cultivated
Hans

by
in

ns

Bernecker

and
no

by

Conrad by The
to

slebenJ
these

(about
mathematicians

1525),

yet

memoranda
been found.

either

have

versity Uni-

of

Vienna

encouraged

Grammateus

publish,

the

year
the

1523,

the
**

first

German
kunstlich

treatise
behend

on

Algebra

nder

title,

Eyn

new

vnd

gewiss

echenbiichlin

| vff
Regeln de

alle
tre.

Kauffmannschafft.
Welschen

Nach

GeRegeln Visier

eynen

practic.
Buchhalten

alsi.

Etlichen

Regeln

Cosse
. .

uthen

zu

machen."

Adam

Riese,

who

had

publishe

his

Arithmetic
the
not

in Coss
found
by

1518,

completed it

in

1524

the

anuscript

of and
was

but

remained
1855
in

in

manuscript

until

Marienberg.
in This
1525

he

Coss

published
met

Christoff

Rudolff favor.

trassburg
is

with
with in

universal
many

work,

hich

provided is described

examples,

all words
die

completely
:

olved,
'
*

the
Rechnung

following
durch
Coss

Behend

vnd

Htlbsch

kunstreichen
Darinnen

re ge

Algebre

| so

gemeinicklich
an

die

genennt
auch
mag

werden.
ausz

lles

so

treulich
on

Tag

geben

| das

allein

vleissigem Hind-

esen

alien

mtlndtliche meinung
Einem aller

vnterricht

begriffen

werden.

ngesetzt

die

dere

| so

bisher diser

vil

vngegriindten

regeln

ngehangen.
Zusamen

jeden
durch

liebhaber Christoffen

kunst

lustig

vnd

ergetz-

ich

bracht

Rudolff

von

Jawer."*
is Michael

The

principal
Arithmetica

work

of

the

German

Coss
in

tifel's

Integra^

published
the only
are are more

Nuremberg

544.

In

this

book,

besides

common

operations

of
at

arithmetic,
length,
but

not

irrational
to

quantities
found appli-

reated

there

also

be

*A

translation by
means

would of
are

read
the

somewhat
rules elucidated

as

follows:
of

"Rapid
commonly
in without

and

neat

computa

ingenious

algebra,
all

designated wise
any

he

Coss.

Wherein
comprehended
In

faithfully from disregard

things

such

that

the

be

diligent
of

reading
the

alone, of all

oral

tion instruc-

whatsoever.

opinions

those

who

hitherto

have

ions
1553

of

algebra Cosz
Cosz

to

geometry.

Stifel
mtt

also

published
schonen

Die
der

Chris

toffs Rudolffs
vnd
own,

Ex-

npeln

Gebessert
his

sehr

gemehrt,

with

ous copiof
the

appendices

of

giving

compendia

ss.

With
"It

pardonable is
my

self -appreciation

Stifel

assert

purpose

in

such
to

matters

(as

far

as

able)

from
from

complexity
many

produce

simplicity.
I have
for

erefore

rules from the

one

of

the
many

Coss

formed

single
also

rule

and

methods

roots

ve

established
cases.'*

uniform

method

for

the

nume in-

StifePs

writings
later

were

laid
mathematics

under

great in

tion contribu-

by

writers with
the

on

widely
name.

distant This

ds,

usually

no

mention
half
of

of the

his

done
the

in

second

sixteenth
and and

century

Germans

Christoph
Ramus, Menher,

Clavius
Peletier,
by
that

Scheubel, Salignac,
Nunez.
the

by
by

Frenchmen

Dutchman

and

the by

Spaniard
the

can,

therefore,
century
or

be
the

said

end the

of

sixteent

beginning

of

seventeenth the

spirit
all the

of

the

German
lands,

Coss

dominated the single

Algebra

European

with

exception

Italy.

The

history

of

the

purely and
out

arithmetical
fourth
degrees

solution which
soil
was

of

ations

of

the
worked

third

cessfully

upon

Italian

demands

ked

attention.

Fibonacci in

(Leonardo
direction
in

of

Pisa)*

de

the

first

advance

this

connection

With

the

equation

a^

2^"

+
only

10;r

20.

Although

he

succeeded

in him
X

solving

this

approximately, of proving by
square

nish it furthat

with
cannot

the

opportunity be represented latter

are

the
roots

value

of
even

alone,

when

the

chosen

in

compound

form,

like

The

first due
to

complete

solution
del

of

the

equation but but

he

jc*-(-^*==^
is
lost.*

is

Scipione

Ferrd,

it

The

second

discoverer
twelfth the

is
February,

not

Cardan,
1535,

Tartaglia.
the

On

the

of

gave

formula
which

for

solution become By
1541

of
so

the

equation

a^-\-mx^=nf
under
the
to
name

has

since

famous

of
any

his

rival.

Tartaglia

was

able
degree.
to

solve
In

equation

whatsoever

of
opponent

the

third
Tartaglia

1539

Cardan
in
Milan

enticed

his importuned

his

house

and

him
the

until

the

latter

finally

confided
broke
1545

his

method

under publishing
magna,

pledge

of

secrecy.

Cardan
in

his

word,
j4rs
name

Tartaglia's

solution
some

his

although
the

not

without Cardan

mention
had
in
the

o satis
Ars

the

of

discoverer.
to

also

faction

of
the

giving
solution Ferrari

his
the

contemporaries,
biquadratic
in

his

magna,

of had

equation obtaining.
the
the
means

which Bom-

his

pupil

succeeded
with

belli

is

to

be

credited of
the

representing
degree
in

roots

the

equation
the so-called
of

third

simplest of
a

form,

in

irreducible
the

case,

by

transformati

irrational

quantities.

Of

the

German

thematicians,
the

Rudolff degree, followed.

also
without

solved explaining
by this

few

equations
the method

third
he

but

ich
a

St if el
of

time

was

able

to

ve

brief
of

account

the the

''cubicoss,*'

that
as

is, given
of

the

eory

equations
work.

of
The

third
complete

degree

in
the

rdan's

first

exposition of
the

rtaglian
from The

solution
the pen

of

equations Faulhaber had

arranged

third

degree

of

(1604).
equations
of
so

older second, allow of

a

cossists* third,
a

the
as

st,

and

fourth by

degrees

(in
of

far

solution

means

square

roots

one)

in
The

table

containing
form
of

'twenty-four

different
that
seen

ms.

peculiar

these
can

rules, be

is,

of

equations

with
examples first rule number, of the

their
taken

solutions,
from
the

in

the

llowing
"The equal the

Riese
root

is when
or

[of
so

the

equation]
Divide

to

dragma

called.
of

number
answer

roots

the

result

this
ax=^bf

division
then

question."

(I.

e.,

if

b
"

"

The
fourth

sixteenth
powers.
powers

rule

is when

squares through of
by

equal
the

cubes

Divide

number take
half

fourth

[the
cubes
to

coefficient and number

the

x^"]

then
,

number product
root,

of

multiply

this
squares, take

by

itself,

add the

is

the

of
result the

extract

are

and

from

half

the

number

cubes.

Then

you

have

answer."

Taking

this

step

by

step

we

have,
h

/"

fljc*

b3^^=cx^y

x^-\
a

jk:*

"

^,
a

or

x'^-\-Qj^^fix^,
The twenty-four
by forms
to

X"

V(i)'+/'-iA/v

"

*-

of

the

older

cossists

are

redu

Riese his

*'acht

equationes*' of

(eij^ht
and
root

equations,

as

combination fact
that

German

Latin
is
to

means),
two-valued

ut

as

to

the
at

the

square
was

is

not

all

clear.

Stifel
these
can

the and

first he
two

let

single

quation
that
asserts,

stand
a

for

eight,
have for the

expressly
roots

asse

quadratic
however,

only

;
ax

thi

only the

equation
above

a^

"

order of four

to

reduce
eight

equations Rudolff
from

mentioned

Riese's

forms,

availed
which

himself
it is
clearly step

precautions
what

(Cautelen),"
it
cost

en

labor

to

develop is his in

the

coss

tep.
**

For First in
the
one

example,
precaution.
one

here

When

equating
and

two

numbers,

is the

found

quantity, then these other, the

in

the

other

found

of
"

same

name,

(considering
quantities
one

th

igns
or

4~

^^^

must

one

of the

be
a

added
care

subtracted
had by from
to

from

at

time,

eing

make

up

for
the

defect

in

the

equated the
"

umbers
e.,

subtracting
bx*
"

+
2x^

and

adding
we

(I.

Zx

6x,

derive

3a:"-

=Sx.)
The

first

examples

of

this

period,

of

equations

Rudolff,*

who
went

treats

them

only beyond
Ijc,

incidentally. his

Here

so

Stifel
the
as
.

decidedly

predecessors.
lA, IB,

sides.

first

unknown,
radices
new

he

introduced

,
. .

secundae

or

additional
made
necessary

unknowns in
the
%xA

indicated

the of

notation
fundamental

rformance

the

operations,
others.
a

as

^xy)y
Cardan,
his

l^j(=:j^'),
over

and

several
name

whose
in

shadow

has

been

cast

selfishness of of

his

intercourse

with
for

Tartaglia,
his
mate approxiby
means

is

ll

deserving

credit, equations
^\i\c\i

particularly
of
he

solution
regula

higher

degrees

}ok!^

falsi
in

cdWs

regula

aurea,

Vieta
a

farther

this
the

direction
solution the ascribed
to

and of

evolved

method

approximating
any

algebraic

equations

degree

whatsoever,
commonly

method
to

improved
Reymers

by
and

ton

and
also

him.

rgi

contributed
the
regula

these

methods

of

approximation,
say

using by
the

falsi.
of the
at

We

can

therefore
century

beginning
methods
roots

seventeenth hand
for

there the
any

practical real of

calculating
to

itive^

of

algebraic

equations

sired de-

degree The
to

exactness.

real Vieta.

theory

of

algebraic

equations

is

especially
only

He the

understood
of

(admitting
coeflficients
to

tive posi-

roots)
the

relation
and third

the

of
roots,

equations and
also

second the

degree

their
a

e
the

surprising

discovery
degree,

that which

certain

equation

forty-fifth

had

arisen

in

trig-

onometric

work,
he

possessed
neglected
are

twenty-

three

roots

(in
In

thi

enumeration

the also

negative

sine).

man Ger-

writings

there the

found

isolated

statements

concerning
Burgi
sign

analytic

theory
the the

of

equations
of
a

for

examp

recognized
a

connection

change

of

with these
they

root

of

equation.
to

However theories

portant unimmay

first

approaches

modern

appear,

prepared

the later times.

way

for

ideas

which

cam be-

dominant

in

D.

THIRD

PERIOD.

FROM

THE

MIDDLE

OF

THE

SEVEN!

EENTH

CENTURY

TO

THE

PRESENT

TIME.

The

founding
the sign

of

academies
of

and

of

royal
and

societies

characterizes

opening
an

this

period,
in

is field

the

external

of

increasing The

activity
oldest
was

the

mathematical
Accademia

sciences. dei Roman

learned

society,
upon

the

Linbei,

organized
the
among

the

suggestion
early
as

of
1603,

gentleman,

Duke

of

Cesi,

and
The the in

numbered,
Royal Paris 1700.* development

other of

famous

members,
in

Galileo.
1660,

Society
in

London

was

founded

Academy

1G66,

and

the

Academy

of
the

Berlin

With the

progressive
contrast

of

pure

mathematics has

between

arithmetic,
and

which which
more

do

with
to

discrete

quantities,

algebra,

relates

ather

continuous

quantities,

grew

and

more

ked. of

Investigations

in

algebra in
the

as

well

as

in

the

ory

numbers

attained

course

of

time

great

portions.

The
given

mighty

impulse

which
particularly

Vieta's the discoveries,

investigations Harriot.

influenced

works

of
lie

Building
Artis
tic

upon
ae

Vieta's

gave

in

analy

praxis^
of also
'*

published
equations, materially
than"
he

posthumously

in
the

year

1631,

theory
was

in

which

tem sys-

of

notation

improved.
**less
wrote

The
than"
x^

ns

"

and

"

for

greater

and always

ginated
and found
""

with
for

Harriot,
xxx^

and
etc.

for

The

sign

X
both

^or

"times"
and

almost though
to

simultaneously

in
the latter

Harriot
Descartes

htred,

due

to

used

period

indicate

multiplication,
by
/-^

while and
the

Leibnitz division by
the the
for

in

indicated

multiplication in
the by

^-^,

hough

already of
a

writings
b

of
appeared

Arabs

quotient

divided
d

had

in

forms

b,

a/b,

or-j-.
o

The

form

aib'is

used

the

first

by

Clairaut
in
the
to

in

work 1760.

which Wallis

was

published
made
use

humousl post-

year

in

1655

the

sign
use

oo

indicate
the

infinity.
fprm

Descartes

made

extens

of

the

a"

(for
the

positive

integral

ex-

pon
and

WalHs
indicating but

explained
the
same

expressions lijc^and
the
to

xr**

^y-

as

thing

as

k^

respe

Leibnitz

and

Newton

were

first

to

ognize

the

great

importance

of,

and

suggest,

The
Pascal

powers in his

of

binomial

engaged with

the
Fermat

attention
in
1654,*

correspondence
the
nature

hich
its

contains
essential
more

''arithmetic
at
a

triangle,"
it

although, suggested This

least,
hundred

had
years

been

Stifel

than
is

before.

rithmetic

triangle in
the

table

of
:

binomial

coefficients

arranged

following

form

that
right

the

nth

diagonal,
the

extending coefficients
of

upwards
the

from

lef

to

contains

expansion

(a +

dy.

Pascal
the

used

this

table

for

developing
a

figurate

numbers

and

combinations generalized
gave
an

of

given

number

elements.

Newton
Vandermonde
Euler for in

the

binomial

formula

in

1669,

elementary
AnUitung
%ur

proof
Algebra

1764,

and
a

1770

in

his

gave
A

proof

any

desired

exponent.

series belonging

of

interesting
to

investigations,
half the

for

the

most

part

the

second
nature

of number

nineteenth
and
the

century,

relates

to

the

of

exte

of
a

the

numbermeant

concept.
one

While
of

among

the

ancie

"number"

the

series

of

natural

mbers

only, of
to

in

the

course

of
have

time
been
to

the

fundamenta]
from

erations

arithmetic
from
to

extended
negative,

ole

fractional,
and the real

positive and

from

tional

irrational

imaginary
integral

numbers.
absolute,
are

For

addition
which
by
"

of

natural,

or

mbers,

Newton
"

and
the

Cauchy

often

rmed

merely laws

'

numbers, hold
true,

associative

and

commutativ

that

is,

eir

multiplication and
distributive

obeys laws,

the
so

associative,
that

commutative,

these

direct and
to

operations
division.
natural
zero

correspond,

as

inverses,
these
the

btraction

The

application necessitates

of

erations

all
the

numbers

introd

of
thus

and
the

of

negative
domain

and

fractional

mbers,

forming

great

of
are

rational
always
zero.

mbers,

within if
we

which
the of
century
one

these
case

operations
of

lid,

except

division

by

This
the

extension
sixteenth

the

number-system

showed

itself
negative

in

the

introduction

of

antities.
negative
venture,

Vieta

distinguished
But
to

aflSrmative
Descartes the
was

(positive)
the letter

quantities.
in
his geometry,

first
for

use

same

th
The

positive

and

negative

quantities.
been

irrational

had

incorporated

by

Euclid
basis,

to

the

mathematical

system

upon

geometric

tao

BISTORT

or

MATBUfATICS.

it

was

not

nndl

the most

modem

times*

that
was

purely

arithmetic through

theory
the

of irrational numbers of Weierstrass,

produced G.

researches

Dedekind,

Cantor,

and

Heine.

Weierstrass whole number.

proceedsf
A the

front

the

concept

of

the of
a

numerical
same

quantity kind
; a

consists

series of

of objects
more

number

is therefore

nothing of
one

than and
we one,

the

"

combined By
means

representation
of subtraction and certain fract'^onal numbers for example

and and

one

etc."t
at

division
Among if referred

arrive

negative
are

numbers. which,
to

the latter there

to
one

particular consist

system,

our

decimal

system, but
by

of

an

infinite ber numcan

of elements,

transformation the combination 0.1333..

be made of
a

equal to others arising from

number numbers lUil it can
an

finite
These

of elements
are

(e. g.,

.=.j^).
interpretation. formed known from number of
a

capable

of still another that ever;

be proved

infinite number
which contains possesses

of elements
a

species, of those whether When by

a

and

known v"iy

finite number definite meaning,

or

elrmrnls.

it is eatable
number

of actual
can

ex|"ession
only

oot.

of this kind
of

be represented

the way,

infinite aumbor
it is
an

its elements,

and

in

do

other

imtiv^nal

number.
aad

lV".Wk"Kaj "ininjj:*s ali positive

oegative,

in-

ICwAM-toi

Mw^*,^

mm.

*-..*

gral

and

fractional
a

numbers,
or

according
body

to

their

magnitude,

in
JR.

system

in

of
a,

numbers

{Zahlen
this
system

rper),
the

given
classes,

number,
Ai

divides

to

two

and
so

A^y

each

containing number
a in

infini
Ai

many

numbers,
every

that

every

is
the

ss

than

number

in
Ai

A^. the

Then least

is

either These

eatest

number

in

or

in
a

A^.

ration

numbers with

can

be

put

into
of
a

one-to-one

correspondence

the

points straight
than that
possess

straight
contains

line.

It

is

en

evident
of

that other

this

line
those is, the the
same

an

infinite

mber

points

which
system

correspond

rational

numbers,

of

rational
as

mbers

does

not

continuity
only
to

the

raight

line,
new

continuity
numbers.

possible According

by

the

duction introthe

of of
:

Dedekind
the

ence

continuity
all the such
of
every

is

contained
of
a

in

following
are

iom
two

"If

points
that

straight

line
the

divided

to

classes

every

point
the

of

first
then this

class there

es

to

the
one

left

point
only
two
one

of

second,
effects

ists

point all points line

and
into

which

sion divi-

of

classes, parts."

this With

separation
this
assumption

of

straight
it becomes

into

two

possible
number,
as,

to

create

irrational
Schniit

numbers.
or

rational with

produces
to

section characteristic
or

^i|-^j),

respect

A\

and is

A^^

with
a

the

property
a

that
a.

there
To

in

A\

greatest,

in

least

number,
of the

every

one

of
are

the
not

infinitely

ny

points

straight

line

which

covered

ot

cut

by

rational
section
one

number,

there and
one

corresponds
each
one

one

nd

only

one

{Ai\A^),
and
only

of
number
^

these

ections
In

defines

irrational

consequence
domain
to

of of
be

these

distinctions

'

'

the

sjrstem

constitutes by

organized
more

all

real than then

numbers that
a

of
the

one

dimension;
laws
is, the

thi

is

meant

said
7,

following

govern number

I.

If

"

fi, and
the

j9 "
numbers
two

is also

"

y ;

that

lies

between

a,

y.

II.

If

a,

are

distinct

numbers,

then

there

are

infinitely

any

distinct
III.

numbers
a

which number,

lie

between
then

and

y.

If

is

definite
A^

all

numbers
which

of
contains

the

sj^tem

fall

into

two

classes,

and the

A^,

each class
A^

of

infinitely

any

distinct

numbers;

first

A^

contains

all all

numbers

which
are

are

^a;
)"
a

the the

second
number the
a

class itself

contains

numbers
indifferently

hich
either

can

be

assigned
it is
then least ^

the

first

or

second

class

and
class,

respectively
of
the

ither

the

greatest

number
case,

of

the

first

or

the

second

In
A^

every

the
is

separation
that
every

of

the

system

into

the

two

lasses
less

and

z^,

such

number second

of
class
a.

the
A^,

first
we

class

A^

than

every

number

of

the

and

affirm

hat

this
IV.

separation If
A^^

is effected
^

by
all
real

the

number
is

the
A^,

system

of

numbers
a^,

separated
the class exists

into
A^

two

lasses,

such
a,

that

every

number
class
A^,

of

is les

han

every
one

number number
the
a

of
which

the

then

there

one

and

nly

by

this

separation

is

effected

(the

domain

possesses

property
to

of

continuity)."
of

According
of

the

assertion

J.

Tannery

the

fundamental

deas

Dedekind's

theory

had

already
a

appeared
statement

in

J.

Bertrand's

ext-books

of

arithmetic

and

algebra,

denied

by

Dede-

Und-t
"Dedekind, t Stole,
SMifkeit
Vorlesung^n

und
Uber

irraiionale

Zahlen,
Arithmttt'k,

1879.

allgemeine

G.

Cantor
through
a

and
the

Heine*

introduce
a

irrational
fundamental

numbers

concept

of

series.
numbers,

ch

series
Of,

consists
a^f

of
a"^^

infinitely

many

rational

ai,

.,

and

it

possesses
c,

the

operty
small,

that

for there

an

assumed
an

positive
n,

number
that

ever howthe
a^

is
the

index

so

for the
c

"""i
term

solute
any

value

of

difference
is
smaller

between
than

folio

wing
of

term

(condition
Any
two

of

convergency

the
can

series be they

of

the

tf*s).
with
or

ndamental

series
whether the in
less
;

compared
are

each

other

determine
or

equal

which

is

the

ater
a

they

thus

acquire
sense.

the A
'
*

definiteness
defined
"

number
a

the

ordinary series
is

number

fundamental number
or

is

called

series

number.
a

series

either
;

identical
in the
latter

with
case

rational it defines

ber,

not

identical

irrational
of

number. the

The

domain
all

of

series and

numbers

sists

totality
is
to

of

rational
real

irrational

bers,
only.

that In

say,
case

of
the
a

all

numbers,

and numbers

of

se be

this

domain

of

real
as

associated

with

straight

line,

G.

Cantor

shown. The

extension imaginary

of

the

number-domain
is
closely

by

the

tion addiwith

of

quantities
equations,

connected
those

solution
The

of

especially

of

the

third
century

ree.

Italian
them

algebraists

of

the

sixteenth
As

called
of

"impossible
equation,

numbers." imaginary

proper first

utions

an

quantities

ppear

in

the

writings
"real"

of
**

Albert

Girard*
as

(1629).
characteristic
the
roots

The

xpressions
for

and

imaginary"

erms

the
are

difference
due
to

in

nature

of De

of

an

quation

Descartes,

Moivre into famous

and

bert Lam-

introduced
the

imaginary by

quantities
of his

etry, trigonom-

former
the form

means

proposition given

oncerning
present

power

(cos ^
Euler.
his

/sin

-|-

^)'*, first
^

ts

by
to

J
great

Gauss"
of
use

added

fame He first

by

explaining
into

the

ature

imaginary
/for
a

quantities.

brought by

general

the

sign

l/

1
"

suggested with quantity "reduced

Euler
the

calls The

a-\-dt
term

complex
*

number
"

norm

'

a^-\-d^.

modulus

for
the

the
term

l/a*

-(-

omes

from

Argand

(1814),
which
name

form" is due for in

for

r(cos^-(-/sin^),
and
cos

equals

a-^-dt\
coefficient"
in print

Cauchy,

the
^

"direction
first

th

factor

-f~

sin

appeared

an

essay

of

Hankel's

(1861),
Gauss,
to

although
whom
complex

it

was

in
it

use

somewhat

earlier.

to

in

1799

seemed
by

simply his

advisable
in

retain

numbers,^
to

nations expla-

the

advertisement

the

second
them
a

treatise

on

biquadratic

residues
into

gained

for

triumphant

introduction
The
way

arithmetic
the
was

operations.

for

geometric prepared

representation by
the

of

complex

quantities

observations

"

Cantor,

II.,
Die

p.

7x8.

t Cantor,
Zahlen, Use
i
to

II.,

p.

734. 71.
an

f Cantor,

III.,

p.

084.

" Hankel,
I Beman.
Soc,

kompUxen

1867,

p.

"Euler's

of

Represent

Imaginary,*'

Bull.

Amer.

Math.

March,

1898,

p.

274.

ious

mathematicians
centuries, among

of
them

the

seventeenth

and

eighteenth

especially

Wallis,*

who

solving of
real

geometric
the fact that
to
a

problems when problem give

two

algebraically
certain
as

became

assumptions points "impossible"

to

give
a

solutions

of

straight
roots

e,
the

other

assumptions
of
first in
a

points
The

straight

line

perpendicular

the complex

first

satisfactory
plane
was

representation devised
the wholly by

of

ntities
1797,

Caspar

Wessel

without
treatment,

attracting

attention

it deserved.

similar

but

independent,
publication
the
year
an

was

given
not

Argand

in
even

1806.f
in

But

his
In

was

appreci

France.
Annales

1813

there

peare apofficer

in

Gergonne^s

by
the

artillery

n9ais

in

the

city

of

Metz

outlines

of

theory
can

imaginary
traced

quantities

the Argand.

main

ideas

of

which

back his
theory

to

Although later

Argand

prove im-

by

his

work,

yet

it

did

not

in

recognition It
was,

until

Cauchy
however.

entered

the
who the

lists

as

its

ampion.
of

Gauss

(1831),
tion representa-

by

his

great

reputation,

made

of
common

imaginary

quantities
of
all

in

the

"Gaussian

plane''

property

mathematicians.
general

J
complex

Gauss

and

Dirichlet
arithmetic.

introduced
The

mbers

into

primary

investigations

Hankel,

Die
DU

k"mpUxen kompUxen
ot
the

Zahlen, Zahlen,

1867,
1867,

p.

81.
8a.

t Hankel,

p.

fFor

risumi

history

of

the

geometric

representation

of

the

im-

of

Dirichlet
with
Berichte

in

regard

to

complex
of the

numbers, proof,
are

which, contained
1842,

toge

indications
der Berliner

the

Akadetnie

for

1841, through

and

1846,

received Kummer,
the

material

amplifications
Dedekind. theory

Eisenthe

stein,

and
real

Gauss,
of biquadratic the

in

opment devel-

of

residues,

introduced

complex

numbers
introduced
the

of

form
the

a-f^/,
theory numbers,
etc

and

Lejeune

Dirichlet

into
of

new

complex

numbers

notions

prime

congruences,

residue-theorems,
however,

reciprocity,
greater

the
,

propositions,
variety

showing
greater
the

complexity
in
1=0, the
way

and

and

offering
of

diflSculties
"*

of

proof.*
as

Instead
roots

equation
units,
the

"

which
"

gives

the made the

Gaussian
use

+1,

"

1,

-+"^
s^
"

Eisenstein

of

equation

lx=0

and

considered
cube

complex
root

numbers

a'\-bp
theory
^/,

{p

being

complex
the

of

unity)

the

resembling
yet

that

of

Gaussian
marked

numbers

a-f

but

possessing

certain

differences.
further,
that the of

Kummer

generalized
**
"

the
=

theory

still

using
numbers

equation

the

basis,

so

the

form

9L':=-a\A\'\where the the

ae's are

a%A%-\real
jp*

a%Ai-^
integers 1 0.

arise

and
Kummer

the

A*^

are

roots

of
the

equation
of

"

also

se

forth

concept
as are

ideal
of

numbers,
prime

that

is,

of

such

numbers

factors
there

numbers
a

and of

possess

the

property
which

that

is always
a

power

these

ideal

numbers

gives

real

number.

For

example,

re

exists
so

for

the

prime

number

/
A

no

rational
different formed

factorization from
from

thdLtp^=A'B
but
in the
roots

(where
theory

is

^);
twenty-

of unity

numbers

third

of
the

there

are

prime
above.

numbers

/
case

which

satisfy is
the

condition
of
are

named
two

In

p
the

product
powers
-A In

ideal

numbers,
A

of and

ch
so

third
=-4

the

real

numbers

that/*

the the

later
roots

development

given

Dedekind

the
with

units

are

of

any

irreducible
In
the that
as

ation of
to

integral
x^

numerical
"

coefficients.
1

the

equation the
p

x-}-

=0,
to

^(1
be

t'V^,

say,

of

Eisenstein,

is

regarded

tegr in-

In

tracing

out

the

nature

of
and

complex
have

numbers,

Grassmann,

Hamilton,

Sche"9er

arrived
materially

peculiar

discoveries.
the

Grassmann,
theory
on

who

also

developed

of

determinants,

gated investi-

in

his the In

treatise
addition
like

directional
and

calculus of

(Ausdehcomplex

gslehre)

multiplication Hamilton

bers.
of

manner,

originated

the

culus

quaternions,
especial
by

method in

of England

calculation
and America

regarde

with
justified
to

favor

its
theory

relatively
of
curvature,

simple
and

applicability
to

to

erics,

the

mechanics.

The

complete

double

title*
in

of
the

H.

Grassmann*s
year

ef

work

which

appeared

1844,

as

nslated, Directional

is:

"The

Science

of

"Extensive

Quantities
A

Calculus

{Ausdehnungslehre),

New

Mathematical

Theory,

Set
First,

Forth

and

Elucidated
the

Applications.

Part

Containing
The
Branch by

Theory
Lineal

Lineal

Directional

Calcnlus.
A

Theory

of

Directional
Forth

Calculus,
and

New

of

Mathematics,
to

Set

Elucidated

Applications
as

the
as

Remaining

Branches
Mechanics,

of the

Mathematics, Theory favorable

well

Statics,

of

Magnetism of
that

and

Crj'stallography."
by
the
he

The Gauss,
book

criticisms discovered

this

wonderful

work
of

who
partly

**the paths half

tendencies which

coincided
been by MObius

with

the

upon

had

himself
and
congenial
not
to

travelling
who

for

century,"

by

Grunert,
"a

recognised
respect

in

Grassmann

spirit

with

mathematics,

though

philosophy/'
his
a
"

and

who
work,

congratulated
not

Grassmann
to
secure

upon

excellent

were

able
as

for

it

large that

circle

of

readers.

As

late

1853

MObius

stated in
the

""Bretschneider who
had
assured

as

the

only
he

mathematician

Gotha

him

that Grassmann

had

read
received

Ausdehnungslehre

through.*'

the where

suggestion
A^

for
C,

his

rese

from

geometry,

B,

being With
the

points
this

of

straight
the
as

line,

AjB

BC=AC*

he

combined

propositions product
products of
two

which

regard

parallelo thus
introducing

gram

the
new

adjacent
which
as

sides,

for
so

the

ordinary
is
no

rules

multiplication
factors,

hold

long

there

permutation change

of

this

latter

case

requiring

the

Grassmann,

Dt'e

Ausdehnung^sUkre

gns.

More
as

exhaustive
the
the
sum

researches several

led

Grassmann

to

gard

of

points

their
the

center

of

avity,

as

product
them,

of
as

two

points
product
as

finite
three

line-

gment
area

between

the

of

points
of

of
the

their

triangle,
of

and

the

product Through Mdbius,

two

four
the

ints of

volume
the led

their

pyramid.
Calcul

udy

Barycentrischer

of

mann Grasslinethe
only

was

still

further.

The

product
was

of

gments

which

form

parallelogram

called

xternal
a

product"
of

(the
the

factors

can

be
one

permuted

change
the

sign),

product

of of

line-segment

perpendicular the ''internal

projection
*'

another

upon
can

it
here

rmed

product
change of

(the
sign).
led

factors

permuted

without
exponential
system,
to

The
to

introduction

of of

the

quantity of

the

ment enlargea

the

which
in

Grassmann
Archiv time, in 1844,

permitted

ef

survey

appear

Grunerfs the of

(1845).*
a

Hamiltonf
to

gave
Academy

for

first
Dublin his
1853,

communication the
values
Lectures

the

in theory.
the point

y,

ky

so

characteristic
appeared From
P

of
in

The
Elements

Quaternions
in
to

ternio of Quaa

1866. the

fixed
the

let

line

be

wn

point
Now

having

rectangular

nates co-ordicoefficients

or,

7,

z.

if /,
the

jy

represent

fixed

nit

distances

on

axes),

then

Translated

by

Beman,
der

Analyst^

x88i,

pp.

96,

114.

t Unverzagt,
1876.

Theorie

goniometrischen

und

longimetrischen

Quater-

en^

V=ix^-jy^^k%
a

is

vector,

and
or

this

additively
w

joined
the

to

the

"pure

quantity"

"scalar"

produces

quaternion

Q
addition
of

w-\-iX'\-jy-\-H,
quaternions follows

The

two

from

the

usual

formula

e+^="r+"f'+/(jp+o+y(jK+y)+^(s+oin
the
case

But

of

multiplication
1, k
"

we

must

place
ki'=

fl

=r/'

=r

""'

i=Jk
" "

kj,
"
"

tJ^,

t/="Jt,

that
=

we

obtain
"

Q'Q^

WW*

xx'

"

yjf

"

%i^

i{wx'

+
+ -f-

xw'

+
+
On
first this
work,
same

J (^y
k {wz*

y^'
zw'

-^ y^ '^' +

"

5/)
"

"*"'
-}- xy*
"

yx*^

subject
Ueber
die the

Scheffler

published
der Arithmetik

in

1846

his

Verhdltnisse Situationscalculy For

zur

Geometrie^

in

1852

and him
*

in

1880

th
r

Polydimensionalen

Grossen.
is represented

the

vector

three

dimensions

by

"-^**''^-

A^,
01/"

or

r"

jpH-;'!/"

T
where

"i'l/^n^,
and in
the

or

x-\-yi-\-Z'i'i\
turning
xz.

/=="|/^^n^
angle

ii

\/-i-l

re

factors

of

an

of the

90"

plane

of

and

In

Scheffler's
hold
true

theory

distributive that

law

does
to

not

always
is

for

multiplication,
to

is

say,

a(^d-\- c)

not

always
as

equivalent
to

ab-\of
the

ac.

Investigations

the

extent

domain

ich

with

certain

assumptions
of of

the
are

laws

of

the

mentar ele-

operations
the

arithmetic
a

valid
logic* besides

have
To

led
this

establishment

calculus

of

ss

of

investigations
Farmenlehre

there

belong, by Boole,

Grassand

's

(1872),
the

notes

Cay

ley

Ellis,

in

particular

works

of

SchrOder,

and

arles
A

Peirce.
minor portion arithmetic,
of
the

modern
concerns

theory the
up
to

of

numbers
of

higher

which of
forms,

theories
of

gruences

and
The

is

made

continued
of

ctions. fractions,

algorism

leading

the

formation

which
measure

is

also

used
of
two

in

calculating

the
reaches

atest
to

common

numbers,

ck

the

time

oi
in

Euclid.

The

combination
fraction

of

the

rtial

quotients

continued
the
year

originated the
failed
to

Cataldi,f
of
square

who

in

1613

approximated
but
new

lue

roots

by

this

method,

amine Daniel

closely

the

properties
was

of
the

the
to

fractions.

Schwenter

first

make

any

material

contribution
of
to

(1625)
continued
reduction

towards
fractions.

determining
He

the

nvergents

devoted

his large for

tention

the

of the

fractions

involving
in
use

mbers,

and the
also

determined

rules

now

calculat
and

successive labored

convergents.

Huygens
the
a

llis
the

in

this

field,

latter

discovering

general
combines

rule,
the

together
terms

with the

demonstration,

ich

of

convergents

Schroder,

Der

Operaiiouskrets

des

LogikcalcuU,

the

following

manner

Pn
__

^nPnr^

^n/it-1

he

theory

of

continued
in
the

fractions

received
century

its greatest with

Euler,*

evelopment

eighteenth
name

ho

introduced
term

the

fractio
has

continua

(the
since

man Ger-

Kettenbruch the

been

used

only

the

eginning
attention
to

of

nineteenth
to

century).
the reduction

He

devoted

is

chiefly
the
form

of

continued and

fractions

of
way

infinite
was

products
led
to

series,

and

doubtless
the
a

in

this

the

attempt

give

convergents general
to

independent
law

form,

that it

is

to

cove dis-

by

means

of

which
convergent

would without Euler

be

possible

calculate the in

any

required
ones.

first

obtaining
not

preceding discovering

Although
a

did

succeed
of

such

law,

he

created
did
in

an

algorism
him

some

value.
nearer

This,
the

however,

not

bring
the

essentially

goal

because,
to

spite
use

of

example

of

Cramer,
thus
to

he

neglected

make

of

determinants
the

and
pure

identify of

himself

the

more

closely

with
latter

theory view
the

combinations.
was

From

this

point

of

problem

attacked and of only Rothe.

Hindenburg
those
alone
;

and
who
know

his

pupils
from

Burckhardt
the

Still,

proceed

theory

tions combinafrom
one

continued
of

fractions

side

the

method

independent

presentation

allows

calculation forward

of
as

the
well

desired
as

convergent
to

from

both

des,

backward,
has has

the

practical

lue

of Only

which

Dirichlet

testified.
the

in
been

modern employed symbol,

times
in

calculus together
impulse

of

nants determia

this
the

field,
first

with
in

mbinatory dates

and the

this Ramus

di-

ction

from

Danish

mathematician
were

855).
Heine,

Similar
MObius,

investigations

begun,

however,
to

and

S.

Gunther,
fractional
infinite
before

leading

the

rmation

of

"continued

determinants.*'
frac

irrationality
*

of

certain

continued
this
of

ns

had

been Gauss,

investigated
the

by
two

Legendre,

, in

like
the

gave

quotient

power

series

form

of
of

continued

fraction.

By
it
can

means

of
shown

application

continued
^

fractions

be

t
"*

the

quantities be

(for

rational

values Legendre,

of

x\

e,

x,

cannot

rational
very
recent

(Lambert,
times

Stern).
transcendental

was

not

until of F.
theory

that by

the

nature

was

established

Hermite,

and

t
In

of

by

Lindemann.

the

of

numbers

strictly
the
exponents

speaking,
of

quite
numbers

ficult
were

problems

concerning
by

properties of that

solved

the

first

study,

lid

Diophantus.

Any
long

'and
impossible,
however,
as

considerable
as

advance had

investigations

be

conducted and
almost

without exclusively

an

adequate

numerical aid of
an

notation,

with

the

algebra

Treutlein.

just

developing time
to

under

the

guise

of

geometry.

Until

the

of
be

Vieta

and
in

Bachet
the problems Prcbihmes

there theory in

is

no

essential

va ad
The

noted
many

of
this

numbers. field,

ormer

solved
gave

and
diUctabUs

th

atter

in

his

work

plaisants
indeterminate
the first

et

satisfactory the

treatment

of

equations
stones

of

first

degree.
a

Still
theory

later

for by

th

foundation
who works

of

of

numbers

were

laid

Fer-

maty

had
as

carefully

studied by

Diophantus
Bachet The he

and

into

whose

elaborated

incorporated

valuable

additional
which
most

propositions.
can

great
to

mass

propositions the

be

traced

back

him

he

gave

for

part

without
statement

demonstration,

as

for

exam

the

following prime

"Every of
1
two

number
a

of prime time prime

2"*,
every

the

form

4"-f-l
of
forms the
j^

is

th

sum

squares;
at

number the three number

one

form

8"

hsts

-f-

the 2s*;

same

-(-

"

^-t-2"*,
3

jf^
"

every

of

the
form

form

8"-f

appears
as

as

^
22:'."

-f

of

the number

8"-tcan

appears

^
the

"

Further, three

"Any

formed

by

addition
etc."

of

cubes,

of

four

squares,

of

five

fifth

powers,

Fermat

proved

that
for

the

area

of
a

Pythagorean

right-angled
3,
4,

triangle,
and
5,
cannot

example

triangle
He

with
was

th

sides

be

square.

als
ax^

the

first

to

obtain
a

the

solution
a

of

the
at

equation

1=^*,

where

is

not

square;

all

events,

brought

this

problem

to

the

attention

of

English

ered
of

solution
Many

which of

found Fermat's higher

that

its

way

into

the

ks "the

Wallis. finest

theorems

belong

propositions
the

of

mathematics,'**
they
can

possess by

peculiarity
but

easily

be

covered

induction, difficult

that

their only

demonstrations
to

extremely

and It
that

yield

the

most

rching
higher

investigation.

is

just

this

which which
not

imparts
made

arithmetic

magic

charm

it

favorite

with

the

early

geometers,
in

to

speak it
far

of

inexhaustible

treasure-house branches
Euler

which

exceed

all
After

other

of
was

pure

mathematics. first again

of
the
to

Fermat,

the
in

attempt

serious

investigations
owe,

the

theory

numbers.

him

we

among of
the

other
chess

things,

first

tific scien-

solution
that
the

board
from

problem,
a

which
square,

requir

knight,

starting

certain

ll

in

turn

occupy

all
that

sixty-four
the
sum

squares,

and

the

ther

proposition

of
also

four

squares the
sum

multiplied

into

another He

similar also of

sum

gives

of

squares.

discovered Fermat,
equations
on

demonstrations
as

of
general

ious

propositions
of
two

as

well

the

ution

indeterminate
unknowns
is

of hypothesis

the

second
that
a

gree de-

with
solution
other

the
he

cial spe-

known,

and

treated for

large

number

indeterminate
ingenious

equations,
solutions.
also

which

he

cover dis-

numerous

Euler

(as

well

as

Krafft)

occupied

himself

with

amicable
by

numbers.*

These
as

numbers, being known

by the again this
law

which
to

are

mentioned

lamblichus
and

the

Pythagoreans, ibn
law

which suggested

are

mentioned
Descartes

the

Arab

Tabit
a

Kurra,

to

discovery
by Van

of

of

formation, Euler

which

is

given
to

Schooten.
from
must

made
proposition
the
of of
same

additions
that
number numbers
equation the

and
num

duc de-

it the
possess

two

amicable
of

bers

prime depends

factors.

The

formation the
upon

amicable the of

either
c^=0,
ax^

upon

solution
the

xy-\-ax-^fy+
form

factoring

quadratic

dxy

-j-

Following interesting

Euler,

Lagrange
in
the
can

was

able

to

publish
numbers.

many

results
any
or

theory

of

He

showed
sum

that

number

be

represented tha"t
can
a

as

the
an

of

four

less

squares,

and

real

root

of

algebraic into
to
a

equation continued
that the

of

any

degree
He
Ay^

be

converte

fraction.
equation
he
x*

was

also
l

the

first

prove

"

is

always

soluble the

in

integers,

and

discovered

general

method prime

for

derivation

of

propositions

concerning

numbers.

Now

the
forward

development
in
two

of mighty
treatise which

the leaps

theory
to

of
Legendre

numbers

bounds

and
Essai few
sur

Gauss.
thiorie

The
des

valuable
nomhres^

of

the

former,
but

la

appeared
arithmeticae^

years

before

Gauss's

DisquisUiones

contains published
up

an

epitome

of

all

results

that

had

been

at

time,

besides being

certain
the
it,

original law
the of

investigations,

the

st

brilliant Gauss
de

quadratic

reciprocity,

as

called
residuis
two

Theorema
This
and
unequal

fundamentale
law

in

ctrina

quadratis.

gives

relationsh

between

odd

prime
words

numbers
:

can

be

enunciated

in

the

following

"Let

(^)
I
"

1 be

the

remainder

which

is

left

after

divid-

'

by ", in^^

and

let

"

J be

the

remainder
are

left

\m]
by
m.

after

viding

tT^
"

These

remainders
the

always
m

or

1.

Whatever

-l
n

then

prime

numbers

may

be,

we

always both

obtain
of

f
"

|
4x

f
=
"

J in
But

case

the

mbers

are

not

the

form

3.

if both

of

the

form

Ax

3,

-f
two
cases
are

then

we

have

f
"

(
"
"

J.
"

These

contained

in

the

formula

chet

having
equation

exhausted of which
the first

the

theory with

of

the
two

nate indetermiunknowns^

degree

equation
x'^a

in

Gauss's
identical

notation

appears

in

the

(mod
began Fermat

^),
the
was

with
of of

"

=j^-f
congruence

",

mathematicians

study
aware

the
a

x^^m

od

").
complete

few

special
what
or

cases

of

e
1,

solution
3,

he

knew

under

conditions
non-residues

2,

zh

are

quadratic number
das
m*

residues

the

odd

prime

For

the

cases

"

and
Schlif'

*Baumgart,

ReciprocitfttsgeteU,"

in

the
5

demonstrations

originate
It
was

with Euler, the

terms,

Euler,
too,

for

"

nd

it

with

Lagrange.

who

gave

he

propositions
in
a

which the
most

embrace
general

law

of

quadratic

eciprocity
not

although
of it.

he

id

offer

complete of

demonstration
Legendre

The

amous

demonstration
des

(in
as

Essai

sur

Morie

nombreSy 1796

1798)
Gauss
the

is

also,

yet,

incomplete.
knowing

the
Euler's
a

year

submitted,

without

work,

first

unquestionable
possesses
at

tion demonstrathe

"

demonstration

which that
later.
In

same

ime

the
were

peculiarity used
no

it

embraces the
proofs
course

the of
for

principles
time

hich

Gauss

dduced

less

than

eight

this the

important

aw,

of

which

the
almost

sixth

(chronologically
by

last)

was

implified

simultaneously Eisenstein

Cauchy,
in

Jacobi,
ular partic-

nd

Eisenstein.
that
are

demonstrated
the
cubic
a

the all

quadratic,

and

the
source.

biquadratic
In

laws

derived

from

common

the

ear

1861

Kummer

worked
two

out

with

the for

aid
the of

of
law

the

theory

of

forms

demonstrations
were

quadratic

reciprocity,

which "th-power demonstrations

had

capable

generaliza

for

the

residue.
of

Up
the
;

to

1890

twenty-five

distinct

law

quadratic of

reciprocity
induction
the In

been

published
of

they

make
of

se

and
theory

reduction,

the and

partition
of the

th

perigon, forms.

of

of
to

functions,
the
been

theory

of

addition
have

eight

demonstrations
there

Gauss

which

already

mentioned,

are

Jacobi,
Zeller,

Cauchy,

Liouville,

Lebesgue,

Genocchi, Schering,

ern,

Kronecker,

Bouniakowsky,
Pepin. the

tersen,

Voigt,

Busche,
is

and
to

However

much

due

co-operation
yet
to

of

ematician math-

of
belongs
Disquisitiones

different
the

periods, merit
of of

Gauss

unquestionably

having
1801

contributed
the
most

in

arithmeticae

tant importheory
have

part

of

the

elementary

development in

of

the

numbers.
root

Later

investigations

this

branch

eir

in

the

soil

which
were

Gauss
not

prepared.
pursued elliptic
of

Of

such the

vestigations,
of mentioned
number

which
the the of and

until

after

troduction be
the

theory

of

transcendents,

propositions

Jacobi
a

in

regard into
the

decompositions
eight
squares,*

of
as

number
as

o,

four,

six,

well the

vest in-

of

Dirichlet

in

regard

to

equation

His

work

in

the

theory He
was

of the

numbers first German the

and
to

was

Dirichlet's
lectures

vorite the

pursuit, theory
to

f
of

deliver

numbers
of

in

university
Disquisitiones

and

able

boast Gauss
a

having
transparent

made

ithmeticae

of
which
was

intelligible
to

"

sk

in

Legendre,

according

his

own

owal,

unsuccessful.

Dirichlet's
de

earliest

treatise,

Mdmoire

sur

IHrnpossicinquieme

liti

quelques

Equations
to

indSterminis

du

gri

(submitted
Dirichlet,
"

the

French

Academy

in

1825),

Gedftchtnisrede

auf

Jacobi,"

CrttU's

Journal,

Bd.

52.

eals

with

the

proposition,
that

stated
sum

by
two

Fermat

without having

demonstration,
same

''the
can
never

of
be

powers
to
a

he

exponent exponent, than this the

equal

power
a

the

same

when
"

these

powers

are

of

degree had

higher

second.
for the integral

Euler the
sum

and
third of and
two

Legendre

proved
;

proposition
discusses
that

fourth

ers powpowers
cannot

Dirichlet
proves

fifth

and

for
The

numbers
of the

x^

-fj^*
work of

be

equal
intimate

to

as*.

importance
to

this

lies
forms in

in

its

relationship

theory

of

higher
of

degree. the
theory

Dirichlet's
of
numbers

further

contributions elegant Gauss

the

field

contain of the law

strations demonin regard

of biquadratic
were

certain

propositions
and

to

residues
published
as

of

reciprocity,

which

in

1825

in
the

the

G5ttingen

Ge-

lehrte

Anteigen^

well

as

with

determination
form

the

class-number His

of

the

quadratic

for

any

given
to

determinant.
of numbers

''applications
are as

of

analysis
in their

the

theory

noteworthy
analysis
to

way

as

Descartes's

applications
like
the

of

geometry.
be

They

would
a

also,
new

analytic

geometry,

recognized

as

mathematical
not
to

discipline
portions
problems

if they
only

had
the

been
theory

exten

certain

of

number, The laws

to

but
numerous

to

all

its

uniformly.*
into the properties
cen-

investigations
had led

and

of the

numbers

in
in

the regard

seventeenth
to

turyt

study

of

numbers

their

divis-

*Kummer,

"

Gedftchtnisrede

auf

Lejenne-Dirichlet."

Beri,

Abk.

i860

For

almost remained

two

thousand
only
year

years

Eratosthenes's

ieve"

the In

method
1657
Franz

of
van

determining Schooten
ten

ime

numbers.
a

the

blished

table

of
years

prime
later

numbers

up

to

sand. thou-

Eleven
least

Pell
the

constructed
exception of

table
2 and these

of

prime numbers remained

factors
to

(with
1 00

5)

all

up

000.

In

Germany in
table

bles

almost
published
up
to

unknown, independently
100
000,
an

and
a

the
of

year

28

Poetius for

tors fac-

numbers

example
table of
1746

which

repeatedly

imitated.
to

Kriiger's
100
to

clud in-

numbers
which is

up

000

that

of

Lambert

of

70,

the

first

show

the

arrangement numbers up
to

ed

in
000.

more

modern

tables,
six tables

includes

Of
the
years

the

which
that

were

prepared
Felkel
is

twee beinteresting

1770

and

1811

of
;

because
Kaiserlich

of

its

singular

fate
Aerarium

its in

publication
Vienna

by

konigliches

was

mpleted

as

far then

as

408

000

the

remainder

of

the

nuscript
was

was

withheld manufacturing
the

and

the

portion cartridges
century.

already for In
the

inted

used
war

for

st

Turkish
1817
diviseurs

of

eighteenth in
les

the
Table

ar

there

appeared
ious

Paris

Burckhardt's
du
7*^,
2*,

pour
1840

nombres

j*

million.
to

tween

and

1850

Crelle
factors

communicated
for

the

rlin

Academy

tables
million,

of

the
were

fourth,

fifth,

sixth

which,
is
known

however,

not

published. gen-

Dase,

who

for

his

arithmetic

142

HISTORY

OF

MATHEMATICS.

the
work

tenth by

million, Gauss,
Since but
1877 tables
two

having
he
the

been in

designated
1861

for

that

died

before

its pleti comhas been

British

Association

having

these

continued computers. fourth

by

Glaisher

with

the

assistance

of

The

publication
was

tables

of factors

for the

million

completed

in 1879. In tables
the
year
use

1856

K.
theory

G.

Reuschle
of numbers,

published
having

his been

for

in
to

the

encouraged

undertake They
10"
"

the

work

by

his correspondence
resolution factors, for numbers up

with
numbers
/I
=

Jacobi.
of and
a^
"

contain
1 into

the prime

the

form

242,

numerous

similar
a

results

the

form

1, and

table

of the

resolution

of prime

numbers

6"
^"

+ 1 into the forms

+ 3^
in
the

/
as

and

4p=C*
of

27Af^, residues

they

occur

treatment

cubic

and

in the Of

partition
greatest

of the

perigon.
for the
as

importance
as

advance

of

the
was

enc sci

of

algebra of

well

that

of

geometry

the

development
of
as

the

theories
of

of

symmetric
of

functions,

elimination,
they
were

and

invariants through
theory

algebraic

forms,

perfected
to

the

application

of projec

geometry

the

of equations.*

The

first formulas of

for calculating

symmetric of
an

tions func-

(sums
equation

powers)

of

the

roots
are

algebraic
to

in terms

of its coefficients

due

Girard.

A.. BriW,

Anirj'iisretie

in

Til6tn"-en,

1S84.

Manuscript.

ring
theorem,

also

worked which

in

this

field

(1770)

and

developed
discovered function

Gauss

independently
any

816),
be

by

means

of
in

which
terms

symmetric the elementary

expressed
functions.

of

symmetric

This
by Cay
in ley

is

accomplished and
Sylvester,
to

directly
through weight

by
laws

thod
to

devised
the

former

regard

the tables

of
symmetric
were

sym

ric

functions.

The
to

oldest
the in tenth his these

of

nctions
by

(extending
Meyer-

degree)
of

lished pub-

Hirsch

collection

problems which
was

1809).

The

calculation
was

of

functions,
by

ry

tedious,

essentially

simplified

Cay

ley

and

ioschi.
The
two
one

resultant

of
same,

equations
of
two

with
forms with

unknown,
two

what

is

the

geneous homoby

variables,

was

given

by

Euler
the

(1748)
merit
of
to

and having the

zout

(1764).
the
of the
a

To

both

belongs the

duced

determination
system
name

of
linear

resultant B^zout

soluti

of

equations.*

introduced

"resultant"

(De
the
also

Morgan
degree

suggested of
this function.

'eliminant")
Lagrange

and

determined
Poisson the

and
;

investigated
the

tions quescondition

of
common

elimination

former
the

stated latter

multiple-roots;
of

furnished
of

thod
values

forming
the

symmetric
roots

functions

the

mon com-

of

of
of

sjrstem
theory

of

equations.

The

rther

advancement

the

of

elimination Cay
ley,

was

de

by

Jacobi,

Hesse,

Sylvester,

Cauchy,

rioschi,

and
the

Gordan.
resultant

Jacobi's
as
a

memoir,*

which
threw

rese rep-

determinant,

light

the

same

time
the

on

the

aggregate

of
the

coefficients in

lon be-

to

resultant

and
product

on

equations
another
as

which

he

resultant

and
are

its

by

partially of

arbi

function

represented
This

functions
gave

the

wo

given

forms.
to

notion
numerous

of

Jacobi
important
two

Hesse

he

impulse

pursue
on

tions, investiga-

especially he
again

the

resultant

of

equations, Sylvester's
the

hich

developed

in then from in

1843
1844,

after
**on

ialytic

method

(1840);
variables

nation elimi-

of
two

the

three shortly

algebraic after
"on

equations

ith

variables"; of these
plane

and
curves."

the the
form

points
main of

inflexion

Hesse

placed in
the the

alue

of

investigations,
but from
in
the

not

the

inal
the

equation,
same

insight

into

composition

known-

functions.

Thus
three

he

came

pon

the forms,

functional

determinant
further the

of

quadratic
of the whose

prime

and

upon

determinant

the

second

partial and
upon

differential its Hessian

coefficients

of

cubic

form,

determinant, the points

are

metr geo-

interpretation in the

furnished
the

interesting inflexion
its

result

that

general of with the

a

case

of
by

of

plane

curve

"th
curve

order
of
known

given

complete

intersection

order for by

3("
curves

"

2).
of

This
the To

re su

was

previously having
due

third
Hesse

order,

been the

discovered

PJiicker.

is

further

first

important

example

of

the

re

oval

of
are

factors
foreign

from
to

resultants,

in

so

far
to

as

these solved.

ctors

the

real

problem theory
free of

be

sse, 1849

always

extending

the

elimination,
all
superfluous

succeeded factors,
the

in

producing, long-sought the

double

from'

equation
tangents

of

the
a
curve

14th

gree

upon
4th order method

which
depend.

of

of

The the gives

orders

of

elimination
published

used
by functions in

by

Hesse^

in in

1843
1840

dialytic the

method
resultant
as

Sylvester
of the
of the

of

two

nttb

and

determinant,
into
It
n

which those
also,

coe"Ecients
the
in

the
Pi

first

enter

rows,

and

second
1851
function

to

rows.

was

Sylvester
"discriminant"

who

trod in-

the
expresses

name

for
for the

the

ich

the of
an

condition
algebraic

existence
;

of
to

equal

roots

equation

up

this

me,

it

was

customary,

after

the function."

example

of

Gauss,

say

"determinant
notion of
to

of of

the

The

invariance,
to-day, who the

so

important dates

for back
in

all

anches

mathematics

its

ginnings
the

Lagrangef,
of unaltered This

in

1773
form

remarked
ax*

discriminant
remains
X.

quadratic
by
the

+
of

xy-\-cy^
for
by

substitution
of
the discriminant
ternary

\-\y

unchangeability
for

linear
forms,
but

transformation,
was

binary
proved in

and
by

adratic
;

completely

Gauss in

801)

that

the

discriminant
by

general

and

ery

case

remains

invariant

linear

transformation,

Boole
1845, that

(1841)
Cayley,
there properties

recognized adding
are

and
to

first
treatment

demonstrated
Boole,

the

of

ound

still
in

other

functions transformation,
and

which

possess

nvariant
to

linear

showed named of
them

ow

determine

such

functions This

"hyperdeterminants." rapidly
particularity

discovery

Cayley
of of

devel

into

the through

important

theory writings and

ants, invariCayley,

the

Aronhold,
then

Boole, through
After the
an

Sylvester, those appearance important

S

Hermite,

Brioschi,

and

of

Clebsch,
of Cayley's

Gordan, first
by

and paper, determining

others.

Aronhold the developing

same

made

contribution Tot
to
a.

invariants

and

ternary

form,

and

by

their
form.

relation
1851 by

the
there

discriminant
appeared and
a

the

From

on,

seri

of

important

articles

Cayley
large
the

Sylvester.
the
termin

The

latter

created to-day,

in

these

part
name

of

ology

of

especially
year

"invariant"
his

(1851).

In

the

1854,
states

Hermite
that
to

discovered

law

of

reciprocity,
of

which
degree
p

every
a

covariant of

invariant

and
also

order
a

of

form

the

mth

order,

corresponds
m

covariant
a

or

invariant
the

degree

and and

of Gordan

order

of

form

of

pth

order.

Clebsch

used
forms

the by
e.

abbreviation
in the

^;,
their

introduced

for

binary

Aronhold,

mental funda-

developments, the
and

g., of

in

systematic

ex te

of invariants

process

transvection already
known

in
to

forming

covariants,

Cayley

of

forming
of

elementary

covariants,

and
and

in

the

mation forin

simultaneous

invariants Gordan's
system

covariants,
theorem
the
;
on

rticular

the of
recent

combinants.
the form-

the

niteness

constitutes

most

porta im-

advance

in
a

this

theory

this
of

theorem

tes

that

there of

is

only
binary

finite
form

number
or

invariants

covariants
Gordan the

of

system

of
for has the

such

rms.

has

also

given

method and forms

formation

of the
same

complete

form-system,

carried
the

for

the

case

of

binary

of the
n

fifth

sixth
of
To

orders. complete
in
a

Hilbert

(1890)
for

showed
of

ness finite-

the

systems
to

forms

variables.*
the theory
spffice

refer for that

to

word

the

great

significance
mathematics,

of
let

of
to

ariants

other
the

branches binary forms form the

of

it

tion

theory of
;

of

forms

has

been

transferred
for equations

by
in

bsch

that

ternary

(in
of the

particular

co-ordinates)
in
a

that

the

third
order,
the

order while

finds

its representation forms

space-curve order play

a

of
great

third in

binary

the the

fourth third

part in
in

theory of

of
the

plane

curves

order, degree
the
as

and
well class

assist
as

the the

solution transformation normal

in The Bianchi,

equation

of

fourth

of
form
;

the

elliptic
that

tegral

of

first be

into

Hermite's

finally

binants of by

can

effectively and
sixth

introduced degrees. Klein,

the

transformation
results and of

of

ations

the

fifth

tions investiga-

Clebsch,
the
the

Weierstrass,

Burckhardt,
invariants
This

ve

shown

great

significance
and

of

the

theory

of

for
theory

theory been

of

hyperelliptic by

Abelian
and

functions.

further
the

used

Christoffel
by

Lipschitz
Halphen,

in

the

tation represenLie in the

of

line-element,

Sylvester, invariants

and the

of

reciprocants

or

differential

in

theory

of

dif-

"

erantial
the

equations,
theory

and
curvature

by
of various

Beltrami

in

his

di"Ferential

parameter

of proposed

surfaces. articles

Irrational

invariants

also

ave

been

in

by

Hilbert.

The

theory of

of

probabilities
and

assumed
In

form
the

under
1654,
two

the

hands
gambler,
to

Pascal

Fermat.*

year

the

Chevalier
as

de
follows

M6r6,
"In

had
how

addressed
many

inquiries dice
what is

Pascal
can
one

throws

with

hope

to

throw

double
be

six,"

and

"In

ratio
broken

should
up
at
a

the
given
was

stakes
moment?"

divided
These

if

the
two

game

questions,
the

whose
occasion which
At

solution
of
was

for
the

Pascal

very

easy,

ere

his

la3ang
by

foundation

of

new

science

named
invitation,
questions,
soon

him
Fermat

"G^om^trie
also
the turned

du

hasard."

Pascal's
to

his

attention

such

using

theory
example

combinations.
the
two

Huygens French

followed and
of chance.

the
wrote

of

mathematicians,
on

in

1656f

small
the

treatise
new

games
to

The sciences

first
was

apply

theory

economic
de
a

the pupil

"grand

pensioner"
He

Jean
made
the

Witt,
report of

the

celebrated 1671
on

of

Descartes.
of
a

in

the
the

manner

determining
table

rate

annuities
also

on

basis

of

of
on

mortality.
the
same

Hudde

published

ve in

subject
den

''Calculation
received comprehensive

chances"

{Rechnung
treatment
at

iiher

Ziifall)
of

the

hand

Jacob
eight

Bernoulli
years

his

Ars

conjectandi
of
the

(1713),
a

printed which

after
forgotten

the

death

author,

book

remained

til

Condorcet
there has

called scarcely
not

attention been
a

to

it.

Since

noulli Ber-

distinguished
some

algebraist

who

has

found

time

for

work

in

the

eory

of
the in
a

probabilities.

To

method
paper
on

of

least
this

squares

Legendre

gave

the

subject
by

which

appeared
on

in

05.*

The

first

publication
in

Gauss
he
was

the

same

bject
of

appeared
the
due

1809,
as

although early
as

in

possession

method
to

1795.
reason

The
that and

honor he
turned

is

erefore the

Gauss
in
on

for its

the

first

set

rth

method
account

present large

form

it to

actical

scale.
was

The
the of
new

apparent

spir inof

for

this

investigation

discovery

first Piazzi.

planetoid Gauss

Ceres

on

the

first by
so

January,
methods
that the

1801,
the the

calculated
body be

bit

of

this

heavenly

accurately

planetoid
the
year

could 1801
near

again position

found

towards

end The

the

given
this

by

him.

vestigations
in The
1809

connected
as

with
motus

calculation

appeare

Theoria

corporum
determination

coelestiuniy

work

contained
heavenly known
to

the

of time
of
observations.

the

sition
of

of
the

body

for besides

any

given
solution three thus

by
the

orbit, find
the

the from

fficult

problem In

orbit
the

order
closely

to

make

orbit with

determined
of
a

ree

as

as

possible

that

greater
process

mber

of

observations.

Gauss

applied

the

iscovered
to

by

him

in

1795.

The

object
serve

of
the
the
as

this

was

so

combine

observations
unknown of

which
quantities, afEect
sought.''
as

purpose
able unavoidpossible
purpose
to

determining
errors

that

observation

little
For

the

values

of

the
the

numbers
following

this

Gauss
a

gave
moment

rule*:
upon
error

"Attribute

each

rror

depending
of each possible

its
by

value,

multiply, probability
moment

the

moment

its

and

add
to

the

products.
sum

The

error

whose

equal

this
As

will

have

to

be

designated
function the

as

the

ean."

the shall

simplest
be the

arbitrary
moment

of

the

rror

which the

of

latter,
the

Gauss
1812

chose

square.
proof

Laplace the

published of of
the

in

year

detailed Elementary
are

of

correctness

Gauss's
theory
century,

method.

presentations

of
e.

combinations
g.,

found
the

in

the
great

sixteenth

Cardan,
he

but

first

work

is

due

to

Pascal.
order
to

this

uses

his

arithmetic of

triangle,

in

te de

the nth
new

number

combinations
and

of

elements produced

the

class.

Leibnitz by

Jacob

Bernoulli

much end

material of
the
a

their

investigations.
the scholars,

Towards field
was

the

eighteenth

century,

cultiva

by

number
the

of

German
of

and
the
to

there

arose

under

leadership

Hindenburg

"combinatory

school,

"f
the

whose

followers
theorem.
is

added

the
to

vel dethem

of

binomial

Superior
who

all

in

systematic

proof

Hindenburg,

separated

*Gerhardt,

Geschichte

der

Mathefnatik

in

DetUschland

lynomials
.

into
and
into

first

class
a

of

the
^x

form

+
//""

^-f

r-f
.

\'

second,
was

-j-

cx^

+
and

perfected
proofs

what
to
a

already of the

known,

gave

the

cking

number

theorems, theory

thus

earning

title
"

of

"founder

of

of

combinatory

alysis.

The

combinatory Pfaff,

school,
in

which
to

included
its

Bschenbach,
founder,
because far

Rotbe,
produced

especially
a

addition

distinguished
respect
it

varied

literature,

and
But,

commanded
in
its aims,

of

its

gant

formal
the

results.
new

stood cultivated
and

so

outside

the
by

ain

of French

and

fruitful

theories
Lagrange

especially
that
of

mathematicians

as

Laplace,

it main re-

without
at

influence
the

in

the of

further
the

development

ics, mathemat-

least

at

beginning

nineteenth

century.

In

the for by

domain
the

of
most

infinite

series,*
to

many

cases

which
were

duce

part

geometric
greater

series,

eated

Euclid,
Middle for

and

to

degree

by

Apol-

nius.

The

Ages
more

added
recent

nothing generations
branch of Mercator

essential,
to

it remained

make

portant

contributions

to

this

mathematical oped devel-

knowledge. independently
for
tan""ijp,

Saintthe
sinjr,
latter the
are

Vincent

and

series
cos^c,

for
sec^c,

log(l

jt),

Gregory

ose

cosecx.

In
treatment

the

itings

of

the

also

found,

in

the

infinite

series,

expressions
was

"convergent"
led
to

and
series, He

ivergent."

Leibnitz

infinite

rough

consideration
at

of

finite
the

arithmetic
necessity
of

series.

alized

the

same

time

examining

re

closely
This

into

the

convergence
was

and felt by

divergence Newton,
to

eries.

necessity

also
manner

who
that

sed

infinite
in

series
the

in

similar

pollonius

solution
in
as

of

algebraic
determination
to

and

geometric of
areas,

roblems,

especially

the

nd

consequently

equivalent
by

integration.
w^re

The

new

ideas by

introduced

Leibnitz

further former

eveloped
the

Jacob
of

and

John
with for the

Bernoulli.

The
terms,

ound

sums

series
rule

constant

the
of
a

ter lat

gave
into

general
an

development

tion funcwere

infinite
for

series.
convergence,

At

this

time
except

there

exact

criteria by

those

suggeste

Leibnitz
the

for

alternating

series.

During

years

immediately
treatment

following, infinite

essential

advances
made.

in

the

formal

of
on

series
and

ere

De

Moivre

wrote

recurrent

series

exhausted

almost

completely

their

essential
related

properties.

Taylor's

and

Maclaurin's

closely
an

series

appeared,

Maclaurin
theorem,
new

developing

imperfect

proof of Euler

Taylor's

giving
formulas

numerous

applications
summation.
the

and

stating
the

of

dis pla

greatest

skill himself

in

handling

of

infinite

series,

but

troubled He
series,

little
the
the

about

convergence

and

divergence. binomial

deduced

exponential

from

the

and

was

first

to

develop

ra ti

functions
multiple
the

into

series

of

sines
In

and

cosines
manner

integral

arguments.*

this

defined

coefficients

of

trigonometric

series

finite

integrals
to

without
development

applying
of This
was

these
arbitrary

important functions

rmulas

the

to

trigonometric Fourier
by

series.
whose

first

accomplished
were completed

(1822),
Riemann
to
a

investigations

and
temporary
as

Cauchy.

The

investigation
by he

brought in
so

termination
methods

Dirichlet
it
a

1829),

far

by

rigid

gave

scientif

foundation investigations
Laplace date

and
on

introduced
the

general of
into

and

complex

convergence

series.* series

om

the

developments

of Le-

variables, furnished by
the

especially
a

into

recurrent

series.
of the

ndre

valuable

extension
of

theory

series

introduction
begin
more

spherical methods
of

functions.
ment treat-

With
in

Gauss
this
as

exact

of

in

nearly
of

all the

branches

mathematics, of
convergence,

establishment
the

simplest
of the the
to

criteria
remainder,
region
was

investigation series

and of
convergence.

the

ntinuation
The Gauss

of

beyond

introduction

this

the

celebrated

ries

of

+
Euler

a-/5^

a(a+^(^+l)
l-2-y(y+l)
already

T^*"^
had

^^'

"

"

'

ich

handled

but
The
*'hypergeo

whose

great

lue

he

had

not

appreciated,
this
who

f
as

generally

accept

naming
to

of

series

metric"
the general
by

is

J.
in

F.

Pfaff,
the

proposed
of
auf

it
term

for

ries
*

which
**

quotient

any

divided
Berliner

the

Knmmer,

Gedichtnissrede

Lejeone-Dirichlet.*'

Ahhand-

en,

receding

is

function
the
same

of

the
name

index. for
linear

Euler,

following

Wallis, quotient

used
is

the

series

in

which of

hat

an

integral

function
by by

the

ndex.*

Gauss,

probably

influenced his series,

astronomical assuming

pplications, special
nearly the all

stated
values
the

that of
a,

certain

fi, y,
then

could
;

take he

the also

place
investigated

series

known the

essential this

properties
and

of
for

function

represented
an

by

series
of

gave

series

in
are

general
indebted
on

mportant Abel

criterion

convergence.

We

(1826)
of

for

important

investigations

the

continui

series.

The
of

idea
the

of

uniform
of

convergence
series
was

arose

from

the

tudy

behavior

in

the

neighborhood
almost

heir

discontinuities,
by

and and
uniformly

expressed

taneousl simulThe

Stokes
series

Seidel

(1847-1848).
when
a

atter

calls
a

convergent of

it represe
x^

diiscontinuous
terms

function
which
are

quantity
but
a

the

eparate

of

continuous,

in

the

icinity

of of
as
x

the

discontinuities
for

is of
the

such

nature

that

alues

exist

which

series

converges

lowly

desired,
of

f
the
of of

On

account

lack
1812,

of
the

immediate
period
of

appreciation
the

Gauss's
effective
be

memoir

discovery

of

criteria
to

convergence

and

divergence]!
His
meth-

may

said

begin

with

Cauchy

(1821).

*Rlemann, t Reiff,

^"nlir,
Geschichie

p. eUr

76. unendlichen RtVun^

1889,
p.

ao7.

of

investigation, series

as

well

as

the

theorems

on

fin in-

with
by

positive
Raabe,
Paucker,

terms

published
De forth
term

between Ber-

32

and

1851

Duhamel,
set

Morgan,

and,
they

Bonnet,
compare

and

special with
and
were

criteria,
lar particu-

generally of the

the
a*, if',

nth

functions

form

n(\ognY
nature

others.

iteria

of

essentially
by
Kummer

more

general

first

scovered
Dini

(1835),
Dini's

and

were

generalized

(1867).
least in
Paul

researches completely

remained
unknown.

for

me,

at

Germany,
du

Six
with
anew

ars

later

Bois-Reymond, ideas
as

starting
discovered

the

fundamental

Dini,

the

ief

results
out to
more

of

the

Italian

mathematician,

worked
them
essentially

em

thoroughly
of and
the

and

enlarged

system

convergence

and

divergence
as

teria crithe

of

the
term

first

second
series
a^

kind,
or

according quotient
a^^ia^

neral basis

of of

the

is

investigation. and in

Du

Bois-

Raymond's
aomewhat

result

were

completed

part

verified

ter

by
After

A.
the

Pringsheim.
solution

of

the
was

algebraic

equations

of
work

the
on

ird

and
structure

fourth

degrees
the
system

accomplished,
of

of be the of

algebraic Tartaglia,

equations

in

neral

could

undertaken. keystone
of of
the

Cardan,
which
degree
led
to

and

rrari

laid

bridge

from the

solution

equations
of

the

second of the before

mplete

solution

equations elapsed

third
an

and

fourth
threw

grees.

But

centuries

Abel

Vieta
evolution,

had

found
and

means

of
further

solving

equations
by

allied
Harriot

this but

was

developed
the

and

Oughtredy

without
name

making
is the
connected law of

process with

less

tiresome.* which

Harriot's

another

heorem

contains
an

formation
from

of
its

the

coefficients
the and

of

algebraic
was

equation

roots,

although

theorem
general
was

first
by

stated

in

full

by

cartes Des-

proved there

Gauss.

Since

lacking
of
to

sure

method
higher

of degree,

determining

the
was

roots

equations

of
these De

the

attempt

made
as

include

roots

within
and Van

as

arrow

limits tried
from
in

possible.

Beaune first

Schooten

to

do

this,

but

the

usable

methods
ously posthum-

date

Maclaurin

(^Algebra,
Newton
equation
general
was

published
who
fixed

1748)
an

and

(1722)

the

real

oots

of
order

algebraic
effect
the

between

given of
to
an

limits.
algebraic

In

to

solution either
of

equation,

the

effort
as

made

represent

the

given

equation degree,
a

the

product

several

equations
by

ower
to

method

further
extraction

developed
the whose method

Hudde,
root,

reduce"

through
of
even

of
to
one

square degree

equation
that
of

degree

alf

the

given

equation

this

was

used

Newton,

but

he

accomplished

little

in

this

tion. direc-

Leibnitz
to

had
make In
one

exerted advances of his

himself
in
letters the he

as

strenuously
of

as

Newton

theory
states

algebraic he

equations.

that

has

en

engaged

for

long

time
equation

in

attempting of
and any

to

find
by

irrational
the
x^^^^A^

roots

of

an

degree,

iminating
form
manner

intermediate
that

terms

reducing
that

it to

and
complete

he

was

persuaded
of

in

is

the

solution
could the is Acta

the

general

equation

of

the

nth.

degree

be
general found

effected.
equation
as

This
dates

method
back

transformation

of
and

Tschimhausen

"Nova
of
the

methodus
year

."

in
the

the

Leipziger

eruditorum

1683.

equation

chimhausen

places

elimination
an

of

from the

these

two

equations
in y^
can

gives in

kewise

equation

of

nth
a,

degree

which
so

undetermined
as

coefiBcients the

fi, y,
certain
some

be

ken

to

give for

equation
to

in y
make of
^, the

special
of of the
x

characterist
terms

example, the

nish.

From By

values

values

are

determi

this 4th

method
degrees
the

the

solution
made
to

of depend
degrees

equations
respectively
; but

the

3rd

and

is 2nd
to

upon

those

of

and

3rd

the 5th

lication

of

this
to
one

method of
the

the
24th

equation
degree,

of upon

the

ree,

leads
the

whose,

ution

complete

solution

of

the

equation

of

the

degree
Afterwards,

depends. toward the

the

also,

end

of

seventeenth

Rolle,

and

Leseur

made proofs
Euler*

unsatisfactory

attempts

advance
fourth
1749.

with

rigorous

beyond took
the
to

the

equation
in

the

degree.

problem by
of but

hand

in

He

attempted

first

resolve

means

undetermined
two

coefficients

the
of
more

equation
",

degree
the

into

equations
by him
were

each
not

degree

results
those

btained his

satisfactory
an

than
of

predecessors,
by this
treatment

in

that

equation
an

the of
the

eighth 70th ever, howproof

egree

led

to

equation
not

egree.

These since

investigations
them
that
even

were

valueless,

through

Eulerf
rational
can

discovered
integral

the

the

theorem

every

algebraic

unction

of
the
a

degree
degree. the date

be

resolved

into

r"al

tors fac-

of In

second of

work

1762
the

Euler
degree

attacked
directly.

the

solu

of
from

the

equation
of

of the
the

nth

ing Judghe

equations
that
a

2nd

and

3rd

degrees,
of

surmise

root

of

general

equation

the
of

nth

egree

might

be with
of

composed subordinate

of

(n

"

1) radicals
roots.

the

th

degree

square

He

formed

xpressions
of

this

sort

and

sought

through

son compari-

coefficients
presented

to

accomplish

his
to

purpose. the fourth

This

ethod

no

difficulty
of
the
to

up

degre

but

in
to

the

case

fifth

degree

Euler
cases.

was

ompelled he

limit
obtained

himself from
72jrr" +

particular

For

xample,

jpi

40:r"

"

50jir +

98

he

following

value

*=^'"
+

3i

3i/=:7

-f-^diTZTsT/^
18"

{^_18+10i/^+^'"

IOt/ITt.

Analogous

to

this
order
places

attempt
to

of

Euler the

is

that

of

Waring

(1779).
degree
",

In he

solve

equation

/(x)

ter

clearing

of

radicals,
and equations

he

gets by
for
to

an

equation

of

the

degree,

^(jp)=0,
necessary

equating determining
the

coefficients
a,

nds

the
q

b^

c^

and

/,

but

is unable
proposed
a

complete

solution.

B^zout

also

method. 1=0,

He

eliminated

j^

om

the

equations
and and able

"

ay*~*
of

-|the

by^~^
"th

"

"

"

jc=0,

obtained
then
to

an

equation

degree,
was

jc)=0,
more

equated
the

coefficients.
general

B6zout

solve

equation
problem gave

of

the

5th the

gree

than
to

Waring,

but

the of

him

pulse

perfect

methods
had

elimination.
with
general

Tschirnhausen
to

begun,
the

his

transformation,
as

study of
the

the

roots

of

equation
result in
In

func-

ons

coefficients.
another method of and
were

The

same

can

be

ached

by
the

not

different

principle, this
way,

mely

formation
Malfatti

resolvents.

grange,

Vandermonde
in

independently
the
an

ached

results
work, then

which

published
matter,

year

1771.
of

grange's
the

rich

in

gave

analysis

known

methods

of

solving

equations,

and

passing

beyond
methods

the

fourth determining

degree.
the
roots,

Besides
limits
as

this
the
as

he

gave

for of

of

roots

and

the of Thus
made

number approximation.
all

imaginary

well

methods

expedients
prior
to

for the

solving

the of

general
the

equation,

beginning

nineteenth with
"all
who

century

yielded
to

poor

results,

and

especially
says

ere ref

Lagrange's
to

work

Montucla'^
the
way.

this
are

is

well

calculated
to

cool
new

ardor

of Must

those
one

inclined

tread the

this

entirely

despair
Since

of

solution
general made
were

of

this

problem?"

the
were

problem with

proved
cases,

insoluble,
many

at te

special
in

and
way.

gant ele-

results
the

obtained
of the

this

De

Moivre

brought

solution

equation

for

odd

integral

values

of

",

into

the

form

Euler

investigated

symmetric
between

equations
the

and

B^zout

deduced

the of
same

relation

coefficients
must

of in

an

equation
the

the

nth
may

degree
be

which

exist

order
0.

that

transformed

intoy-|-a
significant
step

Gauss
in
0,

made
the
"

an

especially
of
prime
to

in
x^

van ad"

solution is
a

the

cyclotomic

equation
Equations

where
are

number.
the

of
the

this

sort

closely

related

division

of

circum-

rence

into
n-gon

equal

parts.

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of radius

is

the
1,

side
and
s

of

an

inscri

in
the

circle
first

the
then

nal diago-

connecting

and

third

vertices,

2sin"
,

s=2sin

"

"

however 2ir
,
. .

2ir
ht
sin
"

/
cos
,

2"
, 1.
.

2irV
"

cos
n

1 sm

\
1
0

=1,

en

the

equation expression
the

x^

"

is

to

be

considered

as

the

gebraic
of

of "-gon.
very
"

the

problem

of

the

construction

regular

The

following
""If

general
a

theorem number,

was

proved

Gauss.*

is

prime
a,

and
so
.

if
that
make

"

"

be

solved
Ct
,

into

prime
then

factors
it is

^,

r,
.
.

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^i^

.,

always

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upon b^ 1 0

to

the

solutio

of

jp*

"

1=0

depend

of
a

several

tions equa-

of
a,

lower

degree,
equations

namely

equations
Thus

of
for

gree

j8
the

of
of 73

degree

etc."

ample,

solution
into
3'.2',

x'^

"

(the
can

division
be

of

circumference
n
"

equal by

parts)
solving

effected, quadratic

nce
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1==72

three
:c"

cubic

equations.
of
the
the

Similarly
second regular degree, 17-gon

"

leads
1

four
2*;

equations therefore
by

since
can

"

be

constructe

elementary

geometry,
one

fact

which

before

time

of

Gauss

no

had

anticipated.
the

Detailed

constructions geometry
were

of first

regular
'by

17gon Pauker

by
and

mentary

given

Brchinger.*

A
to

noteworthy
von

construction

of

the

same

figure
For

is due
the

Staudt.
the has

caie

that eqaation

prime
x^
"

number
1
""

the
npon

form
the

V^

the
m

tolntion

of

the

depends
m

solntion
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of

qoadratic of

equations
the regnlar

of

which
if-gon.

only It

"

are

necessary

the

construction

should

be

observed
may

for

m^^
as

(k

3L

positive

integer),
first

the

nnmber
out,

d**-!-!
necessarily

be

prime,

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Euler

(1738)
successively
1.
S,

pointed
values
6.

is not

prime.f

it given

the

8.

4.

".

7,

8.

IS.

S"*.

S",

If

sbS*"-!-!
8,
6,

will
S. 17,

take

the
66,

respective
129, 257.

values S6687,

88,

S""+l,
prime.

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l,

of

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are

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8,

5,

17,

257,

65587

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n

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in

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114 689
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respectively
can

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161.

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be
7

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65537

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men ele

geometric From
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255=2"

"

1=(2*
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256=2".
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it

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th

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65535
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15

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17

257.

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the

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Gauss,

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IL,

p.

187.

follows

that

^^^^^
geometric

of

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tary

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After

Gauss
doctor's

had

given

in

his
the

earliest
first

scientific
his
proofs equation

rk,

his
the has

dissertation,
theorem
or
an

of

important
a

that

every
root,

algebraic he
made

real

imaginary
on

in

his
the
general

eat

memoir
that

of

1801

the

theory

of

numbers,
to

onjecture
equations

it might
of degree

be

impossible
than
a

solve fourth

higher
Abel
gave

the

by

dicals.
and

Ruffini it
is

and due
to to

rigid

proof

of that

this
the

ct,

these the
method

investigations solution
were

uitless

efforts
by
In

reach

of

the

general
to
an

uation

the

algebraic
stead
'"

brought

d.

their
the

the What

question
are

formulated
the

by

Abel given

to

front,

equations

of

gree The

which

admit

of

algebraic
of

solution?"
Gauss form
such
a

cyclotomic

equations made
that
ah
an

oup.
the

But theorem by

Abel

important

generalization equation

irreducible
two

is always
can

luble

radicals

when

of
terms

roots

one

be

rationa

expressed
same

in
the
case,

of of
the

the

other,

provided
is prime
upon
;

at

time
not

degree
the

equation

if

is

is

the

solution
lower

depends

the

lution A

of further

equations
great

of group

degree.

of

algebraically in
the

soluble

equations

is therefore
the question

comprised
as

Abelian

equations. and

to

the

necessary

suflScient

was

first

answered investigations

by

the

youthful
theorem,

Galois,
"'If

the
the

crown

of

whose
an

is the

degree

of

irreducible
is

equation
by

is radicals

prime
alone,

number,

the

equation
of of

soluble equation
two

provided
rationally

the

roots

this
any

can

be

expressed

terms

of

them."

Abel's
1829,

investigations
those of

fall in

between
the

the 1830

years

1824 1831. labors

and

Galois

years

and

Their
this

fundamental
direction the alone
who is

significance
an

for

all

further the

in

undisputed
type
an

fact

question soluble

concerning

general awaits also

of

algebraically

equations

answer.

Galois,
modular

earned

special
enter

honors

in

the

field

of

equations
functions,
The

which

into
idea

the of
a

theory
group

elliptic

introduced
importance
into has he
a

the

substitutions.*

of

this

innovation,
of

and

its

development
as

formal

theory

tions, substituExercices

Cauchy
etc.,

first

given

it

in

the

d^ analyse^

when

speaks

of

"systems

of through of
on

con-

juga

substitutions,"
considerations. by
Hesse

became

manifest

geometri this
was

The

first

example

furnished
of

f
of
a

in

his

investigation
the

the

nine
The

points
equation

inflexion
of
to

curve

of
upon

third

degree. they

the the

ninth class

degree

which
soluble
any
an

depend

belongs
In

of

algebraically

equations.
two

this

equation
a

there

exists

between

of

the

roots

and

third

determined

by

them

algebraic

re-

*Netto,

Subsiituiionentheorie,

English

by

Cole,

ation

expressing of To

the

geometric
by threes of the

fact
on

that
twelve

the

nine

oints

inflexion
the

lie

straight
theory

ines.
later

development

substitution
Noether,

times,

Kronecker,
Poincar^,

Klein,

Hermite,

etti,

Serret,
have

Jordan,

Capelli,

and

Sylow

specially
Most

contributed. algebraists
attempt
to

of

the
the

of

recent

times the equation

of the

have

participa

in
degree.
was

solve

of

the

ifth

Before

the

impossibility
at
;

algebraic
had

olution
attempt
to

known, in
this from the

Abel direction the

merely

sixteen
an

made

but
when

essential the

advance
of the

be

noted of

time
was

solution with
the

uation

fifth

degree
By

linked
help

theory

elliptic given
other

functions.*
on

the

of

transformations
and of the
on

the
E. fifth S.

one

hand

by

Tschirnhausen
the

by the

Bring
degree

(1786),
can

roots

equation upon
as

of single

be

made

to

depend

quantity

only,
can

and

therefore put

the

equation,

own

by
By

Hermite,

be

into
the
the

the

form

fi

"

"

Riemann's
the
on

methods,
upon hand,

dependence
A

of is

the

ots

of

equation
the other these
1858,

parameter

illustrated;

it

is

possible
to

by degree

powerof

ries

to

calculate
In

five
Hermite

roots

any

approxi

and by

Kronecker

solved
functions,

equation
without

of

the

fifth
to

degree
the
the

elliptic
theory

reference while

algebraic simplest

of

this

uation,

Klein

gave

possible

solu-

tion

by

transcendental icosahedron.

functions

by

using

the

theory

of

the

The

solntion

of

general

equations
has

of

the

itth become the of

degree

for

it

"
and

by

transcendental
operations

functions into lower

therefore solution
:
are

possible,
following
:

the

entering of
known

the

tion Solu-

of

equations with

degree

solution
;

linear

differential
constants

equations

singular

points
the

determination

of

of

integration,
integrals

by

calculating
for which
;

moduli

of

periodicity
of of
the

of

hyperto

elliptic

the

branch-points the

function

be

integrated

are

known

finally

calculation

theta-functions

several

variables

for

special

values

of

the

argument.

The

methods
equation

leading
are

to

the
many

complete
cases

solution tedious
of
they The
;

of
on

an

algebraic
account

in

this

the
very
to

methods

of

approximation
where

real
can

roots

are

important,

especially
equations. is in Raphson
the
out
a

be

applied

transcendental
of
to

most

general

method

approximation
Barrow

due
but

to

Newton
was

(communicated
by Halley

1669),
in

also
way.*

reached

and
of

another

For

the

solution

equations worked

of

third

and

fourth

degrees,

John

Bernoulli

valuable
calculi
are

method
integralis.
to

of

approximation
methods

in

his

Lectiones

Further

of

approximation
Thomas

due

Daniel Le-

Bernoulli,

Taylor,
Horner,

Simpson,

Lagrange,

gendre,
By

and

others.

graphic
be

and

mechanical

means

also,

the

roots

of

an

tion equa-

can

approximated.
which

C.

Boysf
of
a

made
system

use

of
levers

machine and

for

this
;

purpose,

consisted

of with

ful-

crums

Cunynghamef

used

cubic

parabola

tangent

scale

straight

edge

C.

Reuschle*
that

used
the
a

an

hyperbola
be

with
read

an

accompa

gelatine-sheet,

so

roots

could

as

ters in-

of
especially
to

an

hyperbola
to

with of

parabola.

Similar fourth

methods, degrees Mehmke

are

ited

equations
and in this

the

third
;

and

Bartl,

R.

Hoppe,

Oekinghausf
connection.

Lalanne

and

so

deserve

mention

For

the

solution
the has seventeenth

of

equations,
century

there
an

had

been

vent in-

in
then
the

algorism

which of
mathematics,

nce

gained

place

in

all

branches

algorism
computation
which
was are

of

determinants.
those

The

first

suggestion

of

with
now

regularly
determinants

formed

gregates,

called

(after
year

auchy),
used

given aggregate
"ii"

by

Leibnitz

in

the

1693.

the

^w"

tfi"

tf"if

^"""

tft"

forming
1

the

resultant

of
of

linear

equations

with

"

unknowns,
one

and

that

two

algebraic

equations
as

ith

unknown.

Cramer
because he

(1750)
began

is considered
to

second
of

inventor,

develop Further

tem sys-

computation
are

with
to

determinants.

orems the-

due

B6zout

(1764),
Lagrange

Vandermonde

(1771),
Gauss's
essential
Dis-

aplace

(1772),

and

(1773).
formed
an

uisitiones
*

ariihmeiicae
O.,

(1801)
1886,

ad-

BSklen,

Mmih,

Mittheilungen,

p.

nc

\ Fartschrittey

1883; Theory

1884.

X Muir,

T.,

0/

Determinants

in

tht

Historical

Order

cf

its

ment^ Develop-

vance,

and

this

gave

Cauchy

the
the

impulse
development

to

many

new

investigations,
law

especially

of
two

the

general

(1812)

of

the

multiplication

of

minants. deter-

Jacobi

by

his

''masterful service
a

skill

in

technique,"
of

also
nants, determi-

rendered

conspicuous
having

in

the

theory

developed
as

theory

of

expressions

which
The

he

designated
these

''functional determinants

determinants."

analogy

of led
"

with

differential
of all
an

quotients
the

him

to

the
plays

general
a

"principle
in
nearly

last

multiplier integration.*

which

part

problems especially

of

Hesse

considered

in

thorough
are

manner

symmetric functions

determinants
of the

whose

ment ele-

linear figure.

co-ordinates

of by

geometric

He

observed
the

their

behavior

ear lin-

transformation
to

of
determinants

variables,
as
are

and

their
from
are

relations

such

formed

them due

by

single
on

bordering.

Later

discussions
to

to

Cayley
S.

skew
on

determinants,

and

Nachreiner

and

Giinther

relations

between

determinants

and

continued The

fractions.
of
the

appearance

differential

calculus
of

forms
period.

one

of

the

most

magnificent ideas
for

discoveries

this

The

preparatory
outline

this

discovery
in

appear
a

manifest
dus

in

Cavalieri,

who
a

work

Meiho

indivisibiliutn

(1635)

considers

space-element

as

Dirichlet,

"

Gedilchtiiisirede
s

auf

Jacobi."
Band
20.

CrelU's

Jattmal^

Band

52.

t Noether,

Schlomilch'

Zeitschrift,

he

sum

of of

an

infinite
next

number lower

of

simplest
e.

ments space-eleg.,
a

the of
an

dimension,
of planes.

solid
danger tor invenPascal

as

he

sum

infinite
was

number
fully
it

The
by

this

conception
the

appreciated improved

the by
an

of

method,
a

but

was

first
of then

ho

considers

surface

as

composed

infinite
Fermat there
resulting

mber

of

infinitely in

small
all these that be

rectangles,

by

nd

Roberval
the

methods,
the
sum

however, the

peared

drawback

of

eries
a

could

seldom
can

determined.

Kepler
in

remarked the

at
a

function
or

vary

only

slightly
Fermat,

vicinity by
this

greatest made of
of

least

value.
to

led
the

ought,

an

attempt

determine
Roberval
to
a

maximum
the

minimum

function.
a

investigated
curve,

oblem by

drawing
the and

tangent line
the

and composition
of

solved
of ties veloci-

generating
motions,
to

curved

by

the

applied

parallelogram
the tangents.

the

construction

of

Barrow,
work

wton's

teacher,
to

used

this

preparatory

with He

ference
the the
same

Cartesian
as

co-ordinate the velocity-

geometry.

ose

rectangle
time
as

parallelogram,
Fermat the

and

introduced

like

infinitely

all

quantities

increments

of

dependent
He

and gave

dependent
the

variables,
rule,

with

special affecting
powers

symbols. the

so

that,

without

validity
infinitely

of

the

sult

of

computation,
may

higher

of

small the

antities
power.

be
But

neglected

in

comparison

with
handle

rst

Barrow

was

not

able

to

fractions

and

was

compelled
them. Like

to

resort

to

transformations
he
was

to

move re-

his

predecessors,
cases

able

to

determine
of
two,

in

the
or

simpler the
sum

the

value

of

the

tient quoof

of

an

infinite
of

number such the

infin

The
reached

general

solution
and

questions founders

as

by

Leibnitz
calculus.

Newton,

of

the

differential

Leibnitz
of

gave

for

the been

calculus
already for
to
more

of

infinitesimals,

the further
cases.

notion

which
and

had
also

introduced,

examples
summation

rules

complicated
old the
as

By

according

the of

methods,*

he

deduce

the

simplest by

theorems
a

integral
the of

calculus,
summation

which

he,
wrote,

prefixing

long

sign

From

the

fact

that

the

sign

of

summation
that

f
by

raised

the

dimension,

he
the

drew dimension
he

the

conclusion
must

ence-for differ-

be
a

diminished

so

that,

therefore,
1675,

as

wrote

in

manuscript

of

Oct.

29,

from

f/ssya,
tested
the

follows

immediately
of
his for
the vary
jr

^="^method
to

Leibnitz

power

new

by

geometric
the
to

problems;
curve
**

he
for

sought,

example,

ter de-

which

intercepts
as

on

the

axis

the

feet

of
the

the

normals

the
in

ordinates."
arithmetic
of

In

this
and

he

let

abscissas
the

increase

ratio

designated

constant

difference

the

X
m

scissas
in

first
detail

by

"

and

later

by

dx,

without

explainIn

the

meaning developed
geometric

of

this
his
new

new

symbol. calculus
so

76
to

Leibnitz be be
to

had

far

able

solve

problems

which before his

could
1686,

reduced
did he

by

other

methods. anything

Not

wever,

publish

about immediately

method, nized recog-

great by What

importance

being

then

Jacob
Leibnitz

Bernoulli. failed
to

explain what
was

in
is

the

ment developby

of

his

methods, small and

namely

understood expressed

is

infinitely Newton,

quantities,

clearly
a

secured
of

for
two

him

theoretical small
*

ority. superiquantities the ratio

Of

quotient
as

infinitely
value

ewton
the

speaks

of

limiting

which
the

vanishing

quantities

approaches,
hold

smaller the the

sum

hey
an

become.

Similar
number of

considerations
of
such

for

infinite

quantities.
Newton

For

termi de-

limiting
the

values,
calculus Leibnitz*s

devised

an

special

algorism,

of

fluxions,
differential
in

which
calculus.

is

ssentially

identical

with

Newton
a

considered
;

the
to

change

the

variable of

flowing
variation
a

he
the

sought

determine the

the
variable

velocity changes called

he

of

function
The

when

ith

given and
dz,
as

velocity.
were

velocities
by
jr,

were

luxions
dy,

designated Leibnitz's

y,

(instead
quantities
calculus

of

xy

in
were

writings).
fluents,
the

The the

hemselves

called

and

of

luxions

determines

therefore

velocities

of

given

otions^
law

or

seeks
their

conversely

to

find

the

motions

when paper

he

of

velocities
was

is known. in
1671

Newton's
the

this
Methodus his

subject

finished
but
was

under

name

fiuxionum^
death.
the

first

published
by
a

in
to

1736, have

after

Newton

is thought from

some

borrowed

idea
to

of

fluxions
Newton
although

work

of

Napier.*
more

According
than great
It

Gauss,

deserved he

much
to

credit

Leibnitz,
talent,
appears which,

attributes
was

the

latter

however,

too

much
looked

sipat dis-

that

this

judgment,

at

from

both
give

sides,
satisfactory
to
one

is hardly

warranted.

Leibnitz
that

failed
led

explanation his On
most

of

which

Newton

of

important
hand,

innovations, Newton
is

the
not

idea

of

limits.

the in

other the

always

entirely
too,

clear deserves

purely

analytic

proof.
the

Leibnitz,
of

very

high
symbols

praise

for

introduction
as

the

appropriate
the rules

and

dxy

well

for

stating the

of

operating safely calculus be

with
expressed
was

them.

day Tothat
the

opinion
and
by

might

differential

integral Newton
the

independently
that

discovered

and
first

by

Leibnitz
;

Newton
on

is

without other
to

doubt

inventor
by but
invented the

that
results

Leibnitz,
cated communi-

the

hand,
him by

stimulated

Newton,

without

the

knowledge
the

of

Newton's

methods,
and that

independently
Leibnitz

calculus;

finally
"

to

belongs

the

priority
*

of
Das

publication.
Prtnaip
der

f
und aeint

Cohen,

Infiniietimalmttkodt

G*9cUehit^

1^9;

The

systematic
necessary
a

development
clearer

of

the

new

calculus
the

ade

understanding
on

of

idea

of
are

he

infinite.
course

Investigations
only

the

infinitely
for
is

great

of

passing

interest
but

the entirely

explanation
different
The

natural
the

phenomena,*

it

ith

question
appears

of

the the and

infinitely writings Wallis

small
than of
a

small.
of under Kepler

infini*
well forms,
as

esimalf
those

in

as

of

Cavalieri
as
'"

varying

sentially
quantity which

infinitely
is the
smaller

null-

value/'
any

that

is,

as

which
forms
indivisibilia

given

quantity, quantity.
the
same

limit
lead

given

finite

ler's

systematically
Pascal,
the

in
and

rection.

Fermat,

Roberval,

especially

ibnitz

and
yet

Newton
in
a

operated
n^ay

with

*'unlimitedly
an

all,"

such

that

frequently

abbreviated least In

method
the of

of
true

expression
sense

concealed of
the

or

at

obscure
the

development.
THospital,

itings the
zero,

John

Bernoulli,
appears
must
''

De

and

Pois-

infinitesimal but
i.
e.,

as

quantity
than
*'

difierent
an

om

which
as

become

less

able assign-

value,
the

pseudo-infinitesimal
derivatives,
which
in Lagrange

quantity.
the

formation

of

main

identical

with
to

Newton's

fluxions,
the purpose

J
but

attemp

entirely only

avoid
the

infinitesimal,
of

his
into

tempts

served

bringing

rt

History

of
Vol.

Metthemaiict^ III. Werke^

p.

London,

1888.

The

best

summary

is

that

given

Cantor. *Riemann,

3G7.
1865.

t R.

Hoppe,

Differentialrechnung^

prominence
the

the theory
in of
the

urgent

need

for

deeper

foundation Tacquet Maclaurin

for

the

infinitesimal

for
century,

which
and

and

Pascal

seventeenth eighteenth
to

and

Carnot
are

in

the

had for

made

preparation.

We

indebted

Cauchy

this

contribution.
the
meaning

In

his

investigations
of

there

is clearly
contain

established
the

**

propositions
and
is thereby
a

which
safe

expression

infin

foundation

for

the

differential

calculus

laid.
calculus
was

The

integral

still
to

further

extended braic algethe

by

Cotes,

who

showed

how

integrate

rational
to

functions.

Legendre

applied
to

himself

teg in-

of

series.
integrals,
of
multiple

Gauss

the
to

approximate
the reduction is

determination
and
especially

of

and

Jacobi
integrals.

evaluation
to

Dirichlet
on

be his

credited
lectures

with

generalizations

definite

integrals,
theory.* of

showing
it
was

his

great

fondness the

for

this

He

who

welded
a

scattered

results

his

predecessors
them

into
new

connected original

whole,

and

enriched

by

and of the by given

a

method

of

integration.

The

introduction
to

discontinuous limits

tor faction integra-

allowed
by

him

replace

of

different the

ones,

often
of
the

infinite

limits,
In

without
more

changing

value

integral.
has

the

recen

investigations
defining
In

the
or

integral

become

the

means

of

functions

of

generating
equations

others.

the

realm

of

differential

the

works

Kummer,

"

Gedftchtnissrede

anf

Lejeune-Dirichlet."

Berliner

Abh.,

rthy
to

of

note

date

back

to

Jacob

and

John

Bernoulli

d
the

Riccati.
the

Riccati

applied of the
cases

Newton's

methods

study

of

problems
for

material
the

universe.
differential

also

integrated in

special
honor
"

quation by the

named
Daniel

his

an

equation
discussed
the

completely
the question

olved
of

Bernoulli of

"

and

possibility
equation.
treatment

lowering theory
at

order

of

given
a

ifferential

The

first hands

received of

detaile

scientific
as

the

Lagrange,

pecially of

far

as

concerns

partial and
Laplace

differential
had

equations,

which

D'Alembert

Euler

handled

equation

-^

--t-^.

also

wrote

on

this

fferential linear

equation

and

on

the

reduction
to

of definite

the

tion solu-

of

differential

equations

rals. integ-

On

German
to

soil,

J.

F.

Pfaff,

the

friend

of

Gauss

next

him

the

most

eminent elegant
equations,*
name

mathematician
investigations
led

that

time,

presented
on

certain

1814,

1815)
to

differential
the original

which
problem."

acobi

introduce
in
an

**Pfaffian
the

aff

found

way

general
the

integration degree for

partial
number
theory

differential

equations

of

first

of of

variable
ordinary
n

quantities.

Beginning equations
which

with
o'f
the

differential
for

rst

degree

with

variables,

integrations

ffer

entialgleickungen^ der

Bd.

I., 1895,"

an

excellent

historical
ertter

review;

Mansion,
deutsch

Theorie
Maser,
*

partielUn
1892,

DifferentialgUichungen
also
excellent
on

Ordnung^

Leipzig,

history.

ere

given
gave

by their

Monge

(1809)

in

special
and

simple

cases,

Pfaff

general
of of

integration differential

considered
as

the

integration
case

partial

equations In

particular

the
of
two

general

integration.
equations
assumed

this

the

general

integration

differential
is

of
as

every

degree

between

variables
also

known.*

Jacobi

(1827,
equations

1836)
of

advanced
first

the

theory

of

ential differ-

the
unknown

order.
functions

The
that
the
a

treatment

was

so

to

determine

an

integral

which

contains
in
a

these

functions
way

and reaches is

differential

coefiScient

prescribed condition of
the

maximum vanishing
again finds

or

minimum.
first

The

therefor

the

the

variation in

integral,
equations, determined.

which

it

expression

differential
are

from
In

which

the
to

unknown
to

functions distinguish it is
a

order
or

be

able

whether necessary

real
to

maximum bring
the

mum mini-

appears,

second

varia

into leads
was

form
new

suitable

for

investigating
equations

its

sign.

This

to

differential
to

which

gran La-

not

able
that

solve,

but

of

which
can

Jacobi
be

was

able

to

show

their of variation.

integration differential

deduced

from
to

the

integration
first
case

equations
also

ing belonginvestigated

the

Jacobi
integral
being

the

special

of

simple

with

one

unknown proved

function,

his Clebsch
second

statements

completely

by

Hesse. the

undertook

the and

general
he
was

investigation

ot

variation,
the
case

successful that
new

showing

for

of

multiple

integrals

ntegrals

are

not

necessary

for

the

reduction

of

the

econd

variation.
of problem

Clebsch

(1861,
reached

1862),
the

following
solution
upon
a

the
of
system

uggestions

Jacobi,
by

also

the

faffian

making partial

it depend

simultaneous
statement

linear

differential
without
the
most

equations,

he

of

which

is possible
one

integration.
important

other

investigations,
the

of

is

he

theory

of

equation
d^v
dx^^

d^v
^

d^v

d:^

dsfl
in his

'

hich

Dirichlet
but

encountered
which

work

on

the

potenti

had

been

known

since

Laplace

1789).

Recent

investigations
on

on

differential
Fuchs,

equations,

especially stand

the
close

linear

by

Klein,
the those

and

oincar6, functions

in

connection
as

with
as

theories
of
equa-

and series.
a

groups,

well

with

ons

and
"Within has the
to

half
to

century

the

theory
the

of

ordinary

di"ferential
branches

uations

come

be

one

of

most

important

of
as

alysis,
still

theory

of

partial
The

differential difficulties
that

equations of
the

remaining

be

perfected.
are so

general
investigators in

problem
have

integration

manifest
to

all

classes of
the

of

nfined

themselves of certain

the

properties

integrals

the

neighborhood took
its

given

points.
two

The

new

departure
Fuchs

eatest

inspiration
by

from

memoirs

by

(i866,

i868),

rk

elaborated "Since
equations
the

Thom^
labors

and

Frobenius.
.

1870
on

Lie's

have

put

the

entire

theory He

of
has

ential differ-

more

satisfactory of isolated, the

foundation.

shown which

at

integration looked

theories
as

older
can

mathematicians,
the

been

upon

by

introduction

of

the

ommon

source,

and

that

ordinary

di"ferential

equations
present
the like

which diffical-

admit

the

same

infinitesimal He has

transformations
also

ties

of

integration

emphasized
Hug's-

subject

of

transformati

of
so

contact

(BerUhr
of
the
recent

TransformcUionen)
Recent
. .

which
writers have

underlies
the

much
same

theory.

shown

tendency
to

noticeable separate
diagram
into

in
two

the

works
schools,

of
the

Monge

and ing inclin-

Cauchy,
to
use

the

tendency
the

one

geometric
the

and
to

represented
pure

by

Schwarz,

Klein,

and

Goursat.

other

adhering
are

analysis,

of

which

Weierstrass,

Fuchs,

and

Frobenius

types."*

short

time

after

the

discovery
in the
to

of

the
year

differential
1696,

and

integral

calculus,
proposed

namely

John

Bernoulli of

this
:

problem

the

mathematicians
by

his

time from

To

find
given

the

curve

described
to

body

falling
B

point The
a

another
came

given from found oped devel-

point
case

in in

the optics,

shortest and
is
a

time.'}'
requires

problem

function Huygens

to

be

whose

integral
the

minimum. of light,

had

wave-theory

and

John
the

Bernoulli

had

found

under of sought
as

definite
the

assumptions
ray

differential

equation he

the

path another

of

of

light.

Of
came

such upon the

to

motion

example,

and
that for

the
above

cycloid
statement

the

brachistochrone, the from Newton,

is,

upon up

of solutions

problem, the

which de

Easter

1697,

Marquis

I'Hospital,

from

Tschirnhausen,

Jacob
Only
Modern
New

Bernoulli
two

and

nitz Leib-

were

received.
D.
E.,

the

latter
in with

treated
Merriman tlted.

the

Smith,

''History Mathematics,
Anfange

of

Mathematics,"
York,

and

Woodward's tReiff,

Higher
R.,

1896,

authorities ^a/A.

"Die

der

Variationsrechnung,"

^/VM^x/wM/m

oblem

as

one

of

maxima

and the
up
to

minima.
common

Jacob
one

noulli' Berthe

method of

remained

for Lagrange, the

eatment

similar
to

cases

the
as

time
one

of

he

is therefore
the calculus which
or

be

regarded

of
that

ers found-

of

of

variations.
the

At

time* of
were

all

oblems

demanded

statement

mum maxicalled
of
curve

minimum
problems.

property
To

of the
those

functions

operimetric
kind

oldest in which
was

problems
one

is

belong
or

especially minimum
of

th

maximum
a

property

to

be That

found
the

om

class of all

of

curves

equal figures,

perimeters. gives
to

rcle,

isoperimetric
to

the

maximum
In

a,

is

said

have Pappus

been

known

Pythagoras.

writings of
equal
century

of

series
are

of

propositions
Also

on

ures figteenth four-

perimeters the Italian

found.

in
had

the

mathematicians
But
**the

worked
of
variations

problems
may

of
be

this said

kind.
to

calculus

begin

with occupied

John

Bernoulli

1696).

It

immediately
the the

the

attention
THospital,

of
but

acob

Bernoulli
first

and

Marquis

de

ler

elaborated

subject,
first Bernoulli,

"f
in

He

investigated

isoperimetric
manner

problem

the

analyticafter
came

geometric
he had

of
the

Jacob

but
he
a

rked
a

on

subject
genera celebrated
J

eight

years,

in

1744

on

new

and his

solution
work
:

by

purely

analytic
inveniendi

thod

(in

Methodus

Anton,

CttcktckU
D. E.,

des
History

tsopertmeirischen
Modern

PrcbUtns,

1888.
p.

t Smith,

Mathematics^

533.

lineas

curvas,

etc.

this

solution
which
are

shows
to
assume

how

those
a

or-

dinates least

of

the

function
can

greatest of the
mS-

or

value

be

derived

from

the

variation
nouvdU

curve-ordinate.
etc.

Lagrange 1760
,

{Essai
made of
the

d^une

thodfj

and

1761)
variation

last

essential

step

from

the
to

pointwise the

Euler

and

his

cessors prede-

simultaneous
curve

variation by
the
assumption

of

all
of

ordinates
variable

of

the

required

limits

of
new

the

integral.

His introducing
taken
the

methods,

which
the change

contained

the

feature
were

of
later then

8 for
up

of

the

function,

in

Euler's

Integral

culus Cal-

Since

calculus

of

variations of
problems

has

been

of

valuable of
The

service

in

the

solution

in

ory the-

curvature.

beginnings
that
of the

of

real

theory and

of

functions*,

especially lead
Landen.

elliptic Maclaurin,

Abelian

functions and
were

back

to

Fagnano,

D'Alembert, functions
roots

Integrals

of

irrational

algebraic
square

treated,

especially
the

those

involving
fourth

of
none

polynomials
of

of

third

and
at

degrees;

but beginnings

these

works

hinted

containing
whole

the

of

science
matter

dominating
more

the

subject
form

of

algebra.
the
a

The hands
time

assumed

definite

under For

of the

Euler,

Lagrange,

and

Legendre. functions
known

long the

only

transcendental

were

circular

func-

Brill,

A.,

and

Noether,
in

M.,
sllterer

"

Die

Entwickelung
neuerer

der
Bericht Bd. der
XL,

Theorie
erstattet

der
der

algeDeut-

braischen

Functionen

und

Zeit,

schen

Mathematiker-Vereinigung,
KOnigsberger,
L., Zur

Jahresbericht^
Gesckichte
der

pp.

107-566,

Berlin,
Transcen-

Theorie

ions

(sin^,
for

cos:c,
.

the

common

logarithm,
the

.)"
analytic
base
e,

and,

specially

purposes,

hyperbolic
in

arithm logthe of the

with

and But

(contained
with
the

this)

expone

function

^.

opening
began
on

the
one

ineteenth

century
to

mathematicians study by
to

and

thoroughly
as was

special
Legendre, develop

transcendental

tions, funcAbel, theory

done hand

Jacobi,
the general

and

nd

on

the

other

functions

of

complex

variable, Riemann,

in

which

field
Fuchs,

auss,

Cauchy, Weierstrass

Dirichlet,

Liouville,
results.

nd

obtained
signs of
the
was
an

valuable interest determination in

The

first

elliptic
of the the

functions*
the

connected
as

with this

arc

of

emniscate,

carried
In
the

out

in

middle made

of
the

eighteenth that the

value of
arc

century.

this

Fagnano
two

scovery

between the

limits
one

of

integrals
has

express

of

curve,

of
an

which

twice tion relaof the

of simple

the

other,
nature.

there By

exists this
means,

algebraic
the
arc

mniscate,

though doubled
or

transcendent by

of

higher

order,
construction

be like

bisected
a

geometric Euler
gave

an

arc

of

circle,

the

explanat

of
a more

this

remarkable
integral
the

phenomenon. than first Fagnano

He

produced

general integral

(the
showed
a

-called
two

^elliptic
such
same

of
can

class)

and into

at the

integrals
kind,
so

be
between

combined
the

third
these

that

limits

of

"Enneper,

A.,

Elliptische

Functioneny

Theorie

und

Geschichte,

Halle,

1890.

integrals
the
same

there
sine of

exists
the
sum

simple
two
arcs

algebraic
can

relation,
be

jus

as

of
of
the

composed

the

functions
The

separate

arcs

(addition-.the
depends
not

orem).

elliptic
the the

integral,
but the with Lagrange the

however,

merely

upon
to

limits function,

upon

another

quantity

belon

modulus
same

While
in those

Euler

placed

only

integrals
"

modulus

tion, relawith by

Landen

and

considered
that
to

different

moduli,
algebraic

and.

showed

it

is

possible
one

simple

substitution
another

change
class.

elliptic

integral

into
of

of

the

same

The

lishment estab-

the

addition-theorem
a

will
of circular Euler

always
as

remain his

at

least

as

important
the of

service
of

transformatio

of

theory

functions

by

the

introduction The the Legendre

de

imaginary
the

exponential
real

quantities.
of elliptic 1811

origin*

of

theory

functions
1829.
Exer-

and

theta-functions
are

falls
two

between

and the Thiorie

To

due

systematic

works,

cices

calcul

integral

(1811-1816)
(1825-1828),

and
neither

the of

des

fonctions
to

elliptiques

which
in

was

known

Jacobi

and
nova

Abel.
theoriae

Jacobi

published

1829

the

Fundamenta
the

functionum
had been had

ellipticarum^
ously simultanerecognised

certain

of

results by

of Abel.

which

discovered
a new

Legendre
was

that

branch

of

analysis he

involved
decades of
the

in

those

investigations,
to

and
development.

devoted

earnest

work which

its

Beginning
a

with
of
an

integral

depends

upon

square

root

expression

he

fourth
can

degree
be

in

x^

Legendre
to

noticed
forms. the

that

such

ntegrals

reduced

canonical
for

A^=
and

\
"

^'sin'^
essentially

was

substituted

radical,

hree

different

classes

of

elliptic
by

integrals

re

distinguished
These the
ff.

and
classes

represented depend
upon

^(^),

-^^),
the

(^).

amplitude
upon
a

^
meter para-

nd

modulus

k^

the

last

class

also

In

spite

of

the

elegant
their

investigations
theory
It
was

of

Legendre
sev

elliptic
enigmatic
of

integrals,

still

presented
that

ral

phenomena.

noticed
the the

the

egree

the

equation is
not

conditioning equal
of and Abel. the
to

division

of
the

he

elliptic
as

integral
the

number
but
to

of

rts,

in

division
of

circle,

its square.
was

he

solution
for

this and

simils^r Of
the

problems
many

reserv

Jacobi
two

productive
there have
are

deas

of

these
two

eminent

mathematicians
to

specially

which
theory.
place,

belong

both

and

greatly

dvanced
In

the

the
other

first

Abel that

and

Jacobi
not

independently
to

of tigate invesa

ach

observed elliptic
limits,

it is

expedient first class of

as

the
of
be its

integral
but

of
the

the method

tion func-

that the

consideration
as

st

reversed,
two

and

limit

introduced it.

tion func-

of
other

quantities

dependent

upon

Expressed
the

words,

Abel
of

and
the named

Jacobi
inverse.
them

introduced
Abel
am,

direct
them
A
am,

unctions

instead
and

called
cos
am,

, /, Fy

Jacobi

sin

second
as

ingenious
to

idea,
is the

which

belongs

to

Jacobi
nary imagi-

as

well

Abel,

introduction

of

the

into

this
this of

theory. innovation

As

Jacobi
which

himself

affirmed, possible
It

was

just

rendered
earlier partake theory. of

the
turned

solution that

the
new

enigma

of

the

out

the

functions

the

nature

the

trigonometric

and

exponential
only
only
two

functions.
real

While
the

the

former
and

are

periodic
the latter have
as

for for

values

of
values,

argum

imaginary
It

the

elliptic
that

functions

periods.
the beginning the
was

can

safely
the of

be

said

Gauss

early

as

of

teenth nine-

century

had
fact

recognised which

principle
made

the

double

period,
of

first

plain

in

the

writings Beginning

Abel.
these
two

with
Abel,

fundamental

ideas,

co Ja

and

each

in

his
to

own

way,

made

further

important

contributions Legendre
integral had into

the
a

theory

of

elliptic
of form,

tions. func-

given
another

transformation
the
same

one

elliptic

of

but

second

transformation
to

discovered
as

by

him

was

unknow

Jacobi,
the
of

the

latter

after
that
can a

serious

difficulties

reached
theory

important

result

multiplication
composed
to

i
two

the

such

functions
Abel

be

of

transformations.
the
A

applied
and
study that
a

himself

problems

concerning

division

multiplication of
the double

of periodicity
division

elliptic

integrals.
to

thorough

led

him

the

discovery
with

general limit

of

the

elliptic

integral

given

is always

ally algebraic-

ntegrals
the in the of the

is assumed
problem this whole
the
same was

as

accomplished.
by Abel
to

The the

solution

applied
it
was

lemniscate,
the

nd

connection
lemniscate

proved
altogether

that

division
to

is
be

analogous

hat

circle,
case.

and

can

performed
important for

algebraically
discovery functions infinite of

Another

bel's

occurred

in

his

allowing, the from

elliptic
to

multiple formulas

argument,

multiplier
functions the

become
a

deduced
From

with remarkable

single
expressions

argume

this
represent of

resulted

which
or

elliptic infinite
in

functions

by

infinite

eries

quotients
had
that

products.

Jacobi

assumed
the of

his

investigations
is

on

transformation

original
the
more
new.

variable Abel,

rationally
entered
that equation

express

in field

terms

however,

his

with
two

the

general
an

assumption

tween be-

these and
the

quantities of
can

algebraic
was

exists,

result

his be

labor

that the

this

more

eneral

problem problem

solved

by

help

of

the

pecial

completely
still

treated
further
many

by

Jacobi.
the

Jacobi
of

carried

of
theory

tions investigathe

Abel.

Abel but

had the

given
actual

the

of

general

division,

application
functions

demanded
the

formation

of could
the

certain
be

symmetric
obtained of the the only

of
cases.

ots

which
gave

in

special
so

acobi

solution
of
manner

problem
could than be

that

the
at

quired
and

functions
in
a

roots

obtained When

simpler

AbePs.

road

expanse

of
had

the

new

science,
early

for

Abel
the

short

time

before
The
later

found

an

grave

at

age

of
the

27.

efforts
the

of

Jacobi

culminate Abel
as

in had
of

trod in-

of

theta-function. functions
could
a

already

represented

elliptic

quotients
these
a

infinite
as

products.
cases

Jacobi
of

represent

products fact
in which
physical

special
French

single

transcendent, had
come

the

mathematicians
but their

upon

researches

had

neglected
nature,

to

investigate.
brought
the them

Jacobi
into

examined

analytic the

connection
and
though

with noticed

integrals

of
that

second

and

third

class,

especially
upon

integrals
three

of

the
can

third
be

class,

dependent
by
means

elements,

represented
only
to two

of

the
The

new

transcendent of

ing involvthis

elements.

execution

process

gave

the and

whole

theory

high

degree
the

of

siveness comprehenfunctions

clearness, be
0i,

allowing

elliptic
the
new

sn^

City

dn

to

represented
%2,

with
"4
as

Jacobian
a
mon com-

transcendents

^,

fractions

having

denominator.
What

Abel
is

accomplished

in

the

theory
it high
was

of

elliptic
not

functions

conspicuous,

although There
is

his

greatest

achievement. that the

authority
were as

for

saying
the

achievements
as

of that
were

Abel

great

in
But

algebraic
most

field

in

of

elliptic obtained in the

functions.
in

his

brilliant

results

the

theory

of

the

Abelian
development

functions falling

named
in

his

honor,

their

first

years

1826-1829.

er

in

different

forms.
d'une

The

paper,
e

Mimoire
de

sur

une

opriiti

ginirale

class

res-it

endue

fonctions
author
contained

ranscendenies,

which
prize general

after
the

the

death

of
academy,

the

receiv

the
most

from

French In

he

expression.
calculus, the
y,

form

it is

theorem
upon

the

integral

integrals is

depending
with

irrational

function

which

connected
Abel's

by

algebraic
states

equation
that
a
a

F{x,y)=^,
sum

fundamental
can

heorem

of

such

integrals

be

xpressed

by

definite
only

number
upon the

of

similar
of

integrals

here

p
F(^x,

depends

properties
deficiency

the
the

equation
curve

y)=0.
;

(This
the
year

is

the

of
however,

^(Xf y)=Q
from

notion

of

deficiency,
For the

dates

irst

the

1857.)
+
leads
Bx^

case

that

\/Ax^

Cx^

Z"x+",
proposition
on

bePs

theorem
sum

to

Legendre's

he

of

two

elliptic

integrals.

Here/

1.

If

y=VAx*
A
can

+
be
0,

Bx^+
then

+F,
For

here

also the
the

is

2,

and

so

on.

=3,
cases

or

"3,
of Abel's in his

hyperelliptic
Abelian

integrals
of like

are

only

special

integrals

class. the
trans

After

death

(1829)

Jacobi
generates

carried
de

theory

urther

Considerationes

cendenti-

us

Abelianis

(1832),
a

and class

showed
that the

for

hyperelliptic

tegr into

of

given

direct
are

functions

hich
single

Abel's

proposition
as

applies
the

not

functions
sn^ cn^

of
dn,

variable,

elliptic

functions

essential

significance

for

the

case

/=2,
and

are

due

to

Rosenhain
Two

(1846,
articles Gauss
of

published
Riemann,

1851)
founded have

Goepel

(1847).
the ings writ-

upon

of

and

Cauchy,
the

become theory

significant
of and functions. by the

in

the

development Cauchy
had
the

of

complete

by

rigorous

methods

introduction for
the
an

of

imaginary

variable

"laid
and

the

foundation

essential
of

improvement
*'

transformation

of

whole

analysis.
wrote

Riemann

built

upon

this

foundation
Theorie

and
der

the

Grundlage
einer

fur

eine

all-

gemeine

Funktionen

verdnderlichen

komplexen

Grosse
Funktionen
treatment

in

the

year

1851,

and

the

Theorie

der later.

AbeVschen the

which of the
with

appeared

six
functions,

years

For

Abelian

Riemann
the

used

theta-functions of which
of

several
the
a

arguments, general

ory the-

is

based

upon

principle
variable.

of He

the

theory

functions

of

complex

begins

with
general
that
a

integrals
form
is, the

of

algebraic considers functions

functions

of

the

most

and Abelian of infinite

in

their
of

inverse

tions, func-

variables.
as

Then

theta
a

function

variables
exponential

is defined

the

sum

of

/-tuply
depends,

series variables,
be

whose
upon

general

term

addition
which
theory has

to/
must

certain

"

constants

^^

reducible
been

to

3/

"

moduli,

but

the

not

yet

completed

Starting

from

the

works

of

Gauss

and

Abel

as

well

"

Ged"chtnissrede

Berliner

Abhand-

the

developments

of
a

Cauchy

on

integrations in

in

the

maginary
the

piane^
names

strong

movement

appears

which

cur

of Du Holder,

Weierstrass,

G"

Cantor, Dini,

Heine,

edekind,

P.

Bois-Reymond,
Pincherle, freeing
from

Scheeffer,
This
tions founda-

ringsheim,

and criticism
by
a

others.
the
treatment

endency of

aims

at

arithmetic,
based
upon of

especially the
theory

new

of with

rrationals

of
and

functions
discontinuity.

its It
by

onsiderations considers

continuity
the
bases

ikewise

of

the

theory

of

series

nvestigations
to

on

convergence calculus
of

and

divergence,

and

ves

the the

differential introduction

greater

preciseness theorems.
to

rough After the

mean-value

Riemann

valuable
were

contributions
made
by

the

theory

theta-functions
NOther, H.

Weierstrass, Frobenius.

ber,

Stahl,
theory
been

Schottky,
of algebraic from

and

nce

Riemann
has

functions
the theory

and of

int-groups

detached

elian

functions,
of

theory

which

was

founded
Lindemann

through
upon

writings

Brill,

NOther, the

and

remainder-theorem

and Weber
theory
to

Riemann-Roch

rem, theohave allied

while

recently with
the

and of

Dedekind

emselves
the

ideal

numbers,
The theory

set

forth

first development

appendix
of
has

Dirichlet.
general

extremely
of

ch

the

functions

recent

years

borne

fruit

in

different

branches is
to

of

thematical
as

science,
having

and

undoubtedly
9-

be for

recognise

furnished

solid

foundation

the

IV.

GEOMETRY.

A.

GENERAL

SURVEY.

'T^HE
^

oldest the

traces

of
and

geometry

are

found
In

among this

Egyptians
was

Babylonians.
to
serve

first

eriod

geometry

made

practical
Egyptian and

purposes lonian Baby-

lmost

exclusively.
priesthood
to

From learned

the

and

classes

geometry

was

transplanted
a

Grecian
era

soil.

Here

begins

the

second of

period,

classic
as

of

philosophic

conception

geometri

notions

the

embodiment
with the

of

general

science
oras, Pythag-

of

mathematics,
Eratosthenes,
The

connected

names

of and
touch

Euclid,
the last

Apollonius,
two

Archimedes.

works

of

indeed,
times. first Archimedes the

upon nius Apollo-

lines

not

clearly

defined
Sections

until gives

modern the

in

his

Conic

real

example
for

of

geometry part
concerns

of

position,
himself

while
with

the

most

geometry

of

measurement.

The

golden
was

age
wholly

of

Greek

geometry

was

brief

and
of

yet

it

not

extinct
was

until lost
in

the the

memory

the

great

men

of

Alexandria

insignificance

nd

years
to

of

cheerless

epoch
the

which
Greeks

at

best

was

restri

borrowing
as

from
be

such

geometric

owledge

could
many

understood.
in
to

History

might
it
not

ss

over

these
to

centuries attention

silence
obscure
to

were

ompelled

give

these

and
past

unprodu

periods
In

in third

their

relation
coTne

the

and

ture.

this

period
turning

first

the

Romans,
to

indus,

and

Chinese,
own

the
;

Greek the

geometry
as

after

their

fashion
the

then

Arabs

skilled
a

ntermediaries

between

ancient

classic

and

ern mod-

era.

The

fourth

period
among

comprises
the

the nations the the

early

ment developthe

of
the
past

geometry

of

West. time

labors

of

Arab

authors

treasures

of of

ng

were

brought hands

within
of teachers

walls

monasteries established
forming
a

nd

into

the

in

newly
as

hools

and
for

universities,
general

without
The

yet
most

ubject

instruction. period
suggest The into
are

prominent
Kepler.

ntellects

of

this
they

Vieta
the

and period

In gins besis analyetry geom-

heir

methods
with
are
now

fifth

which
of

Descartes. introduced
into being. the

powerful
geometry.

methods Analytic
of

comes

The

application
exclusive

its seductive attention of

ethods

received

almost
the

mathematicians Then
the

of
in
the

seventeenth
modem

and
or

eighteenth

nturies.

so-called

projective
there

ometry

and

geometry like

of analytic

curved

surfaces far

ose

theories

which,

geometry,

transcended

the

way

of

leading

to

the

almost

unlimited

generalization

of

truths

already

known.

B.

FIRST

PERIOD.

EGYFflANS

AND

BABYLONIANS.

In the

the

same

book

of

Ahmes

which of

has

disclosed

to

US

elementary

arithmetic
on

the
the

Egyptians

are

also

found
areas

sections
of simple
are

geometry,

determination
appended.
Among

of

surfaces,

with
or

figures

These

figures found

either
isosceles

rectilinear
triangles, The

circular.

them

are

rectangles,
area

celes isosthe
rectangle

trapezoids is correctly
the

and

circles.*
;

of
measure

determined

as

the
base

of and

the

area

of

isosceles is found,

triangle and
sides for

with
the
area

side
isosceles

b^

however,

\ab
with

of and

the

trapezoid
the

parallel

a*

and is

a**

oblique

side

^,

expression
formulae
are

\ {a* +
used

a")

given.
and
area

These

approximate

throughout The

are

evidently
the value circle
"=

considered

perfectly with
the

correct.

of

follows,

exceptionally

accurate

^^=3.1605.
Among the forth
problems

of by

geometric
reason

construction

one

stands

preeminent
to

of angle.

its

practical The

importance,

viz.,

lay

off

right
in

tion solu-

of

this
and

problem,
palaces,

so

vital

the
to

construction
the

temples

belonged

profession

ope-

stretchers
by
knots
to

or

harpedonaptae.
into

They

used

rope

ivided

three
3,

segments
4,

(perhaps
forming
a

corresponding

the

numbers

5)

Pythago-

triangle.*

Among
religious

the

Babylonians led

the
up

construction
to
a

of

figures

significance which
recognized with
of

formal

geometry

of

ivination
angles,
and

triangles, the the

as

quadrilaterals,
regular

ght

circles

inscribed

agon hexthree

the

division

circumference
well
such
as
a

into

ndred

and

sixty

degrees

value

ir=3.

Stereometric
of
to

problems,
are

as

finding
but

the
not

contents

granaries, learned the

found
his

in
statements

Ahmes

much
account

be

from

since

no

given
As

of

shape

of

the

storehouses. the Egyptian

for

projective
show For

representations,
no

ll

sculptures

evidence
a

of
square
trees

any

knowledge
is

perspective.
in
the

example but
the

pond
and
to

tured pic-

ground-plan
on

the
are

the
the

water-

awers
the

standing elevation,

bank

added
the

picture

as

it

were

from

outside,

C.

SECOND

PERIOD.

THE

GREEKS.

In

survey
as

of

Greek

geometry

it

will

here

and
a

ere

appear

if

investigations

connected

in

very

"Cantor,

I., p.

63.

simple

manner

with

well-known

theorems
least

were

not

known

to

the
have thrown

Greeks.
been in

At

it

seems

as

if

they

could

not

established
among other

satisfactorily^
matters

since
evidently
reason

they

are

without this

connection.

Doubtless

the

principal

for

is that

number

of

the
are

important
lost.

writings
no

of

the

ancient
reason

mathematicians might

Another
was

less down

weighty

be

that

much the which

out,

handed by
reason

simply stiff

by

oral

tradition,
way

and in

latter,

of Greek
render

the

and

repulsive
were

most

of
not

the

demonstrations the In
one

worked
forth

did

always

truths
Thales

set

indisputable.
traces

are

found

of

Egyptian
there mentions

geometry,
all that the
at
was

but

must

not

expect

to

discover
Thales the

known

to

the

Egyptians.

rems theo-

regarding
an

vertical
triangle,
and
two

angles, the

angles

the
a

base

of

isosceles

determination angles,
knew and how its
the

of
the
to

triangle

from

side
in
a

adjacent
He by

angle determine

scr in-

semian

circle.

the

height

of

object
a

comparing
at

shadow
of

with
the the

the

shadow

of

staff

placed
so

extremity

shadow
beginnings

of

the
of

object,
the theory

that
of
are

here

may

be
In

found

similarity.

Thales

the

proofs given In

of

the

theorems the
an

either demanded

not

given in

at

all

or

are

without
direction

rigor

later

time"
made
question

this

important
school.
the

advance

was

by

Pythagoras

and

his

To

him
known

without
to

is to

be

ascribed

theorem

the

Eg"'p-

riangle, with

which

they
3,
4,

knew
5,

in

the

case

of
a

the rigorous
proofs

tri

ngle

sides

without
of
the

giving
extant

roof.

Euclid's theorem.

is

the

earliest
matters,

of

his

Of

other

what
what
to

is
his

to

be

ascribed
it
is

Pythagoras
to

himself, decide.
angles knew The
a

and

pupils, that right also the regular

iflScult
of

Pythagoreans

proved

the

the

of

plane

triangle
section, they bodied.
make

is

two

angles.

They

the
so

golden
far
as

and
up

the

egular of

polygons the
were

aries bound-

five

regular
at

Also the

star-

olygons

known,
theorems part.

least

star-pentagon.

In

he

Pythagorean

of

area

the

gnomon

played
the

important

This
by

word

originally indicated

signified
the

ertical
later

staff the
the

which
right

its

shadow

hours,

angle

mechanically the
gnomon from

represented.

mong

Pythagoreans

is the

the
corner

figure

eft

after

square

has
Later,

been in

taken

of

other

square.

Euclid,
treatment

the

gnomon

is

rallelogram Pythagoreans
"a

after

similar called
the

(see
to

page
a

66).

he

perpendicular
to

straight

ne

line

directed

according knowledge
Anaxagoras

the

gnomon.*'*

But

geometric
of

extended is said
a

beyond
to

the

hool

Pythagoras.
to

have

been

he

first
that of solving
a

try

to

determine
It he

square
to

of

area

equal
that

of

given
successors

circle.

is

be

noticed
in the showed
to
a

like

st

his

believed
CEnopides

possibility how how

to

this

problem. from

aw

perpendicular

point

line

and

196

HISTORY

OF

MATHEMATICS.

to

lay ofi

given

angle

at

given
sought

point
the the the
B

of

given

line. of the
an

Hippias

of Elis
later

likewise
he

quadrature

circle, and

attempted

trisection

of

angle,

for which

he

constructed

quadratrix.

This

cnrve

is described
cut

as

follows

Upon

quadrant
OA OA
to

of

cumf cir-

off by
.

two

perpendicular
B.
. .

radii,
r
=1

and

OB,

li with
OB

the

points

A,
.
.

IC, L,
.

The

radius

revolves

uniform
At

velocity
same

about
a

from

the position

OA

the position
to

the

time

straight

line
the

g- always OA

parallel
to

OA

moves

with

uniform
at

velocity
B.

from
is the

position

that

of

tangent
at

the circle when through

the

If K*

intersection

of g- with
the

OB

the
to

time
OA

moving

radius
the

falls upon
OIC

OlCihen
a

parallel

fC' meets

radius

in

point

A"'

belonging the

to

the

quadratrix.

If P

is the

intersection and
arc
arc

of OA
from
OK' OL
9
"

with

quadratrix,

follows

in part

directly

in part
AK
AL

simple

considerations,

that

relation

which

solves

any

problem

of

angle

sections.

more. Further-

OP
^__2r

OA

whence

it is obvious

that

the quadrature

of the circle depends

upon

/J/^aX

V-

p-WN

ratio

in

which
If this

the

radius
could

OA

is

divided

by
by

the

point

of

the

dratrix.
the the that

ratio of.
was

be

constructed

elementary
It

etry, geomappears
an

quadrature quadratrix
its

the

circle invented

would
for

be the the

effected.*
trisection
was

first
the

of

angle

relation

to

quadrature

of

circle

discovered

er,

as

is shown

by

Dinostratus.

The

problem
in
Hippocrates.

of

the

quadrature
He

of

the
to

circle

is

also

und

endeavored

accomplish

purpose

by

the

consideration
arcs

of
circles.

crescent-shaped
It

gures

bounded
to

by
note

of

is of
wrote

especial
an

portance

that

Hippocrates

mentar ele-

book he

of

mathematics
a

(the
point
o,

first

of
single
we

the

kind)
capital

which
and

represented segment who

was

by

tter

by

^s

although
to

are

unable

determine

the

first

introduce

this

symbolism.

Geometry
by
Plato,

was

strengthened
felt the need of

on

the

philosophic tions definithe

de

who

establishing
the
work

and

axioms
by the

and

simplifying
of
the of
the

of

vesti in-

introduction

analytic
the

method.
of

systematic

representation

results
of

all

earlier

investigations
by Euclid
the

in

domain

elementary abundant

ometry, is

enriched
given by

fruits
in

of

his

own

bor,

the

thirteen
plane

books

of

his
but

ements

which with figures

deal in

not

only and

with

figures
investiga-

so

space

algebraic

*The
a

equation
ssa

of

the

quadratrix
r
=

in

polar have

co-ordinates
2a
"=
"

is

rwm

-? ""

. '

"^

sin^'

re

Oi4.

Putting

^=o,

ro,

we

tions.

''Whatever of
the

has

been

said

in

praise
and

of
rigor

matics, matheof of

strength,
all

perspicuity
true

it

presentation,
great

is

especially

of

this

work
and

the

Alexandrian.
are

Definitions,
together
of
a

axioms, by
link
as

conclusions
a

joined
inflexible,
to

link binding

into

chain,
and
no

firm

and

force

but

also

cold

hard,
room

repellent for is

productive

mind
A

and

affording

independent
to

activity. appreciate
of

ripened

ing understandbeauties
It
to

needed
monument

the

classic

of

this

greatest
arena

Greek
for

ingenuity.

is not captivate
he

the

for

the
of

youth

eager is

enterprise

him
hope

field
to

action

better
new,

suited

where

may

discover

something of
the

unexpected."*

The

first triangles
the

book

Elements

deals
the

with second

the

theory

of

and

quadrilaterals,
of the Pythagorean

book

with
a

application
number of

theorem

to

large

constructions,
book

really

of

arithmetic
the fourth tions Propor-

nature.

The

third
and by

introduces

circles,

book

inscribed

circumscribed the in the

polygons. of

explained the

aid

line
book

segments

occupy

fifth
to

book,
the

and
proof
The

sixth

find

their
the

application similar
tenth
numbers.

of

theorems

involving

ity
books

of

figures.
have

seventh,
to

eighth,

ninth
theory

and
of
measurement

especially
books division the
least

do

with

the

These
and

contain
of
common

respectively
the

the

numbers,

algorism
and geometric the

for

ter de-

multiple
numbers,

greatest

common

divisor,

prime

series,

incommensurable
in

(irrational)
:

numbers.

Then the
the

llows the of in

stereometry

the
;

eleventh in the
cone,

book
twelfth,

straight
sion discus-

ne,

plane,

the prism,

prism

the the

pyramid,
regular

cylinder, with
number

sphere;

thirteenth, formed
from

polygons the

the of

regu-

solids

them,
as

which
in

clid
least

gives from

definitely
the glory

five. due
to

Without
Euclid it
for

detracting the be

composition

of

this

imperishable
portions
grew

work,
out

may

assumed

at

individual

of

the
is

well

grounded
certainly
seems

eparatory

work the

of

others.

This

almost

of
been

fifth
the
reason

book,

of

which

Eudoxus

to

ve

real

author. of
a

Not

by

great

compilation
single
have
a

like treatises,

Euclid,

through

series

of

valuable
to

Archimedes

is

justly
of
of

entitled geometric sphere

more

detailed
In

script deinvestigations

his
the

productions.
and

his

cylinder

he

assumes

that
two

straight
From

line

is
the

the

shortest
we

distance
have
a

between

ints.
of

Arabic

small

geometric
so-called with lines

rk

Archimedes
some

consisting
which of
have

of

fifteen

mmas,

of

value bounded

in

connection
by

comparison
arcs

figures
th^

straight
the

of

circles,
of

trisection
ratios.

of

angle,

and

determination
is his
to

cross-

Of

especial

tance imporhe

mensuration
lie

of

the

circle,

in

which
as

ows

between

^^

and

^^,
obtains

This by

well

as

ny

other

results

Archimedes

the

method

the

place

of
the

the
area

modem

integration.*
by
a

The

quantity
example,

sought, be

bounded
as

curve,

for

may

considered and

the

limit

of

the

areas

of number
the

the

inscr

circumscribed
is

polygons

the

of

whose the

sides
arcs,

continually
"

increased
that
the

by

bisection
between

of

and

it is shown
polygons,
must

difference

two

associated this
process,

by
become This
the

an

indefinite
less

continuance
an

of

than

arbitrarily
was

small
were,

given

magnitude.
and

difference

thus,

as

it

exhausted,

result

obtained

by

exhaustion.

The

field

of
at

the the of

constructions
hands the
given

of

elementary
an

etry geomextension
a

received
the

of problem

Apollonius
to

in

solution
to

construct

circle

tangent

three of
the

circles,

and

in

the

systematic
or

introduction This

diorismus in

(determination
more

limitatio

also
Sections,

appears from the general,

of

difficult
that the

problems
Apollonius

in

his

Conic

which conditions
but

we

see

gives the

not

simply in

for

possibility desires

of

solution
the

especially

to

determine From

limits

the

solutions.
theorems
extant

Zenodorus figures that the

several
are

regarding
;

isohe

perimetric

still
has
a

for

example, than all

any

states

circle

greater that

area

iso-

perimetric

regular polygons
of

polygon,

among of
on.

isoperithe

metric
has

the
area,

same

number and
so

sides

regular

the

greatest

Hypsicles

gives

kistoriqui

Poriginett

something

new

the and
on

division

of

the

circumference
From
to

nto

three
havQ
a

hundred
book

sixty

degrees.

Heron

geometry

(according
on

Tannery

till

another,

commentary
an

Euclid's

Elements)
the
mensuration

hich

deals

in

extended

manner

with find

of
A

plane

figures.
triangle
Cy

Here

we

deduced
are a,

for ^,

the
c,

rea

of
2s
=

the

whose the

sides

and

here

a-\-^-\-

formula

the

measurement

of
for
w;

the

circle still

we

usually the
Book

find

as

approximation
we

but
3.

in

of

urements Meas-

also

find

""

In

the
era

period
the

after

the becomes find

commencement

of
more

the

hristian

output

still anything
on

meager. noteworthy.

nly

occasionally
however, the

do

we

erenus,

gives
fact

theorem
a

transversals
pencil

hich
an

expresses arbitrary
Almagest

that

harmonic harmonic

is cut
In

transversal
occurs

in

range.
the

the

theorem

regarding
known
as

inscrib

quadrilateral,
and
a

ordinarily
value

Ptolemy's form

eorem,

written

in

sexagesimal

3.8.30,

i.

e.
,

'=^+

+
60
60-60

=^T20

^-^^^^^
"

*
" " "

special
not

treatise

on

geometry

Ptolemy

shows

that
as

does

regard

Euclid's

theory

of

parallels

indispu

To

the

last

supporters Africanus, who

of

Greek determined

geometry

belong

Sextus

Julius
by

the

width

of

stream

the whose

use

of
name

similar
has

right-angled
become
very

triangles,
well known

and

Pappus,

by

reason

of of

his

Collection,

This

work the
part,

consisting
first

inally origwholly the

eight

books, in

of

which

is

lost

and
of

the the

second mathematical
of
the

great

presents of

stance sub-

writings
and
was

special
places

repute

in

the

time

author,

in

some

adds

corollaries. great
most

Since

his

work

evidently
it has the become

composed
one

with

conscientiousness,
trustworthy
sources

of
the

the

for

study

of
geometric

mathematical
part

history the of
Collection

of

ancient

times.
among
means

The

of

contains
different

other

things
two

discussions

the

three

between
tangency
case

line-segments,
It far

isoperimetric

figures,
similarity
to

and

of of

circles.
;
so

also
at

discusses
least
as

in that

the all

cles cir-

show of
two

lines

which

join

the
same

ends
or

of in
line

parallel
opposite of
centers.

radii

circles,

drawn in

in
fixed

the

directions,

intersect

point

of

the

The
the

Greeks field

rendered elementary
theory

important

service
:

not

simply
also the
as

in

of
the

geometry of conic
so

they

are

creators

of
the

sections. in the the

of
any
more

And
other the for

in

the

one

napie

of of Perga

Euclid, has
the

name

of

Apollonius The begin

been

signal

controver

theory

of

curves

second
than

order
does

does

not

with

Apollonius

ements

signify
of the Conies

for

elementary signify for

the

geometry, the first theory four

the of books

eight
of

oks

lines

second
Sections
text

order. of the
:

Only
Apollonius
three

of

the

onic

are

preserved

in

the

eek

next

are

known
has

through
never

Arabic found
been The

anslations

the
up

eighth for lost,

from the
cones,

book though

been
have Pappus.-

is

given
by
H

its

contents

stored book

alley
with

references

in

rst

deals

formation

of

conies

by

plane

ctions with
to

of

circular
axes

with

conjugate
The These from

diameters,
has

and

tangents.
asymptotes.

second

especially

do

with
off

Apollonius
the

tains obof
contact

by
the

laying half-length
to

on

tangent parallel of
on

point
and

of the theorems

the
center

diameter
the
curve.

joining
third
the

extremity

The

ok

contains
upon the

foci

and
circles this

secants,

and
conies
elementary

urth

intersection

of

with
the

and

conies

with
of

one

another.
by

With

eatment

conies

Apollonius

closes.

The

fol-

wing

books the the

contain
methods

special developed deals

be

investigations
in the the first

in
four

tion applicabooks.

of

us

fifth

book

with

maximum from
from
a

and

minimum
to

lines

which
also of
and
manner

can

drawn

point
a

the

nic, the

and

with
the
curve

the'

normals of

given
the
in

point

plane equal

the

second
;

order; seventh

sixth
a

th

similar
with
as

conies
the

the

remarka

parallelograms
and the
theorem

having

con-

jugate
the

diameters

sides

upon

book

contained, connected
seventh The first book.

according
in
the

to

Haliey,
manner

series

of lemmas

lems prob-

closest

with

of

the

effort

toward

the

development
to

of

the

ory theHe

of

conic
the

sections
duplication

is

ascribed of
the

Hippocrates.*
to

reduced
of

cube
jt

the

construction

two

mean

proportionals
a

and

j' between

two

given

line-segments

and

b ;

thusf
ay,
y*

"

"

4^
b

gives

x^

bx,

whence

Archytas

and

Eudoxus
curves

seem

to

have the

found,

by

plane

construction,

satisfying straight the

new

above

equations
Menaechknown

but

different

from for

lines

and

circles.
already by

mus

sought

curves,

by

plane

constructions,
of

representation and
became
He

sections

of

cones

revolution,

the employed
of
a

discoverer

of

conic

sections
perpendicular thus
of
a

in

this

sense.

only

sections

to

an

element
was

right
as

circular the
"section

cone;

the

parabola
cone"

designated

right-angled
the the ellipse,

(whose
''

generating
of
an

angle

is

45")

the

section

acute-angled of
an

cone";

hyperbola,
These he

the
names

"section
are

obtuseby

angled

cone."

also
tha^t

used
the

medes, Archicurves

although
can

was

aware

three
cone.

be

formed

as

sections

of

any'

circular

Apol

*Zeuthen,
V.

Die

Lehre
i8ti6.

von

den
459.

Kegelscknitten
Hereafter

im

Altertum.
to
as

Deutsch

von

Fischer-BenzoD,

P.

referred

Zeuthen.

onius

first

introduced

the Possibly

names

**

ellipse,'

"parabola,"

"hyperbola."
case

Menaechmus,
by

but

in

ny

Archimedes,

determined
areas,

conies
form

linear The
some

quation

between

of

the

y^=zkxxx.

emi-parameter, his

with

Archimedes known
the
to

and
as

possibly
"the
segment

predecessors,
i.
e.,

was

to

he

axis,''
the

the

segment
the
curve

of

axis

of

the

circle
with

rom

vertex

of
cone.

its

intersection
"parameter"

he

axis due
to

of

the

The

designation

Desargues

(1639).*
f
that

It

has

been
the

shown

Apollonins

represented
x

the

conies regarded
as

by

uations parallel
this

of

form

y^
and

^=fx
every

-f-0.7^, where
term

and

are

coordinates

is

represented
areas
were

an

area.

om

other

linear

equations
to

involving

derived, by

and
the

equations
of
a

belonging

analytic

geometry

were

obtained origin
could,

system
reasons,

of be

parallel
shifted

coordinates simultaneously

whose with

for

ometric
axes.

an

interchange
ideas

Hence

we

already which

find

certain almost

fundamental
two

of

the

alytic

geometry

appeared

thousand

years

later.

The

study
itself only

of

conic

sections
time

was

continued
a

upon

the

ne

till the

when

single
to

tal fundamen-

plane further

property

rendered in

it the
up

possible
plane.
to

undertake

he

investigation
become known,

\
time
on

In

this
of

way

here

had
a

the

Archimedes,

number
and
as axes,

of the by

important

theorems of

conjugate
to

iameters,

relations the aid

the linear

lines

these

amet di-

of

equations

be-

*Baltzer,

R.,

Analytische

Gtomeirie^

1882.

ween

areas.

There
theorem, segments arbitrary ratio,
theorems

were

also

known

the

so-called
the
rectangles

ewton's

power

the
of
two

theorem
secants

that

of

the
an

of

conic
are

drawn

hrough

point

in
upon
or

given
the
as

direction generation locus

in

onstant

of
related

onic

by

aid

of

its

tangents

the

to

our

straight

lines,
But

and

the

theorem
were

regarding always

pole

and

polar. only
one

these of

theorems the

applied of the
valuable
own

branch

hyperbola.
was

One
to

services and

of

Apollonius

extend

his
known,

theorems, branches

consequently
of the
hyperbola.

those

already
His
whole

to

both

method

justifies

us

in

regarding
the
more

him
theory
we

the

most

prominent sections, his

represent

of
much
that the

Greek

of
see

conic
from theory been

and

when

can

principal

work

the

foundations had
theorems the
theory

for

the

of

projective
by

ranges

and
in

pencils

virtually and
period

laid

the

ancien

different Apollonius the

we

applications.
of
comes
new

With

discoveries
to
an

in In

the

realm

of

of
only

conies

end.
known

later

times
to

find

applications
no

of

long

theorems
solution in

problems
of oldest problems times

of

great

difficulty.
an

Indeed,
important

the

already of
the

played
geometry

part

the the

Greek

and
not

nishe fur-

occasion
also of
curves

for

exposition order
which transmitted

only the
account

of
second.

conies

but In

of
of

higher

than
on

the

number
value

problems, been

of

their

classic

have

from

eratio gen-

ccasion

for importance,
the

further

investigation,
forth

three,
:

by
the

reas'on

of

heir

stand
or

preeminent
the angle

tion duplica-

of the

cube, the

more

generally of the

multiplication and
of
the these

cube, of
the

trisection The the

rature quadthree
in

circle.
been
the

appearance greatest

roblems

has

of

significance The
the

the

evelopment the

of

whole
of
an

of

mathematics.
equation
angles
theory

first
gree deto

equires
;

solution

of
at

third leads
i.

the

second

(for
section

certain of
the

least)
numbers,

important
the the

of Gauss

e.,

cyclotomic
first
to

equations, show that edge

by

and
a

(see
number
we

p. of
can

i6o)

finite

operations
construct

with
a

straight

and
of
n

compasses

regular

polygon

sides

whenever third

"

is

rime

number
over

and
into
the

"

2^.

The

problem

eaches
*

province
showed

of

algebra,
that
""

for

Lindebe
the

nn

in
an

the

year

1882

cannot

oot

of

algebraic

equation
of
from the the

with

integral

coefficients. the

The

multiplication
of
x

cube,

algebraically

etermination

equation

y^

"

d5*
a

="?""",

s also

called required
of

the
to

Delian double
was

problem, their

because

the

Delians The

re

cubical

altar,

f
by

soluti

this
and

problem
Menaechmus;

specially the

studied latter

Plato, it
by

rchytas,

solved

*Mathem.

Annalen^ Problems Boston,

XX.,

p.

215.

See

also

Mathent. 1895,

Annalen^

XLIIL,

and
Beman

lein,

Famous

of
1897.

Elementary

Geometry^

translated

by

Smith,

the

use

of

conies constructed

(hyperbolas
a

and

parabolas).
apparatus

tosthe Erafor
the

mechanical

same

purpose.

Among

the
an

solutions
the

of

the

problem of Archimedes

of

the

trisec-

tion

of

angle,
It

method
an

is noteworthy. the
use
so

furnishes

example

of
made

called
when

"insertions'*
by

of straight
process
AB

which
edge
was
as

the

Greeks

solution His

and follows

compasses
:

was

sible. imposto

Required
M

divide
three
B

the

arc

of

the

circle the

with

center

into
through
and

equal
secant

parts.

Draw
the
Z",
so

diameter

AE^

and
in
C

cutting
AE

circumference
that

the
r

ame di-

in

CD

equals

the

radius

of

the

circle.

Then

arc

CE=^\AB.

According
in

to

the off
B

rules
upon

of
a

insertion

the length
D

process
r,

consists

laying
through

ruler
one

causing

to

pass
r

while the

extremity
AE.

of
By

the

ment seg-

slides
we

along

diameter

moving the
other

the

ruler

get
the

certain
segment

position
r

in

which
the

extremity

of

falls is

upon

ence, circumfer-

and

thus

the

point Pappus

determined.
to

This

problem

claims

have

solved

after

ions.

Since
lines
to

in
the

the

writings
order

of

ApoUonius,
find
an

so

largely

ost,

of the

second

extended
the
to

application
were

solution

of loci

problems^
in

conies

requently
e.,

called
straight

solid
line
term

opposition
circle.
all

plane

loci,
these

the

and

Following
other
curves,

me

linear
a

loci,

including

of

ich This

large

number of
says

were

investigated.
loci is found, book
*

designation

the

for
that

example,
a

Pappus,
is

who

in

his

seventh
or

lem probas

called

plane,

solid,
plane,

linear,

according linear
loci

its
is,

lution

requires
highly
from

solid,
that

or

loci.

It

wever,

probable and

the

received
the

their

es

problems, into
plane,

that

therefore and
linear

division
the

problems

solid,

preceded First

signation
noticed

of that till loci"

in

the
we

corresponding
do the
not

loci.
hear
** **

it is

to

of
plane Plane

linear

problems solid
lems probwere

loci"

after
were

terms

and

and which

in

use.

problems proved
or

ose

the

geometric

treatment

to

be
de-

pendent
between
the

upon

equations
segments,

of

the

first

second
be

ee

and of

hence
areas,

could the Greek

solved
method

simple
solution
upon

application
of the

the

quadratic
solution

equations. of

Problems the
forms

dependin

equations
to

of
use

third
of

gree

between
dimensions,

segments
as,
e.

led
g.,

the

of

ree

the problems
were

duplication

of

the used

be, their

and

were

termed

solid

the

loci

solution

(the

conies)

solid

loci.

At

time
was

when
forgotten,
to

the

significance
the
term
'*

of
linear

''plane"

*"

and
was

solid"

firs
*'

problem"
treatment

applied

those
no

problems

whose
to

(by
the

ear lin

loci")
and

longer

led

equations
which

of

first,

second,

third

degrees,

and
as

therefore between

could

no

longer

be
areas,

represented
or

linear

relations

ment seg-

volumes. Hippias

Of

linear the his

loci
name

applied
was

the

quadratrix later attached

(t

which

of

Dinostratus
at

through
the

attempt

the

quadrature

of
was

the

circle)*

to

trisection
the

of

the

angle.
torus

Eudoxus
by
the

acquainted parallel

with

sections
of
the

of

the

made

planes

to

the

axis

surface,

especially
The

hippopede

figure

of-eight

curve.f
celebrity.

spirals
His

of

Archimedes
of

attained

special
compares

exposition
with
his elegant

their

properties of
Conon

favorably

tigatio inves-

the had

quadrature

of
generated

the

parabola.
the

already
motion along

spiral

of

medes Archi-

by

the

of
the

point

which OA

recedes of
a

with

uniform the

velocity
center

radius OA

circle

from

O, O.
But

while

likewise

revolves
the

form unito

about

Archimedes
beautiful

was

first this

cove dis-

certain
found
that
k

of

the

properties revolution,
the

of

curve;

he

if, after
of
at

one

spiral

meets

the

circle

radius

OA the

in

(where

BO
hy

is
BO

tangent

to

the

spiral

^),

area

bounded

and

the

Cantor,

I., pp.
Proklo*

184,

233.
die

Majer,

Uber

Petita

und

Axiomata

bet

Euklid,

1875.

iral

is the

one-third
tangent
to to

of the
at

the

area

of
at

the
B
cuts

circle off
to

k ;

further

at

spiral
a.

from
the

perpendic

OB

O
k.*

segment

equal

ference circum-

of The

the

circle
noteworthy
of

only

discovery
the

of which

Nicomedes he

is

construction
solve

conchoid
the
same

employed

the

problem
to

of
the

two

mean

proportionals,
the

what of
the

amounts

thing, is
the

tion multiplicalocus

cube.
X
upon
a

The

curve

geometric

of

point

moving
a

straight

line
P

which
cuts
a

constantly

passes

through A in
Yso

fixed
XY

point
has the

and
constant

fixed

raight

line

that

length.

comedes

also
and

investigated

properties

of

this rulers

ve

constructed

an

apparatus

made

of

its

mechanical cissoid
of the of

description.
Diodes
It

The

is

also be
A

of

use

in

the

multiplication
as

cube.

may

constructed
the
cuts

lows fol-

Through
k

the

extremity
secant

of which

radius
k

OA
in X,

of

circle

passes OB

the

^C

and
upon

radius is
B,

perpendicular
of
the

to

OA

in

Z";

point
that
curve

cissoid
the

when

DX=^DC.\
line and
the

Gemicircle

proves

besides invented

straight

helical

by

Archytas

possesses

the

sertion
Along

property.

with
geometry

the

geometry of
space,

of
first

the
as

plane elementary

was

oped develstere-

the

Montucla.
Famous

ometry

and second and back

then

in

theorems The

dealing

with
of the

surfaces

of

the

order.
the
to

knowledge

five

regular

bodies

related

circumscribed
According

sphere
to

certainly
statement

goes

Pythagoras. Locri,*

the
of

of

Timaeus
of

of

fire
of

is

made

up

tetrahedra,

air

octahedra,
the

water

icosahedra,
forms the
or

earth
boundary

of

cubes, of

while

dodecahedron

the

universe.

Of
seems

these
to

five
have

cosmic been

Platonic

bodies

Theaetetus

the
states

first
that

to

publish
a

connected

treatment.

Eudoxus

pyramid

(or

cone)

is

of

prism

of

equal

base

and of the

altitude.
Euclid's

The

eleventh,

twelfth
a

and

thirteenth

books

Elements

offer

summary

discussion

of

ordinary introduces boundaries

stereometry.

(See
semi-regular

p.

199.)
solids, i.

Archimedes
e
,

thirteen
are

solids
or

whose
three
surface

regular

polygons this he

of
compares

two

different

kinds.
of

Besides
the

the

and

ume vol-

sphere

with

the

corresponding

expressions
deduces
theorems the

for

the

circumscribed
he
esteems
so

cylinder
highly

and that he

which
to

expresses

desir

have

the

sphere

and

circumscribed
Among give
later

cylinder
cians mathematiin

cut

upon

his

tomb-stone. and Heron

Hypsicles

exercises

the

mensurati

of

regular

and

irregular

solids. investigations

Pappus

also

furnishes

certain

stereometric
as
new

of

which

we

specially the volume

mention of
a

only

the
by

determination
means

of

solid
the

of

revolution
of
its

of

the

meridian

section

and

path

center

of

gravfty.

thus

shows
as

familiarity
Guldin's
the

with
rule.

part

of

the

theorem

ter

known

Of

surfaces

of

second of

order

the
i.

Greeks
e.,

knew
sphere,
Euclid
the

elementary
right
only

surfaces

revolution,
and
circular

the

circular with with

cones

cylinder

cone.

als

of

revolution,
in the
**

Archimedes In

on

ntrary

circular investigates

cones

general. right-angled
**

addition, conoids"

chimedes

paraboloids
'*

of

revolution),
of

the

obtuse-angled of
one

conoids

(hyperboloids
and
the

revolution

sheet),
of

and

long

flat

spheroids"
and minor sections

(ellipsoids
axes).
and
Probably form
the
a

revolution
the

out

major
of

He the

determines

aracter

plane

volume

of

ments seg-

of
that

such

surfaces.
surfaces

Archimedes locus

also of

ew

these

geometric
point

point
are

whose

distances
a

from

fixed According

and
to

given

ane

in

constant

ratio.
as
a

Proclus,* Euclid,
by

is
torus

of

importance

commentator

upon

was

also
r

known^"

surface
an

generated
axis

rcle
that

of

radius
its
center

revolving
describes

about
a

in

its

plane

circle

of

radius

e.

The

es

r=^,

"^,
methods

"C^
of

were

discussed.

With

projection,
Anaxagoras

also, and
of

the

Greeks

were

unacquainted,
to

f
known

Democritus

are

id

have

the
at

laws
for the

the

vanishing
cases.

point

of
us

reduction,

least

simplest
from

Hip-

rch

projects
Proklos

the

celestial

sphere

pole

upor-

Uier

die

Petita

Axiomata

bei

EiMid,

the

plane the

of

the

equator;

he

is

therefore

the has
come

inTentor
to

of

stereographic

projection
of

which

be

known

by

the

name

Ptolemy.

D.

THIRD

PERIOD.

son

ANS,

HINDUS,

CHINESE,

ARABS.

Among
so

no

other
an

people
eminence
in
this

of

antiquity
as

did
the

geometry

reach

high

among
were

Greeks.
transplanted

Their

acquisitions
to

domain

in

part

foreign

soil,
of

yet

not

so

that

(with
anything
was

the

possible

exception
new

arithmetic

calculation)
what
even

essentially from

resulted.
the

Frequently
was

her in-

Greeks remained From

not

fully in
the
the

stood, underliterature

and the
foreign

therefore

buried the
from

of

nation.
but

time
that

of

sance, Renais-

however,

especially
with
more

of

Descartes,
resources

an

entirely

new

epoch

powerful

investigated

the

ancient

treasures

and

laid

them

under

contribution.
Among the

Romans
truths

independent
almost

investigation disappeared.
was

o What

mathematical
they
obtained
ends

wholly Greeks
For

from

the

made

to

serve

practical Euclid
of

exclusively.
Heron
were

this

purpose
To

parts

and
the

translated.
or

simplify

the

work

surveyors
were

agrimensores,
into
a

important larger

geometr

theorems

collected

work

s.

In

the is
found

work

of
value

Vitruvius

on

architecture
though
more

^.

"

14)

the

"'

3J

which,
was

less

curate

than
in

Heron's the

value

w=:S^,
system.*

easily
has

ployed
a

duodecimal
on

Boethius
but

ft

special

treatise
that

geometry,

the

contents

so

paltry
an

it

is

safe

to

assume

that of

he

made
etry. geom-

of

earlier

imperfect

treatment

Greek

Although' Greek,

the
yet

Hindu it has
its

geometry
own

is

dependent
due
to

upon

peculiarities of
the

the

ithmetical of
the

modes

of

thought
are

people. These
to

Certain
teach

rts

^ulvasutras

geometric.
known the
a

e
e.,

rope-stretching
they

already
the

Egyptians,
by 15

require
a

construction

of
knot

right

angle

ns

of
39 36

rope

divided
the
=

by

into

segments
to
a

respectively,

ends

being
They
also

fastened
the

ment seg-

(15^4with

36"

39").

use

gnomon

deal

the

transformation Pythagorean

of
theorem

figures
to

and
the

the

plication of the
e.,

of
a

the
given
appears

multiplication

square. the of

Instead

of

the

quadrature the
to

circle
the

circulature
a

of equal
equal

square,
a

construction
Here
the
the

circle
is put

given

uare.

diameter

to

of

the

agonal

of used

square,

whence

follows
In
the

vssS^
other
cases

(the
a

lue

among
on

the
which

Romans).
yields

ocess

is carried writings
for

value

w=S. rect incor-

The

of
the

Aryabhatta

contain
of
the

certain
pyramid

formulae

mensuration

and

sphere

(for the

p"Taniid

F=}^i(),
geometric
valoe

but theorems.

also

Bianbe!

of

perfectly

accurate

Airabliatta

gives

the

approziinate
teaches

"-

"!{}(
or

3.1416.

Brahmagupta and
the

mensoratioiial

Hoooic

geome

is

familiar

with

the

formula

for

the

area

of

triangle,

and

the

formola

for

the

area

of

the

inscribed

lateral, quadri-

which
work

he

applies
besides
any

incorrectly
we

to

any find
to

quadrilateral.
the value it
was

In

his

vsd

also
as

w=VW,
obtained.

but

without

indication devotes he gives

how

Bhaskara
geometry.

likewise For that

of

himself
not

only only
the

to

algebraic
value
a

Greek

and

Aryabhatta

f^f^|,
Of
geometric
He
states

but

also

value

ir=}JJ=3.14166
Bhaskara
knows

demonstrations the
theorem,

...

nothing.
and
a

adds
In

the

figure

writes
transfer

"Behold of
geometry

!"*

Bhaskara
to

from

Alexan"

dria

India

is

undoubtedly
extended
a

demonstrable,
further

and eastward

perhaps

this
the

influence
In

still
work

to

Chinese.

Chinese
several

upon

mathematics, after Christ,

triangle

composed
Pythagorean

perhaps theorem 4, 5;

centuries
applied
to

the with
ver

is

the

sides

8,

rope-stretching

is

indicated;

the

ices

of

figure

are

designated
put
to

by
to

letters

after
toward

the
the

reek
of
Greek

fashion
the
sixth

ir

is

equal

3,

and

nd

century

^/^
the

geometry
part

reached
the

Arabs
The

in

part
esteem,

directly
ever, howwere

nd

in in

through
the
not

Hindus.
works

which

classic
up

of the

Greek

origin
real

eld

could
power,

make
so

for Arabs

lack

of
not

tive producin
a

and
in

the

did

succeed
even

ingle

point
of

carrying

theoretic
beyond

geometry,
what

in

he

subject
in

conic golden
may
a

sections,
age

had

been

eached
few

the

of

Greek

geometry. In
Al

Only
Khowatheorem

particulars

be

mentioned.
of
the

zmi

is

found

proof of the

Pythagorean

nsisting

only

separation triangles.
more

of

square

into
whole

ght

isosceles

right-angled draws

On

the
than

Khowarazmi
sources.

from

Greek
of
are

from

ndu
that

The
Euclid; the

classification
calculations the
=

quadrilaterals
made
after
we

of

ron's the

fashion. Hindu
a

Besides

Greek

value

ir=^

nd

values book

ir

fff^f

and

ir=l/TO.
constructions.
squares

Abul

fa this

wrote

upon

geometric
of
several

are

found

combinations

into

single
the
the

one,

as

well
of of

as

the
Pappus.

construction After
the

of

polyhedra

ter

methods

Greek
the

ion fash-

trisection
ibn Kurra,

the Al

angle

occupied and
Al

attention Among

Tabit

Kuhi,
the

Sagani.

ter

mathematicians

custom

of
of
an

reducing

geometric
common.

problem

to

the

solution

equation

is

tions

attained

some

excellent

results,

but

results

of

no

theoretic

importance.

E.

FOURTH

PERIOD.

FROM

GERBERT

TO

DESCARTES.

Among geometry

the in

Western
the

nations of

we

find

the

first

traces

of
as

works

Gerbert,
as

afterward

known

Pope
the

Sylvester

II.

Gerbert,
but
We

it

seems,

depends

upon

Codex

Arcerianus,

also find

mentions

Pjrthanything
thing Some-

agoras here

and
besides
more

Eratosthenes.*

scarcely

field
worthy

surveying

as

in
in

Boethius.
Leonardo's in
which Heron,

first

appears

nacci' (Fibowork

Practica

geomeiri"Le\
to

of

1220,

reference

is

made
The

Euclid,
over

Archimedes,
of the

and

Ptolemy.
down
from

working

material

handed
is the

the

ancients, Thus the

in

Leonardo's

book,
of

fairl

independent.

rectification without
from
1440

circle
use

shows
of

where

this

mathematician,

making
polygon

Archimedes,
96

determines
the

the

regular

of

sides

value
the
be

w=

^^
no

=3.1418.
proper
to

Since

among
can

ancients

theory

of

star

polygons
at

established,

it is not Ages

be

wondered
to

that

the

early

Middle

have
had in

little first the

a

show

this

direction.
only
;

Star-polygons
they
were

mystic
art
as

nif sig

used

black heraldry.

th

pentacle,

and

also

in

architecture

and

Adel-

of

Bath

went

with

more

detail
on

into

the

study
etry geom-

of

ar-polygons
;

in

his

commentary

Euclidean

the

theory

of

these

figures

is first

begun

by

Re-

omontanus.
The

first

German

mathematical

work

is

the

Deut

he

Sphara
Megenberg,

written

in

Middle

High
Vienna
The

German
in the

by
first

Conrad
half
of

probably
century.

in

fourteenth
to

first

popular

introduction

geometry century,

appeared in six
leaves

anoiiymously of
simple The BC

in

the

fifteent

rules

of

constructi

for
the

geometric

drawing.

beginning,
to

containing

construction
of

oi

perpendicular
triangle AC, bits
a

AB

the

aid

the the

right-angled
hypotenuse

ABC
as

in

which

bisects
From

runs

follows:*
are

geometry

some

useful
to

which
angle

written
quickly.
as

ter

this.
two

1.

First

make

right

aw

lines

across

each lines the

cross

other each

just
other

about there

you put

sh
e.

and

where
place
e,

the

Then

compasses

with
out
as

one

foot

upon

point
make
a,

and

open

them

far
Let

as

you

wish, be the
line

upon
b,
c,

each

line
one

point.

these make
a

tters

all

at

distance.
to
c.

Then
have

om

atod

and here

from

So

you

right

angle

which
This

is

an

example."

construction

of in

right
appears

angle,

not

given the than

in
year

clid
to

but

first

Proclus,
more

about
use

00

be
of

in Euclid

much
by

extensive

the

thod

the

aid

of

the

angle

inscribed

in

semi-circle.
Adam

By

his is

knowledge
to

of

this

last

construction
an

Riese knew
of
old

said
to

have

humiliated

tect archiby the

who

how

draw

right

angle

only

method
Very
der

Proclus.

printed

works

on

geometry

in

German

are

D9

Puech-

Un

fiaUn
Dflrei's

gerechttkait

by

Mathias
der

Roriczer

(1486)
mit
dem

and

Al-

brecht

UnderTveysung

nussung

zirckel

und

richtscheyt
manner

(Nuremberg,
rules

1525).
for
is
a

The

former

gives

in

rather

unscientific
;

special
far
more

problem
original

of

Gothic

ture architec-

the

latter,

however,

work

and

on

that

account

possesses

more

interest.*

With

the

extension

of

geometric
were

knowledge

Germany

Widmann
Widmann's

and

Stifel

especially
the
Functus is elements

concerne

geometry, explanations

like
"

o small
comer

Euclid,

begins
that
cannot

with

is

thing

be
there
a

divided.

Angulus

which

is made
Arab
names,

by

two

lines,

"f

Quadrilaterals
that the

have

striking
brought
by

evidence into
the

ancient

Greek

science

was

West

by

Arab

infl

Nevertheless,
is
the In

Roman

writers
as, e.

(Boethius)
g.
,

Widmann

led

into

many

errors,

when
a as

he

gives

area

of

the
Coss,

isosceles

triangle
theory

of

side
powers,

\c^

Rudolff's
to

in
of the
than

the
a

of
which

Stifel
receives

has

occasion

speak
in

subject
modern
three

first

proper
to

estimation

geometry,

viz.,
*'

the

right

admit
we

more

dimensions.
where it

Since,

however,

are

in

arithmetic
that

is

permitted
no

to

invent

many

things

otherwise
XX.. HI.

have

form,

*Gttnther

in

SchWmtich^s

ZetUchrt/i,

2.

is

also
to

is permitted
assume

which solid

geometry
and
were

does

not

allow,

mely

lines
if there
course,

surfaces
more

and

go

beyond

the

cube

just

as

than
nature.

three

mensions,
we

which
have
such

is,

of

against
on

good

indulgence

account

of

the

arming

and after
regular the the
as
a

wonderful
the
manner

usage

of of and

Coss."*
extends the

Stifel

Ptolemy

udy

of

polygons

after

the
solids.

manner

of

clid

construction
quadrature
polygon of

of

regular
circle,
many

He

cusses disthe

of

the

considering
sides, and
to

tter

infinitely impossible.

clare deAl-

the

quadrature

According

echt

Durer's
is
ten

Underweysung^
the

etc.,

the

quadrature
of

of
square

circle

obtained
parts

when

diagonal

the the

ntains

of

which
7r
=

the

diameter
It

of

circle
stated,

ntains

eight,
that **We

i.

e.,

3^.
an

is

expressly

wever,

this
should

is

only

approximate

construction.

need
equal
a

to

know

quadraiura

circuity
so

at

is

the

making

circle
much

and
as

square,
other,

that
this

one

should
yet

contain

as

the

but by

not

been

demonstrated

mechanically incidental
;

ars scholso

but

that

is

merely fail
only

therefore

that
may

practice
made
*SUfel,
Michael

it may equal
Dis Gmt as

slightly,

if at

all,

they

follows,

f
Mit
schOnen
. .

Ckristojft
Gebessert in
Preassen

Rudolffs,
vnd

Bzempeln Gegeben
.

der
znm

Coss.
Haber-

ch

Stifel

sehr

gemehrt.
letzten
tag

bei

K5nlgsberg
Zn
.

den

dess

Herbstmonds
Im

| im
16x5.
in

issa.

Amsterdam

Getmckt
der

bey

Wilhem
dem

Janson.
xirckel vnd

Jar

tDfirer,
ebnen

Underweysung
vnd
gantzen

messung

mit

richttcheyt
get^ogn

en

corporen.
habenden

Durch

Albrecht

Diirer

zusamen

kunstlieb

fignren

in

Upon
by

the Simon
By

mensuration
van

of Eycke

the in

circle* which

there

appeared
value
tt
=s

in

1584

work given.

der

the

"

"

was

calculating Ceulen
his

the found

side

of

the

regular in

polygon
that

of

192 14205

sides

Ludolph
In

van

(probably
v.

1686)
determined

ir"
ttsx

8.

"

"

"

-.

reply
v.

Simon
Ceulen

d.

Eycke

8. 1446055,

484

whereupon
8.14103.
85

L.

in

1586

computed papers

ir

between

8.142732

and
to

Ludolph
this

van

Ceulen's
the

contain

value
was

of

places,

and

value

of

Ludolphian
in

number St.
Peter's

put

upon

his

tombstone

(no

longer

known)
led

Church

Leyden.
further
6rst

Ceulen's

investigations By
the
to

Snellius,

Huygens,

and

others

to

studies. made

theory compute

of
n

rapidly
to

converging and
more

series

was

possible

500

decimals.

revival and

of

geometry With
the

accompanied
these

the

activity
begins
commences

of

Vieta

Kepler.

investigators

period reach

in

which
out

mathematical
the works

spirit of
the

to

beyond
the

ancients.];
;

Vieta
ingeni

completes
way

analytic discusses

method
the

of geometric second

Plato

in

an

ous

he

construction and third

the circles. by
to

of

roots

of

equations
solves

of
in
an

the

degrees

he

also
the

elementary
to

manner

problem

of

circle

tangent
results

three
are

given

Still
For
the

more

important
geometry With
in

secured key

Kepler.

him

furnishes
sure

the
he

the
the

secrets

of
of

world.
and
to

step

follows

path

tion induc-

his

geometric
Kepler

investigations

freely

conforms

Euclid.

established
that problem

the
of

symbolism

of

the

"golden

section,"

Eudoxus

Rudio,
Bierens

F.,

Das

Problem

von

tUr

Quadratur
Areh.^
I.;

des

Ztrksl*^
II.,

Zfirich,

iSga

tD.

de

Haan

in

Ninm.

Cantor,

ated

in
a

the

sixth

book

of

'Euclid's
in
extreme

E/^ments:

"To
niean

vide

limited
This

straight

line for

and

tio."*

problem,
sec^io

which
as

Kepler

introduced
divina,

designation in
his
eyes
'*

divina

well

as

proportio
that he

of

so

great
has

importance
two

expresses
one

mself:
theorem

Geometry
of

great the ratio.

the other

treasures:

is

Pythagoras,

the

division
first
we

of
may

line

in

extreme to

and
mass

mean

The
we

mpare

of

gold,

second

may

call

ecious
The

jewel.
expression in
to
none

"

"golden
the
text

section"

is
the

of

more

modem
century

origin.

occurs

of
been

books
by

of

eighteenth from ordinary

and

pears
In

have

formed
the

transfer
and
the this
"

tic. arithmecenturies

the

arithmetic
three

of

sixteenth

seventeenth

rule

of

is frequently

called
century

golden golden

rule.*' rule has

Since

the
way

ginning

of
and
more

the

nineteenth

given

before

the

so-called
in

Schlussrechnen the
' '

(analysis)
golden
rule,

of
"

Pestalozci

school.

Consequently
known
to

place

of

ich

is

no

longer

the

arithmetics,

there the

appeared

in

the

ementary "golden

geometries

about

the

middle

of

nineteenth
with

century

section,"
to

probably
to

in

connection

contemporary the

deavors
of
a

attribute
law.

this

geometric

construction

tance impor-

natural

Led

on

by

his

astronomical
of regular
groups

speculations,
polygons and

Kepler

de

special

study

star-

lygons. of

He

considered

of

regular

polygons
the

pable

elementary with
the

construction,
number
"
=

viz. sides
and

series
by
4

of

lygons
5-2*,

of
0

given

"2*,
that

2*,

15

-2*

(from

on),

remarked

regular
the

heptagon line Kepler had aid

term

cannot

be

constructed
alone.

by Further

the

help

of

straight
that

and

circle well

there Conies

doubt

understood

the
solution In

of

Apollonius
by
the

and

experience
of

in
curves.

the

of

lems probwe

these

his

works

first

find

the

**foci"

for

those
are

points
known
as

of

conic

sections

which

in

earlier

usage
ex

puncia
umbilieiy

ex

eomparaiione,
"poles";*
from

puneta
also
a

applieatione
term

facta,

or

the
to

"eccentricity"
center

for

the

distance

focus the

the of

divided

by

the

semi-

major
name

axis,

of

curve

the for

second
the
an

order,
angle
ellipse

and

the

"eccentric OA

anomaly"

/*'d?-"4,

where

is in

the

semi-major
the
the

axis

of
of the
a

and
on

the

point

which

ordinate upon

point

the

curve

intersects

circle

major
which

axis.f
had
been

Also

in

stereometric
to
a

investigations,
by

cultivated
is
Harmonice

decided

extent

Dtlrer

and

Stifel,

Kepler

preeminent

among

his
deals thirteen

contemporaries.
not

In

his

Mundi

he

simply
semi-regular

with

the Archimedean

five

regular

Platonic but
twelve

and also

solids,

with
and

star-polygons
twenty

and

star-

dodecahedra
we

of find by
the
the

vertices. the volumes

Besides

this

determination

of
of

of

solids

obtained
tangents,
were

revolution

conies

about

diameters,
of

or

secants.

Similar
by
a

determinations Guldin. of
the

umes vol-

effected

Cavalieri

and

The

former

employed

happy

modification

method

*C.

Taylor,

in

Cambr.

Proe.^

IV.

exhaustions, Pappus
To but

the
not

latter

used

rule

already
by
known

known

accurately belong the

established oldest with

which only first

him.

this

period

attempts

solve

geometric
an

problems endeavor in

one

opening
accurate

of

compasses,

found

ientific

expression

Steiner's
aer

Geometrische
Linie

Con-

ruktionen^

ausgefuhri
Kreises

mitiels

geraden

und

nes

festen

(1833).
back
to

The Waf

first
*

traces

of
the where

such

nstructions
were

go

Abul
the

a.

From

Arabs
they

ey

transmitted

to

Italian
da

school

pear

in
latter

the

works

of

Leonardo

Vinci

and

Cardan.
who

received
of

his

impulse
sort

from his

Tartaglia

ed

processes and

this

in

problem in
the

-duel

with

rdan

Ferrari.

They

also

occur

Resolutio

nium
a

Euclidis

problematum
of

(Venice,
in
the

1553)

of*

Bene-

ctis,
the

pupil

Cardan,
a

Geometria
pentagon gives
a

deuisch

and Dflrer.

construction

of
etc.

regular

by

his

Underweysung^

Dfirer
,

geometrically but
figure
to

urate

construction

of

the

regular

pentagon
same

also
be

approximate
with
a

construction

of

the

de

circle

of

fixed

radius.

This

method
:

of
A

constructing
B
as

regalar
with circle

pentagon radius
about
at

on

AB

is

as

lows

About

and
in
C

centers,

AB^ /"
A

construct
as

circles

intersecting

and
the

D.

The

center

with
E

same

radius
the
common

cuts

circles
CD

with
G.

centers

and

and
by

and and

chord
m

in
A

The
BH

same

circles sides

are

cut

EG

and

//.

J
of

and
this

are

of

the

regular

ntagon.

(The

calculation

symmetric

pentagon

shows

JfSA^lO^W,
is

whiU

the

corresponding

angle

of

the

regular

pentagon

108^.)

In

Dfilrer

and

all
we

his

snccessors

who approximate the

write

npon

rnles

of

metr geo-

construction, regular heptagon

'
'

find

an

construction

of
is half

the

The

side

of

regular

heptagon

that

of

the
the

equilateral equilateral
Schwenter

triangle,'* triangle likewise in his

ss

while
0.998

from
the

calculation

the

half

side

of

of

side
with
nova

of
a

the

heptagon.

Daniel

gave
Geametria

constructions

single
aucta

opening

of

the

compasses
as

pr"ictica
work also
He

et

(1025).

DUrer,

is manifest

from

his

Undenveysung

dermessung,

etc.,

already
theory

cited
of higher

several
curves.

times,

rendered
a

decided

service

the

gave
as new

general

conception
of
higher
carves

of

th

notion

of
cyclic

asymptotes
curves

and and

found

forms
lines.

certain

mussel-shaped

From

the make

fifteenth
a

century

on,

the

methods
van

of
Eyck*

project

further

advance. in

Jan
makes

the

great
of

altar

painting
e.

Ghent in
the

use

of
of

the

laws

perspective,

g.,

application

the

nishing
laws.

point,
This
in his

but is

without
first

mathematical by
messung the
to

grasp

of

ese

accomplished
der

Albrecht
mit

rer

who
und

Underweysung

dem

rckel

richtscheyt

makes

use

of
how

point
construct

of

sight
the elevation.

distance-point

and from

shows

rspective
In

picture
Italy

the
was

ground
developed

plan by

and
the

perspective and
the

tect archiThe

Brunelleschi this

sculptor

Donatello.
to

rst

work Battista

upon

new

theory In

is due
he

the the

architect
perspective

Alberti.
as

this

explains
the also

image
with

the

intersection

of

pyramid
mentions

of

visual
an

ys

the

picture-plane.
constructing net-work
upon

He
it,

strum in-

for

which
of

consists
and

of
a

frame

th

quadratic of lines

threads

similar
He

t-work

the
the

drawing

surface.
as

also by

ves

the by

method
means

of of

distance-point
he

invented
the

m,

which

then
*

pictures
This
process

ground received

vided
further

into

quadratic
at

figures.
the hands

extension employed lines.

of

Piero points

della

Fran-

ca

who

the

vanishing

of

arbitrary

rizontal In

German

territory zeal

perspective
where

was

cultivated
the

th

special
some

in

Nuremberg

goldsmith the lat-

ncker,

decades The first

after
French

Durer,

extended
study

r's

methods. due
la
to

of
who

perspective in

the

artist

J.

Cousin
the

(1560)
point

his
and

Livre
the

perspective

made

use

of
the

of

sight

stance-point,

besides

vanishing

points

of

hori-

zontal

lines, noticeably
point What
clearly

after

the

manner

of he

Piero.

Guido

Ubaldi
the
van-

goes

further
of of

when

introduces
lines
of

ishin

series

parallel

arbitrary Simon

dire

Ubaldi
grasps
theorem

simply in
he

foreshadows,
features,

Stevin
an

its

principal

and for

important

lays

the

foundation

the

development

of

the

theory

of

collineation.

F.

FIFl^H

PERIOD.

FROM

DBSCARTES

TO

THE

PRESENT.

Since
elapsed
full

the and

time
yet
no

of
one

Apollonius

many

centuries in
reaching partly

had

had
geometry.

succeeded
This

the

height
the-

of
sources

Greek
of

was

cau befew,

information

were

relatively
and

and

attainable
men,

indirectly

and

with

difficulty,

partly of

because

unfamiliar looked
upon

with
them

Greek
with
of for

methods

ve in

devout

ment. astonishand
was

From helpless by

this
endeavor

condition

partial relief,
not

paralysis,
geometry by
a

of

longing
This
to

delivered of
by

Descartes.

was

simple

addit

related

ideas
of

the

old

geometry,
geometry,

but
thus

merely

the
to

union
analytic
way

algebra geometry.

with

giving

rise

By

of

preparation
had

many

mathematicians,
the
most to

firs

of

all

Apollonius,
curves,

referred
the

important

ment ele-

namely

conies,

their

diameters

ions

of

the

first
were

degree

between
between

areas,

so

that

certain

relations with the have

**

obtained
and

line-segments

dentical
In

abscissas of

ordinates.
we

conies

ApoUonius

find

expressions
applicatae" Fermat
**

hich

been

translated

^'ordinatim
former

nd

abscissae."

For
while

the

expression
wrote

ed

"applicate"
the
have time been in the

others

ordinate."
and

nce

of

Leibnitz

(1692)

abscissas

nates ordi-

called
fourteenth

''co-ordinates."*
century
a

Even

we

find

as

an

object

of

study
the
the

in

the

universities

kind

of
**

co-ordinate Latitude"

ometry,

**latitudines ordinate,
referred

formarum." the
of

f
of
a

gnified

'^longitudo"
to
a

abscissa rectangular
of

riable

point

system

coordin

and
the

the

different The

positions
technical
been

this

point

rmed

"figura." had

words
borrowed

longitude from
art

latitude
of

evidently
In

the

nguage

astronomy.
to

practice

of

this

Oresme
he

nfined

himself
straight always
was
so

the

first

quadrant

in
evea

which
the of

alt

with but

lines,
that

circles,
only
a

and

parabola,
a

positive

value

coordin

considered.
the

Among

predecessors

of

Descartes Vieta,

we

reckon,

sides

ApoUonius,
Roberval, in

especially,
and
Fermat,
the nowhere,
to

Oresme,
the
even

Cava-

eri,

last

most

guished distinFermat,

this

field
been

but

by

any

attempt

made

refer

several

curves

of

Baltzer,

R.,

AnalfttwcJU

GtomttrU,

1883.

different

orders

simultaneously
at

to

one

system

of

coord

which
one

most

possessed It is
exactly

special

significance thing

for

of

the

curves.

this

which

Descartes

systematically
thought
with

accomplished. which
to

The

Descartes
geometry
*

made is
set

the

lawn

of

arithmetic
in the

subservient
following

forth

by

himself "All
terms

manner

problems
that

of their
certain

geometry

may
we

be

reduced
only

to

such
know

for

construction

need
And
four

to

the

length

of
a

right

lines.
only

just
or

as

metic arithoperations,

as

whole addition,

comprises
subtraction,

five

viz.,
and of

multiplication,
may

division,
as

evolution, division,
so

which

be
to

considered
prepare
to

kind
sought
to

in
we

geometry

the other

lines

to

be

known

have from better

taken

only
them
to

add
;
or,

lines
one

them
I

or

subtract

others

having

which
which others
as

call

unity

(so

as

refer pleasure, be
the

it to

numbers),
having
two

can

ordinarily

be

at

to

find
is

fourth
to

which

shall

to

one

of
as

these

the

other

unity,
find
a

which
fourth
to

is

same

multi
to
one

plication
of
as

;t
two
as

or

to

which
other
one

shall

be
is the
or

the

unity
or

is
finally

the
to

which
or

same

division

;J

find

two

several

mean

proportionals is
I
the
same
as

between
to

unity
the
to

and

any

other cube,
these

line,

which

extract

square,

root."
*

shall

not

hesitate

introduce

terms

Marie,

M.,
I,

Histoire
c

des

Sciences

Mathifnatique*

ei

Pkytiques^

1883-1887.

ad.

Xc:a

b,

arithmetic intelligible.

into

geometry

in

order

to

render
that,
as

myself by
"',

It

should I them

be

observed

and lines,
to

similar and

quantities, that
I call

understand
square
or

u^ual

ple simso

cube

only

employ

the

ordinary
to

terms

of

algebra."
a,

{cfi is
:

third

proportional
^
:

unity

and

or

: a',

similarly This method

^*

^*

^.

)
arithmetical
by
the geometric
had
sions expres-

of

considering

was

especially
of

influenced
As

discoverie

Descartes.

ApoUonius by

already

determin

points

of

conic

section
from
a

parallel

chords,
belonging
the

gether the
same

with

the
system,

distances

tangent the

measured
so

in

direction

of

njugate
is

diameter,
the all

with

Descartes
two

every

point
Apol-

of

curve

intersection

of

straight
however,

lines.
apply and

nius

and of

his

successors,

such that for

tems

parallel of

lines

only

occasionally
some

sole
the

purpose

presenting

definite

property Descartes,

conies
contrary,

with

especial
separates

distinctness.
these
systems

the

of

parallel

nes

from

the

curves,

assigns for

them
every

an

independent
on

istence

and

so

obtains
two

point
of
given

the

curve

relation
is.

between

segments

direction,
The
metric geothen
the

ich

nothing
of
the

else

than

an

equation.
of
this
curve

study

properties

can

replaced
of

by

the

discussion The

of

the

equation

after

thods

algebra.

fundamental

elements
are

for

determination

of

point

of

curve

its

co-ordinates,

that

point
a

of

the
of

plane by

can

be

fixed

by

two

co-ordi

nates,

point

space

three.

Descartes's

Geometry
geometry,

is but

not,

perhaps,
a

treatise
which outline. work

analytic
forth the
the

only
of

brief
theory
the
;

sketch

sets

the

foundations
books
two

this

in

Of

three

which

constitute geometry
the

whole third

only

first
nature

deal

with contains
a

the

is
rule

algebraic

and
by

celebrated
as

signs

illustrated
of the

simple of
the of

example,

well

as

the

solution

equations
construction

third
their

and
roots

fourth by
the

degrees
use

with

conies.
The

first

impulse

to

his

geometric
says,
to
a

reflections
problem

was

due,

as

Descartes
to

himself had

which

according
of
a

Pappus

already

occupied
It

the
problem
or

attention

Euclid

and

Apollonius. related
to

is

the
four,

find

certain Denoting
a

locus
the point
e^
. .

three,
measured

several

lines.

distances,
P

in
lines

given
^1,
^fs

di re

of by
^1,

from

the

straight
we

g^

e%,

respectively,

shall
e\ e%

have

for

three

straight

lines

k,

ae%

"\

e9

for

four

straight

lines:

=k,

for

five

straight

lines

'

*
=

k^

e^

ei

and
first

so

on.

The

Greeks

originated furnish conic

the

solution

of No

th

two

cases,

which

sections.

exam

method.
a

For

the

case

of

three

lines

Descartes
the
corresponding

notes

distance

by

y^

the

segment
foot

of this
that
can

line
a

between
point by in he
by

the
x^

of

perpendicular
every

fixed

and

shows

other

gment

involved Further

the

problem
**that

be if
we

easily
allow
x

constructe

states

to

ow

gradually in
the
same

infinitesimal
thus in
we

increments,

will

ow

way

and

may

get

infinitely

ny

points The
curves

of

the

locus

question." Descartes
that group, those
on.

with
he

which
so

makes lines
those

us

ally gradu-

familiar

classifies
form
a a

of

the
of
the
was

first
the fifth
the

and third and

cond

orders

first

fourth

orders
a

second,
and
so

of

xth

orders
a

third,
which

Newton
by

first

call
of of

curve,

is

defined

an

algebraic
co-ordinates,

equation
a

the

"th "th

degree

between

parallel
of the

ne

the

order,

or

curve

("

"

l)th

class.
curves

division
introduced fashion,
latter Among

into

algebraic

and

transcendental
previously, been called

by

Leibnitz;
former

after

the

eek

the

had

geometric,

mechanical
the

lines.*

applications
tangents
:

which
is

Descartes This
a

makes,

e
a

problem

of
way

prominent.
drawn
normal

he
to

treats

peculiar
point
at

Having describes

curve

the
center

Py

he

circle this

through normal

with
the

the

intersection

of

with

"

Baltxer,
except

R.,

AMmfytiacJU
straight

Gttmutrie,
and

1882.
were

Up

to

the

time

of

Descartes
He
was

lines

lines

conies

called

mechanical.

^-axis,
two

and

asserts

that

this

circle
i.
e.,

cuts

the
states

curve

at

in

consecutive
that

points;

he

the

tion condiin

after
a

the

elimination
root.

of

the

equation

shall

have

double

natural

consequence

of
system

the
was

acceptance
the admission

of

the

Cartesian

co-ordinate
roots

of

negative had

of
a

algebraic
real

equations.
;

These
they
to

negative

oots

now

significance
were

could
the
same

be

resen rep-

and

hence

entitled

rights

as

positive
In the

roots.

period
was

immediately
enriched Wallis, by the Pascal,

following
labors
of

Descartes,
Cavalieri,
not

geometry

Fermat,

Roberval,
by

and the

Newton,
co-ordinate
of the
the

at

first

simple

application after though the

of
manner

omet ge-

but

often

ancient methods
true

Greek

geometry,

with The

some

of

essentially

improved.
the

latter

is especially
of

of

Cavalieri,
a

inventor
later

of
was

the

method by

indivisibles,*
integral
ca

which

little

displaced
place

the

cuius,
to

but

may

find

here

since

it rendered

service

geometry

exclusively.
geometry

Cavalieri
the
ancients.

enjoyed
For

working

with
was

the

of

example,
of the
so-

he

the

first

to

give

satisfactory stated
a

proof by

called

Guldin's
endeavor

rule
was

already
to

Pappus.
process for

His

chief

find

general
as

the

determination
of
*

of

areas

and this
des

volumes
purpose
indivisibUs^

well

as

centers

gravity,
In French

and
works

for
Mithode

he

remodelled
in
the
work

the

originally

Geo

indivitibilibus

thod

of
of

exhaustions.
which replace
cases,

Inasmuch

as

Cavalieri's
as

thod,

he

was

master

as

early

1629,

may

to-day
elementary

to

advantage essential

ordinary character

integration be

its

may

set

rth

in
If

brief

outline.*
is
the

y=:/(^x)

equation
he

of
to

curve

in

lar rectanguthe
curve,

co-ordinates,

and
the

wishes
x,
a

determine the
jci,

area

unded

by

axis

of

portion
to
^o

of
and
n

and

ordinates
the

corresponding difference
xi
"

Cavalieri
Let
large.

vides
represent

^o

into
let

eqiial
taken

parts.

such

part

and

be

very
=

element whole

of surface

the

surface
becomes
n I*
"

is

then

^Ay

/i/(^x),

and

l a

2
For
"
=

oo

we

evidently

get

exactly

JAx)dx.
this

is

not

the

quantity
only

which

Cavalieri
ratios

seeks portions

to

termine.

He

forms
to

the

of

of
"

area

sought,
yi,
:

the that

rectangle

with
to

base

xi

xq

d
the

altitude
following
n"l

so

the

quantity

be

determined

n"l

^^'/(xo+
0

n/i)

^(xo+nA)
0

n'A'/{xi)
applies
this formula,

nf{x{)
which
he

valieri

derives

in

complete
case

generality where

from
is

grounds
the
cases

of
As^

analogy,

only
=

to

the

/(^)
to

of

form
was

("i
made

2,

3,

4).

The

extension WalliSy
and

further Pascal.

by

Rober-

val,

In

the

simplest

cases

the
a

method

of

indivisibles
the

gives

the

low fol

results.*

For is

parallelogram
parallel
to

indivisible
the

quantity

or

element

of

surface is the

the
to

base

number
;

of
we

visib indihave

quantities
the
measure

proportional
area

the

altitude

hence

as

of
of
the

of

the

parallelogram
The
to

the

product

of

the

measures

base

and
In

altitude. order
of

corresponding
the
area

conclusion

holds

for that

the the

prism.

compare
same

of

triangle
we

with

of

parallelogram
into elements

the

base

and

altitude,
to

decompose

each

by

equidistant
then, beginning

parallels
with

the

base.

The
8,

elements
;

of
those

the

triangle
the

are

the

least,

2,

..."

of

parallelogram,

""",..."

Hence

the

ratio Triangle
.
. .

+i"^iit(it
""

l)
^

1/
2\"y'

Parallelogram

^1+2+
"*"

whence

f or

ao

we

get

the

value

\. For

the

corresponding

solids

we

get

likewise

Pyramid Prism
_^I"

+2*

|i" (" +
...+""
ffi
_

1) (2it +
1^

1)

-i('+i)("+i)i-f
After
the

lapse

of

few

decades
was

this forced

analyticinto the

geometrjc

method
b}'

of the in

Cavalieri's

background

integral
cases.

calculus,
At

which however,

could
Robertrod in

be

directly known

applied
by

all

first,

val,

his

method

of

tangents,

the

footsteps

of

Cavalieri.

Wallis

used

the

works

of

Des-

artes

and

Cavalieri
curves

simultaneously,
whose
or

and
were

considered
of
or

specially
m

equations

the

form

V^JP**,

integral
service
put
a

fractional,
in

positive
that
upon

negative.
brilliant

is

chief
he

consists
proper

this,

in

his

ork

estimate

Descartes's
In

covery dis-

and

rendered
defines

it
the
never

more

accessible.
as
curves

this
the

work

allis

also
a

conies
before

of in

second

egree,

thing

done

this

definite

nner.

Pascal

proved

to

be

talented
work
on

disciple

of

Cavalieri
composed
we

nd

Desargues.
1639

In but

his
lost

conies,
a

bout

now

(save
the he

for

fragment),*
hexagon

nd

Pascal's

theorem
mysiicum

of
as

inscribed
termed
being due

or

xagramma

it,

which of

Bessel Pascal's that

discovered

in

1820

without the
cuts

aware

rlier
a

work,*]*
straight
of
an

also
line

theorem
a

to

Desargues

conic

in

P,

and
A^

Q^
B^

and
C,
D^

the
we

des

inscribed

quadrilateral
equation
:

in

ve

the

following

PA'PC
_

QA*QC
""

PB'PD

QC'
deals

QD'
a

scal's

last

work

with the

curve

called
and

by

him

roulette,

by

Roberval
the

trochoid,
Bouvelles

generally already

own

later the

as

cycloid. of

(1503)
as

ew

construction in
the

this

curve,

did

Cardinal
as

Cusa
by

preceding
to

century.

Galileo,
had

is

own

letter

Torricelli

in

1639,

made

(be

Cantor,

II.,

p.

633.

t Bianco

in

Torino

Ait.^

XXI.

ginning

in

1590)
with

an

exhaustive
the the

study

of
of

rolling
bridge

curves

in

connection quadrature the

volume

construction cycloid
by

arches.

The

of

and revolution
and In

the

determination

of

obtained effected by by

about

its

axis

had
the

been

Roberval,

the
year

construction
1658

of

tangent

Descartes.

the

Pascal

as

able

to

determine
the

the
center

length gravity

of

an

arc

of

cy-

cloidal
the

segment,

of of
as

of

this

surface, Later the and

and

corresponding
appears

solid
physics

revolution.

cycloid

in

the
a

brachistochrone
sliding
upon

tautochrone, from
one

since fixed it brings

lowest

it permits
point
a

body

it

to

pass

to

another
point in

in

the

shortest
upon

time,
to

while

material
always

oscillating
the
same

its
and
to

position

time.
attention

Jacob

John

Bernoulli,

among
;

others,

gave
the
a

isoperimetric
resqlts

problems

but

only

former

ecured

any

of solution

value,
which
from

by

furnishing

rigid
an

method

for

their

received

merely

unimportant

simplification

John

Bernoulli.

(See

pages

178-179.)
The
decades devoted

following
to

Pascal's
of but

activity
tangent
at

were

in

large

part the

the

study

problems
same

and

allied

normal

problems,
of
gave

the
was

time

the

general

theory

plane
a
new

curves

constantly

developing.
tangents,

Barrow
and the the

method evolutes

of

determining

Huygens

studied
of

of of

curves

and

indicated
From

way

determining

radii
caustics,

curvature.

consideration

of

Tschirn-

Circle
The
made

of

curvature

at

any

point

of

an

algebraic
this

rve!

most

important
Enumeratio

extension

of

theory
or-

in

Newton's This

linearum

tertii

nts

(1706).
algebraic
an

treatise and

establishes

the
curves.

distinction

tween

transcendental
study of
the

It
a

then

kes
the

exhaustive
order, be and

equation

of such of five

curve

third
may

thus

finds

numerous

curves

ich
result

represented involves
knew
how
an

as

"shadows"
analytic theory

types,

which

of

perspective.

Newton
He
to

to

construct

conies discovery

from

five

ngents.

came

upon
**

this
after

in

his
the

endeavo

investigate

the

manner

of

ancient

without
multiple
at

analytic

geometry. of
gave
a curve

Further

he

considered

points
and in

at

finite

distance
the
of

infinity,

rules

for

investigating

rse

of

curve

the

neighborhood
or

of

one

its

ints

(*'Newton's
"),
of
as

parallelogram"
for
the
at

"analytic

angle triorder

also
two

determination
one

of
common

the

of

ntact

curves

of

their
had

points.

Leibnitz

and

Jacob
Plucker
have
k

Bernoulli

also
the

written

upon

culations;
curves

(1831)
consecutive
in
the

called

situation
in
common

where
*

points
same
case

-pointic
spoken

contact";

Lagrange

(1779)

of

"contact

of

(k

"

l)th

order.

")t
disciples,
Mac-

Additional
and

work

was

done

by
as

Newton's
by

tes

Maclaurin, interesting

as

well

Waring.

aurin

made

investigations

upon

corre-

*BaItzer.

sponding
showed

points
that

of the

curve

of of that

the these

third
curves

order,
was

and
much

thus

theory than
these

more

comprehensive
entered
un"

of

conies.

Euler
in

likewise

upon

investigations
dans la thiorie

his
des

paper
courbes

Sur

contradiction

apparente
where of

planes

(Berlin,
of

1748),
two

it is shown
the

that order which

by
the

eight
ninth

inter

curves

third
theorem,

completely

determined.
theorem

This

includes
groups,

Pascal's

for

conies,
of

introduced
two

point
of
curves,

or

systems

of

points

intersection
of

into

geometry. 1750

This

theorem who

Euler's

was

noticed
to

by

Cramer
of
curves

gave
in

special

attention
upon

the

gula sin-

his

works
of

the

intersection
hence

of

two

algebraic
contradiction
a

curves

higher
the and

order; number number

of the

the
points

obvious
determining

between

of of
same

plane

curve

the

independen

intersections
bears the
was
name
**

of

two

curves

order
contradiction

of

Cramer's
Lam6

paradox."

This
by the

solved

by
name.'*'

in
Partly

1818 in

principle

which
known

bears
results

his
qf the

connection and
partly

with

the

Greek

geometry, of

in de

properties
curves

pertain
investigated.

algebraic
A

and
curve

transcendental

were

which
we

is

formed the

like

the

conchoid
line
by
a

of circle,

Nicomedes,
is

replace

straight

called

by

*Loria,
rtn

G.,

Dtt

kaupttacklichsten
Deutsch paradox, in

Theoritn
von

der

Geometrit
1888. For

in
a

ikrer/rUkemore
accurate

undjetsigen
acconnt

Enttvicklung.

Schiitte,
proper

of

Cramer's

which

credit

is

given

to

Mac-

berval

the

lima9on
is
to two

of
a

Pascal.
special fixed
case

The
of
A^

cardioid
this
B,

of

the

ghteenth
reference
the

century

spiral.
a

If,

th

points
a

point of is

P the
the by

tisfies

condition
PB has

that
a

linear

function
then
was

stances P

PA^

constant

value,
curve

cus

of

Cartesian
his studies

oval.

This dioptrics.

found PA PB

scartes

in

in

For
the

"

nstant,

we

have

Cassini's
to

oval,
regard
In

which
as

astronomer

Louis

XIV.

wished

the

orbit
cases

of

planet

stead

of
contains

Kepler's

ellipse.
loop,

special
form

Cassini's
from

al

and
the

this
name

received

acob

Bernoulli

(1694)
of the

lemniscate.
curve

With

investigation
the

logarithmic
by

yss^a^

was

nnected

study

made

Jacob
others,

and
of

John
the
curve

Bernoulli,

Leibnitz,
an

Huygens,

and

of

uilibrium

of
the

inextensible,

flexible

thread. the

This idea
group in
the

rnished
had

catenary

{catenaria^
to

1691),

of

ich

already

occurred

Galileo.*
was

The
enlarged
by the

spirals

found

by

Archimedes

venteenth

and hyperbolic,

eighteenth parabolic,

centuries
and
In 1687

addition
spirals,

the

logarithmic

Cotes's
a

lituus
trix,
of and
a

(1722).
differing
P^

Tschirnhausen
that the

defined

quadra locus

from

of
same

Greeks,

the

point

lying

at

the

time
a

upon

Q"\BO
Z

upon
over

MP^OA
the

(^OAB
quadrant
systems

is

quadrant),
Af
over

ere

moves

and
of

the

dius

OB

uniformly.
were

Whole

curves

and

rfaces

considered.

Here

belong

the

investiga-

ions

of
to

involutes
Huygens,

and

evolutes,

envelopes

in

general,

due

Tschirnhausen,
others.
a

John
of

Bernoulli,

Leibnitz,
of
rays

and

The
point
a

consideration
in the plane,

the
of

pencil

through
planes

and

the
was

pencil

of

through Desargues,
the

straight
1639.*

line

in

space,

introduced

by

The

extension

of

Cartesian
was

co-ordinate
effected
by

method

to

space

of

three

dimensions
Parent,
by

the
Parent the

labors

of

Van

Schooten,
a

and

Clairaut.f
involving

represen

surface

an

equation
in in
space,
a

three

co-ordinates this
a

of
new

point

and

Clairaut
manner

perfecte

procedure
work
upon
years

most

essential double

by

classic
seventeen

curves

of Euler of

curvature.

About

later

established surfaces,

the

analytic

theory
of analogous
to

of

the

curvature

and with

the

classific

surfaces
those

in

accordance

theorems
He
gives and
of

used

in

plane

geometry. space co-ordinates

formulae
a

of

transformation
of
the

of

discussion

general their

equation

of

surfaces

the

second
Euler's

order,
names:

with

classification.

Instead

"elliptoid, elliptic-

elliptic-hyperbolic,
parabolic,
now

hyperbolic-hy

parabolic-

bolic hyperhyper-

surface,*'
boloid,

the

terms

in

use,

''ellipsoid,
by

paraboloid,"

were

naturalized

Biot

and

Lacroix. Certain

J
special
1663

investigations
Wallis

are

worthy

of

mention.

In
the

studied of
a

plane

sections

and

effected

cubature,

conoid

with

horizontal

cting

plane

whose
line

generatrix
and
we

intersects

vertical circle of

recting

straight To

vertical
owe an

directing investigation
two

onO'Cuneus).
hyperboloid
he

Wren

of

revolution

of

sheets

(1669)
of gauche
curve

ich

called

**cylindroid.'*
the the plane Greeks

The
knew

domain
the

es,

of

which
and
to

helical

Archytas

spherical spiral of
cuts

spiral

corresponding
found

in
an

rmation

the the

Archimedes,
under
a

tension
the

in

line

which
of
a

constant

angle

meridians

sphere.
not

Nunez

(1546)
Snellius The
of

had

cognized given

this
it the the

curve

as

plane,

and

(1624)
proba

name

loxodromia

sphaerica.
two

of

shortest
to

line

between
curves

points
the
was

surface,

leading
has

gauche

which
lines,"

nineteenth
stated by by

ntury

termed

''geodetic
and of
we

ohn

Bernoulli

(1698)
In
the
a

taken
Pitot find

in
in

hand
1724 the

him

with
in the

od

results.
upon

work

(printed
first double

726)*

helix,
d double

for

time
curvature,

pression for
a

iigne

courbure,

line
1776

of

gauche
upon upon
as
a

curve.

In the

and
planes

1780
to

Meusnier

ve

theorems

tangent

ruled
at
one

surfaces,

and
points, of There
to

the

curvature

of for the
soon

surface powerful
to

of

preparation
of
some

ment develop-

the
are

theory still

surfaces minor

begin,

f
belonging The
the
a

investigations

this
expression

period
for

deserving
the

of

mention.
between

algebraic
centers

distance

the

inscribed

and

circumscribed

circles

of

triangle

was

determined
by

by

William

Chappie
Euler

(about
(1766).*
polygons

1746),

afterwards Meister

Landen

(1755)
the
two

and
areas

In

1769

calculated
by
every

of

whose

sides,
so

limited that

consecutive contains
polygon
a

vertices,
certain
up

sect inter-

the points
or

perimeter
and

number into

of

double
simple
the

the

breaks

cells
areas.

with

multiple
of
such

positive
singular

or

negative
MObius

Upon

areas

polygons and
at

publishe

later

investigations
the
tangents

(1827
of
a

1865).*
multiple

Saurin

considered Ceva

curve

points

and

starting
of the

from

static
figures.

theorems

studied
still

the

transversals

geometric
theorems
mean

Stewart
while the

further determined

extended
the
secant to

of

Ceva,
between

Cotes

harmonic
a
curve

segments

of

of

the

nth

order
the problem

reckoned

from

fixed

point.

Camot
Lhuilier

also solved of
n

extended
the

theory
:

of
a

transversals

In

circle
n

inscribe

polygon Brianchon

sides the
about
upon
two

passing
theorem
a

through

fixed

points. hexagon
to

gave

concerning

the

circumscribed Pascal's theorem of

was

conic
the

dualistically
hexagon. the

re-

la

inscribed
to

The

application

these

theorems
Hesse hexagon

surface

of the the

the
work

sphere

effected
a

by

and is

Thieme. formed the second

of

Hesse by

Pascal

upon

sphere

six
sphere

points

which
a cone

lie

upon of
the

intersection

of

the its

with
at

order

having
selects

vertex

the

center
cone.

of

the The

sphere.

Thieme

right

circular

material

usually

aken

for

the

elementary

geometry

of
an

the

schools

has

mong

other

things

received
upon

extension
named

through
after

merous

theorems
Feuerbach

the
upon

circle symmedian
and

K.

(1822),
the

lines
the Brocard

of

iangle,

upon

Grebe in
part

point
by

ures figintroduced

(discovered
by
The
Brocard, theory

Crelle,

1816

again

1875).*
of regular

geometric
at

figures the

received of
the

most

important

extension
noteworthy of

hands

Gauss,
possibility
of

discovered
or

theorems
elementary
p.

upon

impossibility

constructions
Poinsot by elaborated

gular
theory
on

polygons.
of the the

(See
regular Platonic

160.)

polyhedra

publishing especially

his

ews
'*

five

bodies

and

upon
"

Keplerthe

Poinsot

regular

solids
which

of
are

higher formed These

Hess,

class,
from

z.,

four

star-polyhedra
and
by

icosahedron

dodecahedron.
Wiener,

studies
with
a

continued
removal of of

Hessel,

and
so

certain which
in

restrictions,
an

that
sense

whole
may

ries

solids,
as

extended
added
to

be

garded

regular,

may

be

those

named

ove.

Corresponding
have

studies
undertaken

for
by

four-

dimensional
Rudel, mined deter-

ace

been

Schefiler,
They have

ringham,
that of

Hoppe,

and
a

Schlegel.
there

in

such the

space

exist
as

six

regular

ures figfive

which The

simplest

has

its

boundary five

trahedra.

boundaries

of

the

remaining

fig-

es

require
120

16

or

600

tetrahedra,
It
may

hexahedra,

ctahedra,
that
stereometry

dodecahedra.
1849 by

be

mentioned introduced

urther

in

the

prismatoid August,
Apollonian

was

nto

E.

F. the

and

that
contact

Schubert
lem prob-

nd

Stoll
to

so

generalised
able
tangent geometry,
geometry
to

as

be

give
to

the four

construction

of

the

tee six

spheres

given
less

spheres.

Projective
or

called
of

precisely
is
The

modern

eometry
of

position,
century.

essentially

reation

the

nineteenth in by

analytic
the

om ge

of

Descartes,

connection
and

with Newton,
in

higher

nalysis
a

created
series geometry
a

Leibnitz

had
the

tered regisdomain

of

important

discoveries
but

the

of

space,

it had
for

not

succeeded
of pure

btaining

satisfactory Relations
been

proof
of
a

theorems

geometry. however, Newton's

specific
in

geometric
constructive

character

had,

discovered

drawing.

establishment
of
types

of

his

five

principal
the

types

of

curves

the

third
may

order, be
in

of

which
as

sixty-

four

remaining
also

regarded
the
same

projections,

had

given

an

impulse the
for

direction.

Stil

ore

important

were

preliminary
the

works

of

Carnot,
the
new

which

paved
by

the
Poncelet,

way

development

of and
von

theory

Chasles,

Steiner,
**the

Staudt.

They deep

it

was

who

discovered
theorems
an

overflowing
with

spring

of

and united

elegant
into

which whole,

astonishing
the

facility

organic

into

graceful

ference be

to

the

theory
as

of

curves

of
a

the

second

order,

y
'

regarded

the

ideal
found

of

scientific earliest
of

organism."*
unfolding Monge
on

Projective
soil in

geometry

its

ench

the

Giometrie

descriptive

whose
by host
to

tonishing

power

of

imagination,

supported

the of

thods

of

descriptive
of surfaces of

geometry,

discovered

operties

and
in

curves

applicable

the

assification
geometry

figures
the
hitherto

space.

His
idea

work
of
and only
theory

created

*for

unknown

ric geometthe for

generality
of
of

and

geometric works
is but

elegance, fundamental
for
the the

"f
not

porta imthe

his

eory

projectivity
of
surfaces.
the gave

also

of of
geometry

the
the

rvature

To
considerations
the

introduction
of
pure

aginary

into
likewise

nge

first

impulse,

while by

his

pupil
the
same

ultier

extended

these
two

investigations
as a

defining the

dical

axis
through

of

circles

secant

of

ssing

their

intersections,

whether

real

or

aginary. The
more

results

of

Mongers

school
to

thus

derived,

which
than
to

closely
geometry

related
of

pure

geometry

e
a

analytic

Descartes,

consisted
theorems
upon

chiefly
surfaces

series
of
the

of

new

and

interesting

second that

order,

and entered

thus

belonged before

to

the

field
by

had

been

upon and

Monge's Monge

me

Wren

(1669),

Parent

Euler.

That

Brill,

A..

Antrittsrede

in

TMingen,

1884.
Be-

did

not

hold

analytic
de

methods
Valghbre

in
d

light
ia

esteem

is

shown

by

his

Application
as

giam^irie

(1805)
the

in

which,
the

Plucker line for

says,

''he

introduced

equation laying

of

straight

into
the

analytic
banishment
that
new

geometry,

thus

the

foundation
it,

of
form

all

constructions

from

and

gave

it

which

rendered

further

extension
Monge three
of

possible."
was

While
of study

working Carnot

by

preference
was

in
a

the
special

space

dimensions,

making

ratios

of

magnitudes

in

figures
the

cut

by

transversals,
was

and

thus,
the

by

the

introduction
for
a

of
giom^trie

negative, de

laying
however, to-day.

foundation

tion posi-

which,
Lage

is not Not

identical
the

with

the

Geometric
but

der

of

most

important,

the

most

noteworthy

contribution
of

for
's

elementary the

school

geometry

is that and

Carnot

upon

complete

lateral quadri-

quadrangle. and

Monge
stood

Carnot
in
the
way'

having
a

removed natural
these

the

obstacles

which

of

development

geometry be

upon

its
of

own

territory,
rapid

new

ideas
in

could

now

certain

development the
des

pared well-preHis
work,

soil.
Trait/ des

Poncelet

furnished

seed.

propriSiSs
1822,

projectives
those in

figures^
properties

which
of

pea ap-

in

investigates

figures

which

remain

unchanged

projection,
is not given
the

i.

e.,

their

va in

properties.

The

projection
rays

made

here,

as

in

Monge,

by

parallel
and

in

direction,
manner

but

by

central

projection,

so

after

of

perspec

axis

of
to

perspective Chasles,

and

center

of

perspective
of

cordi (acin

axis
of
plane

and

center

homology)
Desargues
theorems.

consideration
already 1811

figures
the

for

which

established
had
used

fundamental

Servois

the

expression the
in

**pole
terms

of

raight
a

line/'
and
some

and

in

1813

Gergonne
but

**polar

point"

''duality,"
observations
correspondence

1818
by

Poncelet Lahire
in

develop 1685,"
in

made of

on
case

the

mutual of

pole

and

polar

conies,
their

into

method
polars.

of

transforming

ures fig-

into
in

reciprocal
theory
were

Gergonne
polars
to
a

recognized

this

of

reciprocal
known

principle Lansberg,

ose

beginnings

Vieta, He
In

Snellius,
**

from

spherical

geometry.

called

it

principle

of

duality"
with its class.

(1826).
the

1827

Gergonne
a

sociated
curve

dualistically
that
a

notion The
the
a

of is

order of
cuts

of

ane

of

line

the

"th
n

der
Sy

when

straight
nth class

line

of
from

plane

it in

int

of

the
can

when
to

point

in

the

plane

tangents While

be France

drawn

it.*

in
in

Chasles
advancement,

alone this

interested
new

himself found
the

oroughly richest

its

theory

development

in

the

third
soil,

decade

of

neteenth
the
same

century

upon
the

German
great

where

almost

time

three

investigators,
the field. From

Mdbius,
this

ucker,

and the by

Steiner

entered

me

on

synthetic

and
von

more

constructive
and

tendency

llowed

Steiner,

Staudt,

Mobius

diverges^

from

the

analytic
Hesse,

side
Aronhold,

of

the

modern

geometry

which
especially

Plficker,

and

Clebsch

had

developed.

The

Barycentrischer

Calcul

in

the

year

1827

furnish

the
along

first
with

example

of
a

homogeneous

co-ordinates,

and

them unknown

symmetry
to

in
analytic
the

the

developed

formulae

hitherto
Mdbius

geometry.

In

this

calculus

started

with
a

assumption
ABC

that be

every

point
as

in
the
there

the

plane

of

triangle
of points

may

regar

center

of

gravity
to

the

triangle.

In

this

case

belong
are

the
the

corresponding
nates co-ordithe
means

weights of

which
the

exactly P with

homogeneous
to

point

respect

vertices
of
a

the

fundamental

triangle
found by
for

ABC,

By

this
series

algorism
geometric

Mdbius

algebraic
example
theorems

methods
those
on

of

theorems,

expressing
cross-ratios. sought

invariant

properties
theorems,

like found

the

These

analytically, also, its

that BA,

Mdbius
and

to

demonstrate
introduced
"

geometrically with
expresses

for

this
the

purpose "law of

he

all

consequences

signs

which
line,
0,

for

A,

B,

C,

points

straight

AB^

"

AB-\-BA

0,AB

BC

CA

Independently
Bellavitis
Two CD,
came

of

MObins,

bnt
his

starting
new

from

the method
in
the

same

principle of
equi-

upon

geometric lines drawn

poUences.*
AB

equal
are

and called

parallel

same

direction,
AB
to

and

equipollent
the

(in

Cayley's

notation

CD).
*

By

this

assumption

whole

theory

is

reduced
di

the

**

Saggio

di

ApplicaEioni

di

NnoTO

Metodo

Ceometria

nsideration
is assumed
a,

of
that
b,
c,

segments
AB

proceeding

from

^xed

point. for

Further

BC=

(Addition).
a,

Finally d
to
a

the
axis,

ments segthe

d,
he

with
must

inclinations

)9, 7,

fixed

uation

a=

-3-

not

only

be

relation

between
For

lengths

but

st

also this the

show

that

a=sj8+y
i.
e.,

"

6
the

(Proportion).
product
same

"f=l

and values

sO

becomes
is

a^bc,
a-^hc

of
time

the

absolute

lengths

and
is

at

the

a^j9-f-7
case

(Multiplication).
of
the

Equipollence
two

therefore
to

only

special

ity equal-

of

objects,

applied

segments.*

MObius

further

introduced
two

the

consideration
figures. The
one-

of

rrespondences correspondence,

of

geometric

-one

in

which
one

to

every

point
one

of
point second
col-

rst

figure

there

corresponds

and

only

second and

figure
one

and
point

to

every

point

of

the

only He

of

the
not

first,
only

Mobius

called

neation.
the These laid
long

constructed
also of

collinear

image

plane
new

but

ordinary

space.

and

fundamental the barycentric

ideas

which

Mdbius

down

in
almost
the

calculus
and
of

remained did
not
at

time
into

unheeded

hence

enter

formation
of

geometric

conceptions.

The

works soil.

Pliicker

and ''had
the knowledge.

Steiner

found

re

favorable

The

latter

recognized

in
means

mediate
the

geometric only

perception of

sufiicient
Plucker, in
the

object

his his

on

other

hand,t

sought

proofs
the

identity
const
ruc-

of

analytic

operation

and

geometric

*StoIz,

O.,

VvrUsungen
Versuch

Uber

allgemeine
und

Artthmeiik, Wiirdigung

1885-1886. seiner wissenschaft-

f'Clebsch,

einer

DarleKung

tioDy

and

regarded

geometric
antitypes of

truth

only

as

one

of

the

many

conceivable
At
a

analytic

relation." engaged

later

period
of degree
A%,

(1855)
higher

Mdbius
degree.

in
an

the

study

of
of

involutions
the
:

Such
two

involution

mth
Ai,
two

consists
A^*,
. .
.

of
B\j

groups
B%y
. .

each

of

points
form 3d,
.

Ai,

B%,

JB^^
.

which

figures

in

such
one

way

that
as

to

the
of

1st,

2d,

mth there

points

of

group,
in

points the points relation.

the

first

figure,
1st
. .
.

correspond of the
the
same

succession
group
as

2d,

3d,
the

4th

points

same

of

second

figure,

with
higher

determinate
had
been

Invol

of Poncelet
by

degree
He

previously
from the

studied
theorem

by

(1843).
Sturm

started
that

given

(1826),
of

by

the

conic
f^
=

sections
0,

the
0,

surfaces
there A^

the

second

order
upon

"=:0,
a

u-\-Xv

are

determined
B,

straight i.
e.,

line

six that
only

points,

A\

B*,

C,

in
and

involution,
A'B'CABC
but

so

in

the
and
Bj

systems

ABCA'B'C
and
C B',

not

A\
C*

and

C,

also

A'

and

A^

and

and

are

corresponding
of
three

point-pairs.
point-pairs designated
of
a

This

mutual

correspondence had

line

Desargues

already

(in

1639)

by

the

term

"involution."*
Pliicker

is

the

real

founder
this

of

the

modern
by

analytic
**

tendency,

and

he

attained
the

distinction
of duality

lating formu-

analytically
out

principle

and

ing follow-

its

consequences,

"f
appeared

His in

Analytisch-geomeiri1828.

sche

Untersuchungen

By

this

work

created and freed

from

for

geometry

the

method coefficients,

of

symbolic
whereby of
to

notatio

of

undetermined
the

one

necessity,

in

the

consideration
of

the the the Geo-

tual

relations
of

of

two

figures,
so

referring
can

stem

co-ordinates,
The

that System

he
der

deal
analytischen

with

gures

themselves. of
1835

etrie

furnishes,

besides
notation,
of Kurven

the
a

abundant
complete

cation applification classiIn

of

the

abbreviated
curves

of
der

plane

the

third

order. 1839, the in fourth between

the

eorie

algebraischen

of
of

addition order the

an

investigation
those

of

plane

curves

ere

appeared

analytic
of

relations
curves

dinary

singularities known
as

plane

which

are

erally gen-

"Plucker's

equations."
which
at

These
to

Plucker

equations
dualistically

first

are

applied
ties singulari-

ly

the

four

corresponding
point, extended By the

(point
double

of

inflexion,

double
were

inflexional
by

tangent,

tangent)
higher

Cay
aid
of

ley

to

ves

with
in

singularities.
he

opments devel-

series
enable

derived
to

four

"equivalence
how
many

numbers"

which
are

us

determine
a

singularities
of

absorbed how the

into

singular
for

point

higher

der,
curve

and

expression

the

deficiency

of
were

is modified
extended,
of

thereby.

Cayley's

results
as

firmed,

and

completed Halphen,

to

proofs
and

by

works

NOther,

Zeuthen,

Smith.
Cayley by

fundamental

question
the

arising

from

the

thod

of

considering

subject,

whether

and

ing

elementary with deficiency

by A.
higher

singularities
singularity,

can

be for the

derived
the

from

urve

which
same,

Pliicker
has

and

equations
Brill.
greatest

are

been

studied

Pliicker's
the

service,

consisted
as
a

in
element.

the

ductio introThe
besides

of

straight
had

line
led
the

space
to

principle

of

duality
the
as a

him

introduce, line,

the

point plane in

in

plane,

straight element.
line

and Plucker

in

space

the

determining

also

used

space

the

straight

for

the

systematic
works

generat

of

geometric
were

figures. before the

His
Royal
theorems with

first

in

thi

direction
in

laid They

Society
on

in

don Lon-

1865.

contained ruled
of
proof.
as

complexes,

congruences,

and
method

surfaces

some

indications
development

of

the

The

further
des

appeared

in

1868
die

Neue

Geometrie
der

Raumes^ Rautn-

ge

rundet

auf

Beirachtung

geraden

Linie

als

element.

Plucker
but

had

himself

made
of
was

study

of
of by

linear

complexes of

his

completion
degree the

the

theory

complexe

the

second

interrupted

death.

Further
by The

extension F.

of

theory

of

complexes

was

made

Klein.
contained
of

results
a

in

Pliicker's
the

last

work

have between

thrown

flood

light

upon

difference line

plane

and
appears
or

solid
as

geometry.
a

The

curved system the of

curve

of

th

plane

simply
lines
;

infinite in

either
may

points

of
as

straight
a

space system

regarded

simply

infinite

points,

straight

in

space

may

be
the

replaced

by

the

developable

ace
of
are

of

which
curve

it is

edge

of

regression.
the the

Special

the
the

in

space
curve

and
and

developable
A the

surface

plane

cone.

further

figure,
infinite

the

general
system
case

surface,
of

is

on

one

side
on

ly

points
of
a

or

planes,
a

but

the

r,

as

special

complex,

triply
to

infinite

m
a

of special

straight
case we

lines,
have

the
the

tangents skew

the

surface.
or

surface
appears

ruled
as

ace.

Besides
the

this
as

the
a

congruence

ly,

complex

triply,
of
space

infinite
involves

system
a

of
number

ight
of

lines. theories Here

The
to

geometry

which
the
may

plane

geometry of
a

offers
space

no

ogy. anal-

belong

relations
be passed lying

curve

to

surfaces
to

which
the

through
upon

it,
it.

or

of
the

ace of

gauche
upon

curves

To

curvature

surface

there

is

nothing
to

esponding
of
two

in
the

the

plane,

and line
as

in

contrast

the
line

ideration

straight of
and
a

the

shortest
stand that that The

een

points

plane,

there theories,

in

space

comprehensive
line
upon

difficult

of of

the the

etic

given
a

surface

and

mal
of

surface the analytic

with

given

boundary.

question
curve

representation

of

gauche
a

lves

peculiar
by

difficulties,
two

since

such
between

figure
the

can

represented
X,

equations
the
curve

nates co-ordi-

y^

only

when

is

the

complete

inter

the

modern

investigations

of

Ndther,

Halphen,

and

Valentiner. Four
years

after Flicker,

the
in

Analytisch-geometrische
the

Unter-

suchungen

of his

year

1832,
der

Steiner
AbhUngigkeit

lishe pub-

Systematische

Entwicklung

geometrischer

Gesialten,
sections
its

Steiner
concentrated

found
in that

the
the
a

whole

ory therem theo-

of

conic

single
curve

(with

dualistic
is
produced

analogue)
as

of of
the
was

the
two

second

order
or

the

intersection
hence

collinear
curves

projective
surfaces

pencils,

and
second

theory
essentially

of

and completed
to

of him,
curves

the
so

order

by

that
and

attention
of

could

turned

algebraic

surfaces this
**

higher

orde

Steiner
This

himself is shown
which
In

followed by
the in the
a

course

with
surface,"

good

results.
a

Steiner
1848

and

by

paper

appeared

in
the
was

the

Berliner

Abhandlungen,

this
to

theory

of

polar

of

point

with

respect

curved

line

treated
of

exha

and

thus

more

geometric
was

theory extended

plane
by

curves

developed,
of

which

further

th

labors

Grassmann,

Chasles,

Jonqui^res,

and

mona Cre-

The

names

of problem
but

Steiner

and
in

Pltlcker its

are

also

united

in
to

connection

with

which
in
its

simplest

form

belongs
into

tary elemen-

geometry,

generalization

passes
Malfatti
to

higher the
three

fields

It

is the

Malfatti
From have

Problem.

In

1803

gave
cut
out

out

following

problem:
shall
be

right
the

triangular
same

prism
as

cylinders
volumes remain-

which

altitude
and

the

prism,
the

whose
mass

shall

the

greatest

possible,

consequently

after
to

their

removal

shall
generally three

be

minimum.
as

This

problem problem circle

two

he

reduce

what

is
to

now

known

Malfatti's
that

In

en

triangle
to

inscribe the
x^,

circles and the the

d,*

so

each other sought

p

shall

be
He
the

gent

two

sides radii
s

of
x^,

triangle
x^

to

the

circles.
terms

culates peri the

the
meter

of

circles radius
^s

in the

of

of
a^,

the
a,,

triangle,
b^,

of

inscribed
the

circle,

distances

a,

^^ circle

^^^

vertices and its

of points

angl tritan-

from
to

the the

center

of
and

the gets
:

inscribed

of

cy

sides,

^8

(^ +

"8

"

"

"1

"

"t).

3^
giving
the
calculation

hout

in

full

but

he

adds
He

simple gave

construct

Steiner

also

studied showed

this that

problem. there the this

same are

(without
solutions

of)

construction,
the

thirty-two

generalized
circles. besides this with determine

problem,
also studied given others of the

replacing considered
the

three
same

straight

lines

by

ee

Pliicker Steiner
three

generalization. for

problem
a

space
the
two

In

ection
to

conies

upon
shall

surface

of
touch

second
of
the

three
two

which

each

conies
an

and analytic with the

more

required. from
the

This

general

problem
and

receiv

solution

Schellbach

and theorem

Cayley,

also

Clebsch

the

aid simple

of

addition
in

of
was

elliptic

tions, funcin

while
greatest

problem
by Gergonne,

the

plane

attacked
Grunert,

variety

of

ways

Lehmus.

Crelle,

ffler,

Schellbach
Zorer.

(who
The

gave

specially

elegant

trigonometric proof

ution)

and

first
by

perfectly Binder.*

satisfactory

of

Stei-

construction

was

given

After

Steiner
excellent

came

von

Staudt
in
the

and development

Chasles

who

dered

service

of

pro-

jective

geometry. historique

In

1837
sur

Michel
Porigine

Chasles
et

published

his

Aper^u
m^thodes

le

diveloppement
both
the ancient

es

en

giomitriey

work

in

which

and

modem
many

methods interesting
among

are

employed
of
the

in which

derivation
of

of

results,
them

several

the

ost

important,

introduction

of

the

ross-ratio

(Chasles's
and collinear

''anharmonic

ratio") (Chasles's

and "duality"
in
part

the

eciprocal

relation
are

and

**homography"),
and in
part
to

to

be

assigned

Steiner
Von

M6bius
der
der

Staudt's

Geotnetrie

Lage
Lage^
to

appeared 1856-1860
those

in

1847, These

is

Beitrdge

zur

Geotnetrie
marked

orks

form

contrast

of
metric

Steiner

and

hasles

who
cross-ratios,

deal

continually while
the
not
von

with

relations
to

nd

Staudt
geometry

seeks
of

solve
an

the

roblem

of

"making
science

position
of

de in

standing
relations all
theorems

in

need

measurement."

Starting Staudt
develops

from

of

position
that

purely,
not

on

do

deal
forms,

immediately

with

the for

magnitude
example,

of the into

geometric
problem geometry. and
elements
or

ompletely

solving,
of
of

of

the

introduction

the

imaginary

The

earlier be

works
sure,

Poncelet,

Chasles,
complex
more

others

had,
had

made
same

lise in
a

of
manner

but

defined

the

less

vague

and,

or

example,
from

had

not

separated
other.
as

conjugate
Von

complex

lements

each
elements

Staudt

determined
of

he

complex

double
.

elements

tion-rela involu-

the
one

sense

in
the

which,

by
This

this

relation, of

we

pass

from

to

other.
not

suggestion
generally

von

Staudt's,

ever,

did

become
later

fruitful,

and

it

reserved

for

works

to

make

it

more

widely

wn

by

the

extension

of

the

originally

narrow

conception

In
cross

the

Beitrdge

von

Staudt
four

has

also

shown
a

how form
to

ratios

of

any

elements

of
may

prime
be

the

first

class

(von
numbers

Staudt's
from

Wiirfe)
pure

used

ive
With

absolute the
the

geometry.*

projective

geometry

is
geometry.

most

closely
The
from

connected

modem

descriptive
drew
its

former

its

development

first
the by the

strength latter

the

siderations
with
the

of

perspective,
matured

enriches
of

itself

er

fruits

cultivation

projecti

geometry. The perspective

of
by

the

Renaissance

"I*was

oped develfirst
by

especially
who

French

mathematicians,
in
a

argues

used

co-ordinates
in
such the
way

his
that

pictorial
two
axes

rep

entation
the

of

objects
plane,
The

lay

picture
plane.

while
results for

third
Desargues
than

axis

was

normal
more

this

of
theory

were

ortant,

however,

for
by

practice.

valuable

results

were

secured
In this

Taylor

in
line

his

ear

Perspective
by
trace

(1715).
its
trace

straight
point,
a

is

ermined
its

and

vanishing
line.

plane
was

and

vanishing

This

method

"Stolz,

O.,

Vorlesungen

Uber

Arithmetik,

used

by

Lambert
so

in
that

an

ingenious
by
the

manner

for the

difierent

onstructions,
even

middle general

of

eighteenth
could

century

space-

forms

in

position

pictured

in
of

perspective.
the

Out

perspective
geometry,"

of

the

eighteenth
in
a

century

grew

"descriptive

first

work

of

Fr6-

zier's,

which

besides

practical
section
methods
or

methods

contained
proofs

special
of

theoretical the

furnishing
considered.

for
Even

ases

graphic

the

"description,"
central

representation,
by the

Fr^zier

replaces parallel-

the

projection
"which The maybe
picture
plane

perpendicular
by

projection,
ink.*'*
the

illustrated
the

falling

drops

of

of
or

plane

of

projection
as

called

ground

elevation
or

according

th

picture
this

plane

is horizontal Fr^zier
of
the

vertical.
represents

With
planes,
as

the

ai

of

"description"
surfaces

polyas

hedra,

second

degree

well

sectio inter-

and

developments.

Since
rank

the
as

time
a

of

Monge

descriptive
science. The

geometry
Le^ns de

has

taken

distinct

geometr

descriptive

(1796)

form

the
they

foundation-pillars

descriptive
vertical
to

geometry,

since with

introduce
ground-line

horizontal

and

planes

the and

and by
two

show

how

represent

points planes by by

straight
traces.

lines

projec

and

two

This
of
problems

is

followed

in

the

Lc^ns

the

great

number

of

t i

contact

and planes

penetration with

which and

arise

from

combinations

of

polyhedra

surfaces

the

second

order.

Monge's

successors,

Lacroix,

chette,

Olivier,
methods
and
to

and
surfaces

J.
of

de
the

la

Gournerie
second of order,
curves

applied
ruled and

ese

rfaces,

the

relations

of

curvature

rfaces.

Just
in

at

this

time,

when
borne

the

development

of

descriptive
the
was

geometry technical

France

had

its

first

remarkable In the
year

results,
1794

schools

came

into

existence.

established which cal technirank,

Berlin
in in 1828, in

Paris
the

the

EcoU

CentrcUe

des

Travaux

Publics

from Farther

in

Ecole

Polytechnique in Prague
in
1831, 1825,

was

an

outgrowth.

schools, founded

which in

course

of
in
in
1806,

time in

attained
Vienna in 1882,
in
1869,

to

university
1815,
in

in in

in
Hanover

Karlsruhe
in

Munich

1827,

Dresden

in

Stuttgart
Darmstadt the

in

ZUrich
in

1860,

in

unschweig
1870.

in
In
to

1862,

in

and

Aiz-la-Chapelle

these
the

institutions

results in

of

projective
of

geometry

used geometry,

greatest

advantage
set

the
the

advancement
most

tive descrip-

and

were

forth

in

logical

manner

by
and
in

dler,

whose

text-books from
the

and
the

manuals,
take
a

in

part

original

in
the

translations

English,

conspicuous

place

rature

of
the

science.

With

technical
related

significance
for
some

of
years
an

descriptive

geometry side,
on

there and
azonom-

been

closely

an

artistic
in
works

it is

especially

which

has

marked

advance

(Weisbach,
of

1844),

relief-perspective,

photogrammetry,

and

ry

lighting.

The

second
developments

quarter

of

our

century

marks

the

time

in

form-theory have
led

in
to

connection
the discovery
on

with
of
one

metric
new

constructions

and

important

results.

Stimulated

the

esse

(1837-1842)
of of
homogeneous

by

an

application
forms

of

the

mation transfortheory

treated

the

urfaces

the

second
By

order him
the

and

constructed
of of
as

thei

rincipal

axes.*

notions and

"polar
"systems

tr an

and

"polar
'*

tetrahedra''
were

onjugate

points
of

introduced To

the

geometric
were

xpression

analytic

relations.
of the

these

added

he

linear

construction of
and
the

eighth degree,

intersection
seven

hree

surfaces
are

second
also

when

hem

given,

by

the of

use

of

Steiner's
the

rems, theo-

the

linear from English

construction

surface

of

second

degree
the

nine

given

points.

Clebsph,
Sylvester,

ing follow-

mathematicians,
went

Cayley,
further

nd

Salmon,
His his

in

his

works

essentially
to

than

esse.

vast

contributions

the

theory of the and

for
the

of

i v

introduction
curve,

of

the

notion

cien defi

of

his

applications
to

of
geometry
secure

theory
to

lliptic

and
of

Abelian

functions

th

tudy

rational
place

and

elliptic
among

curves,

him

pre-eminent
science

those
As
an

who

have

advanced
instrument

he

of
like

extension. Hesse, had

a

algebraic for

Clebsch,
the
to

fondness

the in

theorem
its

upon

multiplication
bordered
theory

of

determinants
His

applicatio
upon

determinants.
of
curves

worksf
and

the

general

algebraic

surfaces

*N5ther,
t"

'"Otto

Hesse,"

SchUfmiUh*s
Darlegung

ZHUchrift,
und
Frennde

Bd.

90,

HI.

A.

Clebsch,

Versuch

einer

Wfirdigung
"

seiner

wissen

Leistungen

Gordan,

an

with

the

determination
a

of

those

points
line by theory

upon

an

ebraic

surface
contact,
a

at

which

straight
treated

has Salmon

fourbut

nt
so

problem

also
now

thoroughly. third lines order

was

While their

the
systems

of

surfaces

the

with
making
to

of
on

twenty-seven

aight

headway
render the

English

soil,
ciency" "defiwhose

bsch

undertook

notion

of

fruitful

for
were

geometry.
not

This
to

notion,
Abel,

lytic
in

properties

unknown
der

is found

st

Riemann's

Theorie

AbeVschen
of the with determines

Funktionen

857).

Clebsch
curve

speaks
of the

also "th order and

deficiency
d

of

an

ebraic
r

double
the

points
number of
plane

points
"

of

inflexion,

J("
gauche

1)("
curves

"

2)

"

"

r.

To
by

one

class

characterized that
a

definite
to

value
over

of into

belong

all

those

can

be

made

pass

another the

by-

rational that

transformation
any
two

or

which

sess

property Hence that

have theorem

one-to-one

respondence.
curves

follows
the

the
same

that

only

se

possess

3/""
same

8
one

parameters parameter) another.

owes

or

curves

of
be

the

third

order,

the

can

rationally

transformed

into
curves*

one

The

diflBcult

theory
to

of

gauche

its

first

eral

results
to

Cayley,

who
equations of the by

obtained
for

formulae
curves.

correspon

Plucker's
curves

plane

ks

on

gauche been

third

and

fourth

orders and
curves

already

published

MObius,
on

Chasles,
gauche

Staudt.

General

observations

in

more

recent

times

are

found

in

theorems

of

N()ther

and

Haiphen.

The

foundations in

of method for

enumerative
of

geometry*

are

found

Chasles's
determined
a

characteristics

(1864).
of
in
two
one

Chasles

rational

configurations
which

dimension
case

correspondence-formula
may

the

simplest

be
E% E\

stated

as

follows
a

If

ranges

of

points

J?i

and
x

lie

upon

straight

line in

so

that

every

point
jr in

of
and

there again
to

correspond
every
x

general
J?s

points

J?s,

point
R\,

j^ of

there

always

correspond

/9 points
R\

in

the

configuration

formed
are

from

and
times

Rt

has
in

(a

-j-

P)

coincidences
"

there
a

{a-\- p)
corresponding

which
y.

point

coincides
corre

with

point
was

The

Chasles

spondence-principle in
1866
to

extended of
was

inductively
a

by
of
by

Cay-

ley

point-systems
this
extension

curve

higher
Brill.

deficiency

and

proved

Important

extensions

of

these

enumerative
to

formulae

(correspondence-formulae)^
curves,

relating

general Zeuthen,
by

algebraic

have

been

given
in

by

Brill,
form

and

Hurwitz,

and

set

forth

elegant

the

ductio intro-

of
of
to

the

notion
fundamental

of

deficiency.
of

An

extended

treatment

the

problem how
many

enumerative

geometry, of

determine

geometric
a

configurations number
abzdhlen-

given
is by

definition
contained H,

satisfy

suflBcient
der

of

conditions,
Geometrie The

in

the

Kalkul

den

Schubert
of

(1879).
one-to-one

simplest

cases

correspondence

or

uniform

representation,
posed
one

are

furnished
other.

by These
the

two

planes
are

s'lperim

upon by

the
Poncelet

the

s'milarity treated
cases

studied
by

and
and
a

collineation
In

Mdbius,

Magnus,

Chasles.*
to
a

both line

to

point
line.

corresponds
From

point,
linear Steiner

straight

straight

these

transformations passed
one-to-one
to

Poncelet,

Plucker,
where
they

Magnus,

the

quadratic

first investigated
two

corresponden

between
**

separate

planes.
two

The
"j
not

Steiner
"%

projection"
together If
we

(1832)
two

employed lines point which

planes

and

with
draw

straight
a

^i Pi
cuts
or

and
F^
^1
or

g%

co-planar.
or

through
xi

of
as

JEi

E2
gi,
or

the and
"1,

straight determines
then points.
are

line

or

x^

well

as

the

intersection
X^t
manner

As
P%
to

Xi, Xi

with
corresponding

E%

Pi
In

and
this

and

and
every

straight

line the upon

of
other.

the

one

plane 1847

corresponds

conic

section
a

in

In

Plucker

had

determined like

point point
two

the the

hyperboloid
by
the

of

one

sheet,
cut

fixing
upon

in

plane,

segments through

off

the
two

generators

passing

the
example

point

by
a

fixed

generators.
of
plane.

This
a

was

an

of

uniform
upon

resentati repthe

surface

of

the

second

order

The
the

one-to-one

relation
to

of
plane work

an

arbitrary
was

surface

of by

second

order 1863,

the

investigated the beginning

Chasles
of
*

in
proper

and theory

this
of

marks

the
Loria.

surface

representation

which

found

its

further

development

when in

Clebsch
the

and

Cre

ona

independently
surfaces
were

succeeded
the

representation

of

of

third

order. by

Cremona's Clebsch,
we
owe

important Rosanes,
the

results

extended
to

Cayley,
whom

and

N6ther,

the

last

of

tant impor-

theorem
such

that
is

every

Cremona
forward

transformation
and backward
of
can

which

uniform the

be

effected

by

repetition
In

of

number

quadratic aggregate known beginning

transformations.
al]
the

the

^lane

only

is

the

of

rational space
development

or

Cremona

transformations merely
a

for

of

three
of

dimensions,
this theory
case

of

the
A

has

been
one-to-one

made.'^
corre-

specially is
upon
parts
case,

important
that
a

of

spon(}ence

of

conformal because

representation
here similarity
and image.
was

of

surface

the

plane,

in

the

smallest

exists
the
and

between

original

The
known

simplest

stereographic
Ptolemy.

projection,
The
by
P%

to

Hipparchus

representation the

by
two

reciprocal

radii

characterized points
F\

fact
a

that
ray

any

corresponding
fixed
point

and

lie
t?/^t=
in

upon

through

the

so

that
every

t?/*!*

constant,

is in

also

conformal.

Here into

sphere This

space

is

general
ied stud-

transformed
by

sphere. and

transformation,
1843,
is

Bellavitis
in dealing
Wm.

1836

Stubbs

especially

useful

with

questions
calls

of it

mathematical

ics. physof

Sir

Thomson The

*'the

principle
upon

electric

images."

investigations

representa-

"

ns,

made
those

by

Lambert

and

Lagrange,
to

but

more

ecially

by

Gauss,

lead

the

theory

of

curvature.

further

branch

of
curvature

geometry,
of

differential

etry geom-

(as

applied
not

surfaces),
in its

considers
but

in
the

eral

first the

the
same

surface in the

totality

operties point

of

neighborhood and with

the

of

an

ordinar

of

the

surface,

aid
it

of
by

the
analytic

ferential

calculus

seeks

to

characterize

formulae.
The
Lagrange

first

attempts

to

enter

this

domain

were

made

(1761),
determined

Euler

(1766),
the

and

Meusnier(1776).
equation of

former

differential latter discovered

imal

surfaces
upon

the

two

certain

orems

radii fundamental
the

of

curvature

and

surfaces for this

of rich

centers.

But have

of

importance

main do-

been

investigations
In
the

of

Monge,
de

Dupin,
V lyse ana-

especially
d la

of

Gauss.

Application
discusses

giomitrie

(1796),

Monge

families

surfaces
of

(cylindrical
revolution,
"

surfaces,
envelopes

conical

surfaces,
the
new

and

faces of

with
of

notions

characteristic
the

and

edge

regression)

and

termi de-

partial
the by
year

differential
1813

equations
the

ing distinguish-

each.
g^omitrie
a

In

appeared
It

D^vdoppements
the

Dupin.

introduced

indicatrix the

point
of
of

of lines

surface,

as

well

as

extensions
by

of

ory

of

curvature

(introduced

Monge)

asymptotic

curves.

tises

the

most

celebrated,
appeared
iiber
in

Disquisitiones

generaUs the
hoheren

circa
two

superficies

curvas,

in

1827,
der

other

Untersuchungen

Gegenstdnde
1843 and

GeodOsie
Disquisi-

were

published
to

1846.

In

the

iiones^

the

preparation
and

of

which

he

was

led

by

hi

wn

astronomical

geodetic
of
a

investigations,^
surface
between by

the

spherical

representation
correspondence

is

introduced. the
as

The

one-to-one

surface

and

the

sphere

is

established
the

regarding
normals,
to
a

correspondin

points
we

feet

of

parallel

where

obviously

must

restrict if the follows

of
a

ourselves

portion
to

the

given

surface, Thence

correspondence the introduction

the

is

be
the

maintained.
curvi-

of

linear

co-ordinates
of
the
two

surface,
as

and

definition
the
at

the

measure

curvature

the

reciprocal
curvature

of

product

of

radii

of

principal
The
measure

the

point

under

consideration.
in

of

curvature,

is first

determined
also

ordinary
in curvilinear
expression

rectangular

co-ordinates
of
that

and

afterwards

co-ordinates

the it

surface. changed

Of

the

latter

it is shown
of the
an

not

by
or

any

bending

surface

without

stretching

folding
belong

(that
the

it

is

invariant

of
of

curva-

ture).

Here
the
total

consideration
a

geodetic
upon
a

lines,

definition

and

fundamental

theorem

the

curvature

{curvatura
lines.
set

Integra)

of

triangle

bounded The

by
broad

geodetic
views

forth

in

the

Disquisitiones

1827

sent

out

fruitful

suggestions

in

the

most

vari-

ous

directions. the
general

Jacobi
ellipsoid.
parameters

determined

the

geodetic
of

lines

of

With
of
of

the three

aid

elliptic
of
a

coordi

(the
of confocal
through integrating
equation between

surfaces

tem sys-

surfaces
to

the

second
he equation

order

passing
in the

the

point
the

be

determined)
differential
line

succeeded
so

partial

that
a

of
two

the

geodetic

appeared The
are

as

relation

Abelian
of the

integrals. ellipsoid
elegant

properties
derived with

of

the

geodetic
ease

lines
from Lam6 he

especial

the
the

formulae of curvilinear
a

given

by

Liou-

ville.

By

theory

co-ordinates,
case

of which
was

had

investigated

special
for

in

1837, in
his

developed
sur

in
thiorie

1859
des

into

theory

space

LeQons

la

coordonnies

curvilignes.
measure

The
as
a

expression

for

the

Gaussian

of
has

curvature

function
to

of curvilinear
the

co-ordinates the
so

given

an

impetus
or

study

of

called These

differential
are certain

invariants

differential
of
the

parameters.

functions

partial

derivatives
the square

of
of the

the

cients coeffi-

in

the

expression in
the

for

line- element behave

which

transformation
of

of

variables Here

like

the

invariants C.
and Neumann,
a

modern

algebra.
Halphen has well
as

Sauc^,

Jacobi,

and
theory
as

laid been
the

the

tions, foundab"

general

developed
contact-

Beltrami.*

This
of

theory,
moves

transformation

Lie, and

along
theory

the of

border

line

tween be-

geometry

the

differential

tions, equa-

f
*

Mem.

di

Bologna,

VIII.

t Loria.

With

problems
certain

of

the

mathematical
upon of
systems
rays,
Transon,
as

theory

of
rays

light

are

connect

investigations
thin

of first

and

the
on

erties propby

of Mains,

infinitely

bundles

carried

Du-

in,

Ch.

Sturm,

Bertrand,
Kummer

and

Hamilton. Hamilton's

The

elebrated upon of
a

works

of

(1857
and
its

and

1866)
the

perfect
number
An

esults

bundles

of
rays

rays

consider
focal the
the
was

of

singnlar-

ties

system
to

of

and

surface.
bundles of of

interesting between
infinitely BOklen.*

ap

lication

the

investigation founded

of
on

rays

th

ens

and of

the

retina,

study given

the

thin

undles

normals

of

the

ellipsoid,

by

O.

Non

Euclidean

Geometry^
after
century yet

"

Though
to

the
the

respect
Elements

hich Euclid

century
was

had

paid

of

unbounded,
a

mathematical point
;

acuteness

had

discovered the
by

vulnerable axiom

and
to

this

point
reckoned which

forms

eleventh

(according
among the intersect

Hankel,

Euclid
that
two

himself
straight which
right

postulates)
on

afiBrms

lines
the
angles.
sum

that

side
angles

transversal less than

two

on

of

the

interior
the

is

Toward tried
to

end

of

the

last

century

Legendre

had its

do

away the of

with
others,

thi

axiom

by

making
were

proof

depend
This

upon

but

his

conclusions
an

invalid.
of
the
search

effort
now

Legendre's

as

indication
free

beginning
a

after

geometry

from

contradictions,
Here
that

hyper-Euclidean

geometry
the

or

pangeometry.
who

also this

Gauss

was

among

first

recognized
Although

axiom

could

not

be

proved.

from

his

correspondence

with

Wolfgang

Bolyai

and

Schumacher

it

can

easily

Kronecker'i

Journal,

Band

Forttchritte,

seen

that

he

had

obtained
period,

some

definite

results
to

in

is

field

at

an

early

he

was

unable
real

decide
in

any

further

publication.
geometry Reports of

The

pioneers

Non-Euclidean
two

were

Lobachevski
the

and
of

Bolyais.
first

investigations
Courier

bachevski

appeared
in
the

in

the

of

Kasan,

29-1830,

then

transactions and
Theorie

of
as

the

sity Univer-

of

Kasan,

1835-1839,
iiber
die

finally
der

Geometrische
1840,

tersuchungen

Parallellinien,

Berlin.

By
two-

Wolfgang

Bolyai

was

published

(1832stu-

33*)

volunae

work,
Matheseos

Tentatnen

Juventutem
etc.

osatn

in

elementa

purae^
world
a

Both
time then
as

works good

for

the

mathematical
till first

long

non-existent Baltzer
the
same

Riemann,

and
to

(in 1866)
Almost

in

his
time the

Elemente^

referred

Bolyai.

there

followed

sudden
"new

mighty

vance ad-

toward

exploration
and
twelve

of

this

world"
It
was

by
recognized

emann,
that
essentially
every

Helmholtz,
the

Beltrami.

of

Euclidean

axiom

sf

nine

are

arithmetic

character
;

and
to

therefore
geometry

hold

kind
the

of

geometry axiom
twelfth
two

also
upon

every

is

plicable
angles.
more

tenth

the

equality

of

all

ght

The

axiom geodetic

(two
lines,

straight

lines,

generally does
not

include
the sphere.

no

ace)

hold

for

geometry

on

eleventh

axiom

(two

straight

lines,

geodetic

Schmidt,
Bd.

"Ansdem

Leben

cweler

angarischen

Mathematiker,"

Grunert

,^

ines,

intersect
than
two

when right

the

sum

of does

the
not

interior
hold
for in the

angles
geometry plane.

ss

angles)
but
his

pseudo-sphere,
in

only

for

that

Riemann, der
the

paper
zu

'"Ueber

die
liegen,"*
the

Hypothesen,

elche

Geometrie

Grunde
forming

seeks

enetrate

subject

by

notion

of
to

multipl

extended

manifoldness
the essential

and

according
of

these

nvestigations

characteristics
constant
measure

an

"-ply
curvature

xtended
are

manifoldness the "Every

of
:

of

following

1.

point

in

it

may

be

determined

by

ariable
2.

magnitudes
'"The length

(co-ordinates).
of
so
a

line

is

independent line is

of

posi tion

and
every

direction,

that

every

measurable

other.

3.

'"To

investigate

the
must

measure-relations
every

in

such

manifoldness,
elements

we

for

point
the

represent

ine-

proceeding of the

from

it by
This

corresponding
by

ifferentials
the

co-ordinates. that
the
root

is done

virtue
the

hypothesis
to

length-element
homogeneous

of

li

equal the

the

square

of the

function the

second
**

degree

of

differentials

of

co o

At

the

same

time welche

Helmholtzf
der

published
zu

in

*Thatsachen,
the

Geometrie

Grunde

en,"

following

postulates

"

G9ttinger

Abhandlungtn,

XIII.,

i868.

ForttchritU,

i868.

1.

''A

point
n

of

an

"-

tuple

manifoldness

is

mined deter-

by
2.

CO

ordinates.
the
an

"Between

2"

co-ordinates
independent

of
of

point-pair
the
movement

ere

exists
of
the

equation,
which

latter,

is the

same

for

all

congruent

int-pairs.
3.
4.

"Perfect
"

mobility
rigid

of
of
n

rigid dimensions

bodies

is

assumed.

If

body
then
to

revolves

about

fixed

points, it back

revolution original
has

without

reversal

ll

bring
Here

its

position."
satisfactory

spatial

geometry free
that

foundations
if it is ther furis

development

from has

contradictions, three

assumed unlimited

space

dimensions

and

extent.

One

of

the

most

surprising
was

results

of of
to

modem

geo-

ric of

investigations
the

the

proof

the

ity applicabil-

non-Euclidean
of
constant

geometry negative it is

pseudo-spheres

surfaces

curvature.*

On
geodetic
plane,

udo-sphere,

for

example,
to

true

that line in

(corresponding
great infinity; there
only

the

straight has
P,
two

the

circle
that
are

on

the

sphere)
a

separate
a

points geodetic of

through
two

point

to

given lines,
P

gy

parallel

geodetic
beginning
at

which,
g g
at

ever,

one

branch

cuts

infinit

while

the
sum

other of
the

branch

does

not

meet

at

all ; is

the
than

angles

of Thus

geodetic
we

triangle
a

two

right

angles. sphere

have

geometry ge-

the

pseudo-

which

with

the

spherical

metry

has

common

limiting
These they
as

case

in

the

ordinary
have

Euclidean in
common

geometry.

three for

geometries
of value
we

this

that According
is

hold the
or

surfaces

constant

urvature.

constant

of
to

the

"rurvature

positive,

zero,

negative,

have

with

spherical,

Euclidean,

or

pseudo-spherical

etry. geom-

new

presentation

of

the

same

theory had

is

due

F.

Klein.

After
or

projective
linear
also
some

geometry

shown

that

in

projection
and

transformation

all

descriptive
the
to

properties remain

metric
the
an

relations
was

of made which

ure fig

unaltered, properties after

a

endeavor expression

find

for

the

metric

should After the found

'*

remain

invariant
work
angle

linear

transformation.
which

preparatory

of

Laguerre

made in
1859,

**no

tion

of

the

projective,"
of
of

Cayley,
by

th every

general

solution property
relation from

this
a

problem
plane

considering
as

metric

figure

contained
a

in

projective

between Cayley

it
theory,

and
on

fixed

conic."
of

Starting

the

the
space,

basis
Klein

th

consideration in
showing

of

measurements

in
from

succeed

that

the
of

projective

geometry

with

special
there

determination
be

measurements
an

in

th

plane

could

derived
the
or

elliptic,

parabolic,

or

hyperbolic
spherical,
respectively.

geometry,*

same

fundamentally

the

Euclidean,

pseudo-

spherical

etry geom-

The

need

of

the

greatest

possible

generalization

the

continued
to

perfection
attempt
to

of

the

analytic
up
a

apparatus

led

the

build
only

geometry

of relations

ensions; been

in

this,

however,

individual

considered.
may

Lagrange*

observes geometry
to

that

"mechanics

be

regarded

as

of

four

sions.*' dimenof

Plucker

endeavored
space

clothe
easily
straight

the

notion

itrarily
showed
the

extended that
surface
space

in

form

understood.

for

the
of

point,
the

the
second
must

line
a

or

the

ere,

order, have

as

space
or

ment,

the

chosen respectively.

three,

four,

dimensions different
the
as

The from

first Plucker's

investigation,
"considering

ing

conception
of
the

and

element
an

arbitrarily
of

extended
of

manispace,"

dness

analogue

the

point
work,
lineale

is

undf

in
der

H.

Grassmann's
Grosse

principal
oder

Die

Wissen-

haft

extensiven

die

Ausdehnungs-

re

(1844),
as

which
his

remained
Geometrische in

almost Analyse

wholly

unnoticed,

did

(1847).
extended
etc.,

Then

lowed

Riemann's in
his

studies
paper

multiply
die

maniand of

dnesses

Ueber the

Hypothesen^
point
for
a

again

furnished by

starting H.

series
Meyer,

ern

works

Veronese,

Schubert,

F.

re,
A

Castelnuovo,
Geometria

etc.

situs

in

the

broader but it

sense

was

created
scarcely

Gauss,
than

at

least

in

name;

of

we

know

certain

experimental

truths.

The

Analysis

Loria.
Klein,
1872.

t F.

Vergleichende

Bctrachtungeu

Uber

neuere

geometrische

For-

ngen,

itus,

suggested
transformations

by

Riemann,
consisting

seeks
of

what the aids

remains
combination
in
the
The

fixed

fter

nfinitesimal

distortions.*
in
the
theory

This

solution
contact-

problems

of

functions. by

ransformations

already

considered
A

Jacobi

have

een

developed

by

Lie.
by
the

contact-transformation

efined

analytically
the values of

every

substitution
x,

which
y,
z,

expr

co-ordinates
in

and
of

th

artial

derivatives
^"

=/", kind,

-r-

i^,
"*,

terms

quantities

of

the

same

j/,
of
two

y,

/',

/.
are

In

such

ransformation
contacts.

contacts

figures

replaced

imilar
Also

"geometric Sylvester

theory

of

probability"

has

been

reated
for the
a

by

and
lines

Woolhouse;f
drawn
at

Crofton
in
space.

uses

theory
history for

of of

random

In

elementary
a

mathematics
related

there

possib

calls

attention
as

field,

which

certainly

nnot
to

be
a

regarded certain science,

branch

of

science, development

but

ye

hich

extent

reflects
history of
or

the

eometric

the

geometric
models
of
have In

illustrative

aterial

|
elements

Good

diagrams in

systems

paceto

assist spread of

teaching
of
new

and
ideas.

frequently fact

ed

the

rapid
works

in

th

eometric
numerous

Euler,

Newton,

and

Cramer
in

ar

ound

plates

of

figures.

Interest

th

"F.

Klein. die
Modellsammlung

i ForttcAritie,
des

1868.
Seminars

t Brill,

A.,

l/eier

mathematisehtn

niversitat

TVibingen,

Mitthei-

struction in France Monge.

of

models
in

seems

to

have
the

been

manifested
and

st

consequence
In

of
year

example the
a

activi

of
arts

the

1830

Conservatoire

et

metiers

in

Paris

possessed
of A had the

whole

series
con.

of

ead and

models
screw

of

surfaces

second advance and

degree,

surfaces.

further
plaster

was

made

Bardin

(1855).
for

He
the other

thread

els mod-

constructed
gears

explanation
matters.

of

stone-cutting,

thed

and

His

collection works

was

siderably

enlarged technologists

by
met

Muret.

These little

of from

nch

with

acceptance

mathematicians
in

of

that

country,

but,

on

the
on

contrary,

England
London together of

Cayley
in 1876

and

Henrici

put

tion exhibi-

in

independently

constructed
apparatus

els

with

other and

scientific
Cambridge.

of

the

versities
In

London the from

Germany
an

construction
the

of
when

models the

enced experi-

advance geometry
Plucker,

time introduced
in

methods

of

ojective

were

into drawings

descriptive
of
curves

metry.
third of

who

his

of

order form,

had

in
brought

1835

showed together

his
in

interest 1868
the

in

relatio

first

ge

collection

of

models.

This the Klein

fourth

consisted order
the
same

of

models

complex

surfaces
enlarged surface

of
by

and

was

considerab

in

field.

cial

of

the

fourth
was

order,

the

wave-surface

optical
Magnus

bi-axial
in

crystals

constructed

in
In

1840

Berlin,

and

by

Soleil

in

Paris.

the

third

order

with In

its the
of

twenty-seven

straight

lines,

Chr.

Wiener.
of surfaces.

sixties,
the

Kummer
order

constructed
and
of

models

surfaces
His

fourth

certain

focal

pupil
among

Schwarz
them

likewise

constructed
surfaces At
a

series

of

models, of
centers

minimal

and

the

surfaces

of

the

ellipsoid.
there which

meeting

of

mathematicians

in

G6ttingen

was

made

notable

exhibition
in

of

models

stimulated

further

work
In

this

direction.
the
Dyck

wider

circles and

works

suggested
the mathematical
have
to

by

A.

Brill,

F.

Klein,
the

W.

in

seminar
found

of

Munich There

polytechnic
appeared of the
most

school
from

recognition.
over

1877

1890

dred hun-

models in

various

kinds,

of

value lectures

not

only

mathematical
mechanics

teaching and
also

but

also

in

perspective,
In
other

mathematical

physics. material
of the

directions

has

illustrative
as

this

sort

been
by

multiplied,

such
thread

surfaces

third

order

Rodenberg,
of the

models

of
Rohn,

surfaces

and

gauche

curves

fourth

order

by

H.Wiener,

and

others.

If

one

considers denied that modern longer

geometric
in its

science

as

whole,

cannot

be
between

field

no

essential

ence differ-

analytic
exists.
The

and

modern

synthetic

geometry

any

subject-matter
have

and gradually

the

methods
taken

of

proof

in

both form.

directions Not

almost

the

same

only

does

th

lytic

representations expression
of
to
a

also
space may

are

nothing And
as

less
since

than metric

ar

of figures

relations.

perties
same

be

regarded
of thus

relations

of

fundamental infinity,

form

the
can

second
be

order,

the

great
the

circle

at

and

brought
"

aggregate

of

projective
geometry,
takes

properties,
we

instead

of

lytic

and
geometry

synthetic
which

have

only

projecti

the

first

place

in

the

ence

of
last

space.*

The

decades,

especially
have

of
secured

the

development

of
a

man

mathematics,

for

the

science works
one

ding
be
**

place.

In

general

two

groups

of of
or

allied
the
a

recognized.
after

In

the

treatises
a

tendency

the

fashion

of
upon

Gauss
the

Dirichlet,

inquiry

is concentrated
of
the

exactest

possible
the
theory

itation
functions,

fundamental

notions"

in

theory

of

numbers,
of
and

and
the

mathematical

sics.

The
to

investigations

other
start

tendency, **from
concepts
a

is

be

seen

in
of
at

Jacobi

Clebsch,

ll

circle
and from

already
the

recognized

fundamental

aim

relations
so as

and
serve

consequences

which

ing

them,''

to

modern

algebra

and

metry.

On

the

whole,

then,

we

may

say from

that^
the time

"mathematics

have
geometers.

steadily

advanced

of

the

ek

The

achievements
are as

of
admirable

Euclid,
now

Archimedes,
as

and

Apollonius

they

"

F.Klein.

t Clebsch.

28o

ere

in

their
is
a

own

days.

Descaites's forever.
But

method

of

possession

mathematics
and
century
:

ave

never

been

cultivated
greater
success,

more

zealously than in
this

di ge

or

with
half

the

last made

of
have

it,

or

at

the

present

time
the actual

the

nces

been

enormous,

field

oundless,

the

future

is full

of

hope.**

V.

TRIGONOMETRY,

A.

GENERAL

SURVEY.

IGONOMETRY
for

was

developed
In

by
the

the

ancients period
were

purposes

of

astronomy.

first

ber

of

fundamental
though and

formulae in

of

trigonometry
form,

ablished,
Arabs,

not

modern
in

by

the
The the

Greeks

employed extends
from

calculations.

second gradual Middle

iod,
of
to

which

the

time

of

mathematical
the

sciences of
of the

in

the

earliest
century,

middle science
produces

seventeenth

establishes

the and

calculation

with
which
the

angular sexagesimal which

tions func-

tables by for the period,

especially
are

in

sion

is

replaced

decimal

fractions,

marks

reat

advance
the

purely plane

numerical
and

calculation.

ing

third

spherical
and
new

trigopoly-;
to

try

develop,

polygonometry
wholly

ometry

which
whole.

almost

additions
are

general formulae

Further
have

additions
furnished
a

the
of

tive projecinteresting

which
in
the

series

results

closest

relation

to

projective

ometr ge-

B-

FTRST

PERIOD.

FROM

THS

MOST

ANCISITT

TIMSS

TO

THS

JJtABS.

The

Pap3Tas
After

of

Ahmes*

speaks

of
great
of that

qaotient

alled

seqi.

observing
equal

that

the

pyramids inclination, this

the the

all

possess

approximately
is the rendered cosine with

angles

the

assumption

probable

seqt

identical
the

with
pyramid

of

the the

angle

which

edge
square

forms

diagonal
52^.

of
In the

ase.

Phis

angle which

is
have
to

usually
steeper

Egyptian

onuments

sides,

the
tangent

seqt

pea ap-

to

be

equal

the

trigonometric
of
the

of
base.

the

ngle

of

inclination

of

one

faces

to

the

Trigonometric
the

investigations

proper

appear the

firs

mong

Greeks.

Hypsicles into
three

gives
hundred

division degrees,

he

circumference indeed,
to

sixty but

wliich,

is

of

Babylonian
by

origin

was

firs

urned

advantage of
were

the
of

Greeks.
the all the and

After

the

intro*

uction

this
to

division

circle,
the

sexagesimal

fractions

be

found

in

astronomical
exception

cal cul

of

antiquity

(with

single

Heron),
the the

till finally
way

Peurbach the decimal

Regiomontanus Hipparchus
but former

prepare

for
to

reckoning.
table

as

first

complete

of

chords,
of its

of

thi

have

left

only

the

knowledge

exist-

In

Heron

are

found

actual

trigonometric
the

mulae forthe

with
of

numerical polygons
3, 4,
. .

ratios
and 11,
.

for
in

calculation
all

of
values

regular for

fact

the

of

(2j
"

"

12

are

actually

computed.*
of
are

elaus these,
contrary,

wrote

six
the

books tables
books

on

the

calculation

chords,

like

of
of

Hipparchus,
the

lost. Menelaus

On

three
in Arabic

Spherics

of

known

and
on

Hebrew

translations. and
plane
on

These
the

tain

theorems

transversals

ence congru-

of

spherical

as

well
the

as

triangles,
that

and
r

for

spherical

triangle

theorem

a-\-d-\-

"4J?,

The

most

important

work
a

of

Ptolemy

consists
trigonometry books

in

introduction
astronomical
Collection

of

formal The

spherical
thirteen

purposes.

of

the

eat

which

contain
were

the

Ptolemaic

astronomy

and

trigonometry Latin,

translated
latter by
a

into blending
arose

Arabic,
of the
work
after

into

and
al

in

the
a

tbe

bic

article
now

with

Greek

word
to

word
of
the

agest^

generally

applied

the

great
also,
the

lemy.

Like
Babylonian
into
to

Hypsicles,

Ptolemy

ient

fashion, hundred
bisects

divides degrees, degree.

ence circumferhe,

three

sixty
every

but
As

in

ad

ion
we

this,

something the
equal

find

in

Ptolemy
one

the

division
twenty

of

diameter

the

circle which
were

into

hundred
the

parts,

formed

after

sexagesimal

fashion

wo

classes

of

subdivisions.
sixtieths

In

the
first

later

Latin
second

translations

these
called
minuter

of

the

and

kind

ere

respectively
secundae.
**

paries
Hence

minutae
came

primae
the
from

and
terms

artes

later

"minutes"
upon the he

and
the

seconds."

Starting
quadrilateral,

his

rem theocalcu

inscribed
of
arcs

Ptolemy
of

ates

chords
develops

at

intervals
theorems

half

degree.

ut

also

some

of
as

plane for
example

and

specially

of

spherical
the

trigonometry, right angled

heorems

regarding

spherical

tr an

further is
to

not

unimportant
in the
works

advance of

in Hindus.
same

etry trigonomThe
as

be

noted
the

the
the

division

of

circumference and deviation.

the
as

is
but

that
there

the
an

Babylonians

Greeks The Greek

beyond

that
not

is

essential

radius fashion, is
3438
half

is but
expressed
minutes.

divided

sexagesimally
same

after length

the
in

arc

the

the

radius
r
=

utes; min-

thus the
put

for

the chords

Hindus

Instead

of

whole into

{jiva)y
with
arc,

the

chords In

(ardhajya
relation
the

are

relation
to

the though

arc.

this
to

the

half-

chord
an

the

known

Greeks,

we

recognize
accordance

important

advance notion
call

among they
the
were

the

Hindus.
therefore

In

with
what they
sine calling
we

this
now

familiar

with this
versed

sine

of

an

angle.

Besides
the

calculated

the

ratios
and sine

corresponding
gave

to

and
the

the

cosine
versed

them

spe cia

names,

utkramajya^

th

cos^a

1
.

They

did

not,

however,

apply of plane

their

gonometric

knowledge
them
astronomical of the
the
own.

to

the

solution
was

angl tri-

but

with

trigonometry

inseparably

nected

with
in the
were

calculations.
science, of
not
so

As

rest

mathematical

in'trig-

metry,
more

Arabs

pupils
but

the

Hindus,
important known

and

ill

of
of

Greeks, To Al

without

ices
the

their

Battani

it

was

well
of

introduction

of
latter

half

chords in

instead
the of
an

whole and is

rds,

as

these

appear

Almagest,

refore

reckoning
advantage formulae the

with

the
the

sine

angle,
In Al

of

ential
the

in
found
true

applications. the the

Almagest,

addition Battani
triangle,

in
for

es
=

relation,

spherical In
the

cos^cos^

sin^sin^cosa. triangles

considerawith

of

right-angled
we

in

connection

dowa

measuring, These
.

find

the
for

quotients ^
cos
a

and
degreee by
Al

were

reckoned
in
a

each
table.

tani

and

arranged
of

small

Here
tangents
were

we

find

beginnings

calculation
names,

with however,

and introduced

cotang

These
later.

The His
into

origin
work

of
upon by

the
the

term

''sine"

is due
the
and

to

Battani.

motion

of Tivoli,
ior half

stars

translated

Latin
the chord used

Plato

of

this

nslation
Hindu

contains the
was

word
was

sinus

chord.*
or

half

called
only

ardhajya
for the

also

va

(which

originally

whole

hord);
reason

the
of

latter
its

word
sound,

the
as

Arabs

adopted, The
consonants

simply

jiba.
has
bosom,

is

word, might

which be
read

in

Arabic
/(j/3=

no

meaning
or

of

incision,
was

and

is

pronunciation,
soon

which

apparently the

naturalized of Thus

mparatively

by

Arabs,
into
sinus,*
names

Plato

Tivoli

anslated

properly the

enough

was

i t

first

of

the

modem

of

the

nometr trigo-

functions.

Of

astronomical

tables
by
-'

there

was

no
"

lack

at

tha

me.

Abul

Wafa,

whom
to

the
the

ratio
cos
a

was

called

"shadow"
of

belonging
intervals

angle
a

a,

calculated

ble

sines

at

of

half

degree

and
used

also only the

same

ble

of

tangents,

which altitude
the
was

however

was

termining

the

of

the

sun.

About

me

appeared
of

hakimitic
required
Al

table
to

of

sines
by

which

Ib

nus

Cairo

construct

direction

the Among

Egyptian
the

ruler

Hakim.
Arabs the
wrote

Western
Aflah,
or

celebrated
a

omer astron-

Jabir

ibn

Geber,

complete
a

nometr trigoof

(principally
and

spherical)
rigorous the Latin

after

method in his

n,

this

work,

throughout
edition This
the work

its

proofs,

published Gerhard of
of

in

of

Astronomy

Cremona.

contains

col le

formulae
In

upon

right-angled
he does

spherical
not

riangle.

the

plane

trigonometry

nd

the
whole

Almagest,

and

hence

he had

here

deals

only

chords,

just

as

Ptolemy

taught.

C.

SECOND

PERIOD.

THE

MIDDLE

AGES

TO

THE

MIDDLE

OF

THE

TEENTH SEVEN-

CENTURY.

Of

the

mathematicians made
of
a

outside
most

of

Germany

in

this
his

iod,

Vieta

important

advance

by

roduction In

fhe

reciprocal
the

triangle
science
was

of

spherical
by
with
plan
the

angle.

Germany
in

advanced
presented the
up
to

iomontanus

and

its

elements

was

skill by day. him

and
has

thorough

knowledge in
had but
to

that
part

laid

remained

great

ent pres-

Peurbach trigonometry
was

already
was

formed

the

plan

of

ting

prevented
out

by

death.
idea

iomontanus
a

able

carry

Feurbach's
etry. trigonom-

writing After

complete
a

plane

and

spherical

brief

geometric
begins

introduction
the

Regiomonright-angled

s*s

trigonometry the
in

with for
its

angle, tribeing
by

formulae
terms

needed
of the

computation

ived

sine The
for

alone
theorems the

and

illustrated
the

erical

examples. triangle and

cases are

on

rightof the

led

used

calculation Then triangle with much

ilateral

isosceles
the
a,

triangles.

follow

the which

ncipal

of

oblique-angled
b,

of

first

(a from

c)

is

treated

detail.

eries

of

problems

relating
books

to

triangles.
spherical

The trigonometry in The

third,

ourth,

and
many

fifth

bring
to

in

ith

resemblances
are

Menelaus;

particular
case

he

angles

found

from
a,

the
3,

sides.

of

th

lane

triangle

(a
by

from

c),

treated

with

considerable
a

prolixity from
la

Regiomontanus, Rhaeticus,

received who is established

shorter
the

eatment

mul for

cot

=
,

where

the

radius

of

the

cribed
In

circle.
this
or

period

were

also They

published
express
two
a

Napier's

equations,

analogies.
or

relation

between

he

sum

difference

of

sides
or

(angles)
of

and the

th

hird

side

(angle)
angles

and

the

sum

difference

two

pposite

(sides).
terms,
as

Of
"

modern

already the of the end

stated, of the

the

word

"sine

is
or

the the

oldest. beginning for

About

sixteenth
the

entury,

seventeenth,
sinus
was

ab br

cosine
the

camplementi
Gunter

intrc The

duced
terms

Englishman
secant

(died
first

1626).
by Thomas

angent

and

were

used
was

Finck

(1583);
By
some

the

term

versed
of

sine
the

used

still

earlier.*
e.

writers
rectus

sixteenth
was

century,
instead

g.

b
,

pian,

sinus

secundus

written
have

of

co si

Rhaeticus
for

and

Vieta

perpendiculuni
natural values

and of

asis

sine whose

and

cosine.f
were

The

th

osine,

logarithms

called

by

Kepler

"anti-

*Balt2er,

R.,

Die

Elemente

der

Matheinatik,

1883.

garithms,"

are

first

found
as

calculated
published
practical
by

in

the

nometry trigo*

of

Copernicus

Rhaeticus.

The

increasing
more

skill

in

computation,
for
to

and

need

of

accurate

values
century

astronomical
a

rposes,
most

led

in

the

sixteenth trigonometric

strife

after

complete

tables
inasmuch

possible.
as

The
calculations

eparation
were

of made
alone

these

tables,

the very

without had
to

logarithms,
for

was

tedious.
purpose
a

aeticus

employ

this
years

mber

of

computers

for

twelve

and

spent

ereby The

thousands

of
of put

gulden, sines the of of

f
German
equal

first

table
He

origin
to

is

due

to

urbach.
at

radius
10'

600

000
60,

and with
computed

mputed

intervals Arabs tables which

(in

Ptolemy

of
two

the
new

r^l50).
of
no

Regiomontanus
one

sines, remains
we

for
are

r^6

000
for

000,

other,
000 000.
.

of

left,
from

r=

Besides
"

these

have

Regiomon100
000.

us

table
two

of

tangents

for

every

degree,

r=

last

tables
system

evidently
to

show
the
r=

transition
A

from table

sexagesimal
for
by every

decimal.
100
000,

of prepared

es

minute,

with

was

Apian.

In

this

field

should
of the
but

also

be

mentioned Rhaeticus. functions the

the

igable indefatHe

perseverance

Joachim

did
the

associate
of

trigonometric
started

with

circles,

with

right-angled

tri-

"M.

Curtze,

in

SchlSmilch'

Zeitschrift,

Bd.

XX.

angle

and

used

the

terms

perpendiculum

for

sine,
and
;

basis

for

cosine.
the

He
of

calculated

(partly
first table
secants

himself
secants

partly

by

help

others)
tangents,

the

of

later,

tables

of radius
After

sines,
=10

and

for later

every for

10",

for

000

millions,
the
whole

and

still,
was

r==

10".

his Otho

death

work

published
of
1468

by

Valentin
"^

in

the

year

1596

in

volume

pages.

To

the

calculation

of

natural also

trigonometric
devoted
he

func himself. forth tables

tions
the

Bartholomaeus book

Pitiscus
of

In

second
on

his

Trigonometry

sets

his

views

computations of of the
so

of sines,

this

kind.

His

contain
left,

values
and

the

tangents,

and
the
the

secants

on

the

complements he designated
the

of

sines,

tangents
cotangents,

and

secants

(for

cosines,
There
are

and

cosecants)
parts
r

on

right.
even

added
In

proportional

for
is

1',

and

for
to

lO**.
10**.

the

whole

calculation of

assumed
at

equal
the

The

work

Pitiscus

appeared

beginning

of

the

seventeenth

century. tables

The

of

the

numerical
now

values

of
a

the

trigonometric degree

functions

had

attained significance introduction

the

high

accuracy,

but
shown is

their
by

real the

and

usefulness

were

first Napier

of

logarithms.
of

usually

regarded

as

inventor
the
an

ari log

although
no room

Cantor's

review

of
was

evidencef
dent indepen-

leaves

for
His

doubt

that

Biirgi
Tabuien,

discoverer.

Progress

computed

be

en

1603 table
of

and of

1611

but

not

published
Biirgi's
be

until
more

1620

is

lly

antilogarithms. should
all also

eral genHe

point
to

view

mentioned.
by the
means

desired
logarithms the

simplify
while Napier

calculations used
only

of

logarithms

of

gonometric

functions. led the

21,
to

Burgi

was

this

method
0,

of
1,
2,

procedure
and
that
to

by
1,
2,

parison
8,
...

of
or

two

series
2",
.
.

3,
.
.

20,

2",

He
.

observed
convenient and of

for

poses

of
as

calculation
base

it the

was

most

select

10

the

of

second

series, logarithms

from

this

ndpoint

he though
renown

computed
he

the first

ordinary when

bers,

decided
to

on

publication

ier's

began favorable
Tabulen

spread
reports.

in

Germany Biirgi^s
Prague

by

reason

of

Kepler's

Geometriin
from 1620,*
10"
to

Progress

appeared

at

contained
by
by
tens.

the Burgi

logarithms

of
use

numbers
the
term

did the

not

logarithmus,

reason

of

way

in ''red

which
numbers,"

they

were

printed numbers

called

the

logarithms
*'

the

responding, Napier started

two

black
with

numbers."

the

observation
radii
moves

that

if

in

cle

with
the

perpendicular
^o^i

OA^
from

and
O
to

OAi
A^
at

=l),

sine

|| 0A\
arithmetic

ervals

forming in

an

progression,
The

its

value

reases

geometrical

progression. called
or
numerus

segment and

Napier
the

originally
direction
number

artificialis
The

er

logarithtnus.

first

publication
log

of
sin

diis

new

method
log
the
a

of

calculation,
=00,

in
that

which

ralO^

60^=0,
as

sin

0*

so

the

log ari

increased
and
produced

sines

decreased,

appeared

1614

great work
that

sensation.
thoroughly it

Henry

Briggs

had

studied

Napier's
observation
if the the

and be
more

made

th

important

would
were

suitable
to

for

computation with
0y

logarithms
He
gave

allowed
to

c i

numbers. and

proposed his
assent

put

log

loglOssl,
of

Napier

-The
on

ta bl

logarithms

calculated
change, from
90 for
000

by
the
to

Briggs^

the

basis
from

of

this
to

proposed
000

natural

numbers
were

20

and

100

000

reckoned
was

to

14

decimal

places. bookseller

The
Adrian 1628 100 000

remaining Vlacq.

gap

filled
which

the

Dutch

His
the decimal friend

tables

appeared

in
from
tables,

the
1

year
to

contained
to

logarithms
places.

numbers

10

these

under

the

name

of
upon

his

De

Decker,

Vlacq

introduced

logarithms Gellibrand,

the

continent.
computed
a

Assis

by
of

Vlacq
to

and

Briggs
and
at

table

sines
secants

fourteen
to ten

places
places,

table

of
of
close

tangent

and

intervals the

36".

These

tables
seventeenth of

appeared
century

in

1633.

Towards Vooght
secants

the

Claas and

published with
their

table

sines,
and,

tangents,

logarithm

what
on

was.

especially

remarkable,

they

ere

engraved

copper.

Thus

was

produced for
all

collection
time.

of
This

tables
was

for

logarithmic
by
the

computa

valuable

extended

intro ducti

Gauts,

but
Leonelli.

whose
The

inventor,
latter

according

to

Gauss's

own

mony, testia

is

had

proposed
this

calculating

table

fourteen for
the

decimals; his

Gauss table

thought five

impracticable,

and

ulated In

own

use

with in

decimals.*
553 8

year

1875

there

were

existence
from

logarithmic
to

tables
Arranged

decimal
to

places frequency,
6

ranging the

in

number

102.

ding
those

7-pIace d-places,

tables
4-places, in
a

stand

at

the

head,

then

with
with
102

places, places
New

and by

10-places.
H.

The

table

is found York,

work

M.

Parkhurst

ronamtcal
Investigations been

Tables,

1871).
occurring
It

of
by table less

the W. had

errors

in

logarithmic there
or

tables
that

made

J.

L.

Glaisher.f
transcribed,
from
Briggs's
100000

was

shown

complete
a

been

directly
the

indirectly

more

or

careful
the

revision,

table

published
logartth-

in

which

contains

results

of
1
to

Arithmetica
to ten

of
seven

1624

for

numbers

from found
10000.

placet.
48
to

In

the

places from disappeared.

Glaisher
1
to

171

errors

of

which due

occur

in
have

interval

These the

errors,

Vlacq,

ally

Of
10 in

mistakes

in

Vlacq, in

08

still

appear
2

Newton

(1658),
(1866),
2

Gardiner

(1742).
Of

Vega
tested
those

(1707).
by

in

in

Sang
to

(1871).
free Callet from

the
error,

tables

Glaisher, Bremiker tions Contribuhave

turned

out

be

viz..
Bruhns

of

7),
to

SchrOn
the

(1860),
rapid

(1862).
of
R.

and
common

(1870).
logarithms

calculation

been the

by
is

Koralek based

(1851)
upon into the
an

and
theorem infinite

Hoppe
that

(1876)
every

the

work

of

positive

number

may

transformed

product.

"Gaun,

iVtrke,

III.,

p.

344.

Porro

in

Bane.

Butt.,

XVIII.

^ Fortsckrttte,
VorUtungen

1873.

X Stole,

Mgr

attftmetne

ArithnuHk,

1885-1886.

D.

THIRD

PERIOD,

PROM

THE

MIDDLE

OF

THE

SEVENTEENTH

CENTURY

TO

THE

PRESENT.

After

Regiomontanus

had
trigonometry,

laid

the

foundations
his by
the
successors

plane

and made

spherical
easier
of the

and

had

work

of

computation

the

computat

the

numerical the
the

values

of

ric trigonomet-

functions
of ready

and

creation

of
structure

serviceable

tem sys

logarithms,
to

inner
in

of during

the

science

was

be

improved

details

this

third
due

period.
who from

Important

innovations
the

are

especially

Euler,

derived
a

whole
theorems.
as

of

spherical
Euler

etry trigonom-

few

simple

defined
to

th

trigonometric
to

functions
them
from

mere

numbers,

so

as

able

substitute of circles

for

series
the

in

whose

terms

ap pe

arcs

which
to

trigonometric
laws.

functions

proceed have
a

according number
and

definite

From

him

we

of in

trigonometric

formulae,
in

in

part

entirely
were

new,

part

perfected
clear

expression. denoted
Then

These
the

made

especially the
as

when
a,

Euler

elements expressions formerly

purpose.*
to
a

of

triangle

by
tana

d,

c,

a,

j8, y.

such where
same

sin

a,

could
had been

be

introduced
for

special
Lagrange theorem

letters

used

th

and

Gauss
the of

restricted
of

selves themcal spheri-

single

in

derivation

trigonometry.

The

system

equations

Bin

sm

"

2"

g"

sm

-^
relations,

cos

^^-g"^,

the Gauss,
Delambre

corresponding
though
in

is

ordinarily first
1808,

ascribed published

the
1807

equations

were

(by
the

Mollweide

by
is

Gauss

09).*
was

The
discussed

case

of
by

Pothenot
1614,

problem by
Pothenot

similar:
1692,

Snellius

Lambert

1765.t
principal
were

The

theorems

of

polygonometry in
theorem
a

and eighteenth
on

yhedrometry To

established
we

the

tury.

Euler

owe

the

the

area

the

orthogonal plane
;
to

projection
Lexell

of

plane

figure
the

upon

ther

the

theorem

upon

projecti

of
and

polygonal

line.
stated
the

Lagrange,

Legendre,
theorems

not

others

trigonometric

for for
the

yhedra

(especially
quadrilateral.

tetrahedra),

Gauss

erical
The

nineteenth
of
new

century

has
the

given so-called

to

trigonometry

series

formulae,
Poncelet,

projective
and

mulae. for-

Besides
deserves

Steiner,
for

Gudermann,

ius

special of

mention

having

devised
that

generalization
or

spherical
a

trigonometry,
may

such

es

angles

of

triangle which

exceed

180". times
to

The

portan im-

improvements

in

modern

metric trigonomathematical
sentence:

developments

have be

contributed
indicated
in

other
one

sciences,
extended upon

may

this

ir

description
the

would of
other

considerably
branches
of

encroach

province

science.

BIOGRAPHICAL

NOTES.*

Niels

Henrik.
6,

Bom 1829.

at

FindSe.
in

Norway,

August
and

5, for
a

1802 short

died
time

April
in

Studied Paris.
of
the
;

Christiania,
the

Berlin
solution

and

Proved
equation the

impossibility
;

of
the

the ory the-

algebraic
of

quintic

elaborated

elliptic

functions

founded

theory

of

Abelian

tions. func-

/ud,
Devoted
with

Mohammed
much

ibn attention
and

al

Lait
to

al

Shanni.

Lived problems

about
not

1050.

geometric edge alone.

soluble

compasses

straight
Born
i,

Wafa
died
works
at

al

Buzjani.

at

Bnzjan,
Arab

Persia,

June

10,

940;

Bagdad,
of
several

July
Greek
some

998.

astronomer.

Translated
etry trigonomgeometric

mathematicians tables single

;

improved in

and

computed requiring

interested
of the

construct

opening

compasses. Asia

rd.

About
Spain,

1120.

English

monk Arabia.
into

who

journeyed
Made
the

through
first

Minor,
of

Egypt,
Arabic
works.

and

translation

Euclid

from

Latin.

Translated

part

of

Al

Khowarazmi's

Battani

(Albategnius).
al

Mohammed
Bom

ibn

Jabir

ibn

Sinan
c.

Abu
850

Abdallah died
in

Battani.
929.

in

Battan,

Mesopotamia,
governor

Damascus,

Arab

prince,

of

Syria

great-

*The by

translators

feel

that

these

notes

will
than,
as

be
in

of

greater original,
in
more

value
by

to

the

being
as

arranged

alphabetically
arrangement

the

periods,
of

ally
They

this
also
notes

latter

is will
make

already the

given
book

the

body

the

feel
as

that
set

they
in

serviceable
eliminating
matter

by

ng

the

forth and

the

original,
adding
used

occasionally
to

of

little
They

consequence,

frequently
freely
et

the

meagre

information
works
as

have,

for

this
Zeuthen, tUr

purpose,

such

standard the
Atironomie

tor, CanZHi-

Hankel,
Mur

Gfinther,
Geschtchte

al.,

and
Physik

especially
und
are

valuable
bis

little
sum

Mathemaiik,
1893.

Jakre
prefixed

by

Felix

Mailer,
sign.

Leipzig,

Dates

A.

D.,

except

when

he

negative

est

Arab

astroDomer

and
the

mathematidan.
first table
of

Improved
cotangents.

etry trigonom-

and
Leo

computed
Battista.

Bferti,

1404-1472.
Count

Architect,

painter,
Bom

sculptor.
at

Qfertus

Magnus

Albrecbt
or

von

Bollstildt.

Lau-

ingen
1280.

in

Bavaria,

X193

1205;

died

at

Cologne,
and

Nov.

15

Celebrated

theologian,

chemist,

physicist,

mathe-

maticiaa.
M

Birunit
valley

Abnl
of the and

Rihan
Indus
wrote
;
on

Mohammed

ibn
Arab,

Ahmed.
but lived

From and

Birun.
travelled

died Hindu

1038

in

India

mathematics.

Promoted

cal spheri-

trigonometry.
Bom
At
at

lcuin.
804.

York.
a

736;
in in

died
the

at

Hersfeld.
school
to

Hesse,
at

May

19
;

first

teacher

cloister

York

then

assisted
France.
Ibn

Charlemagne

his

efforts

establish

schools

lhoMen, 1038.
I KaUsadi,
From

al

Haitam.
most

Bom

at

Bassora.
writer
on

950;

died

at

Cairo,

The
Abul

important

Arab ibn

optics.

Hasan
or

AH

Mohammed.

Died

i486

or

1477.

Andalusia Abu Arab

and Abu
in Bekr

Granada.
Mohammed
at

Arithmetician. ibn
Hosain.
Wrote
on

Karkhi^
loio.

al

Lived

about

mathematician geometry. Mohammed.

992. Arab

Bagdad.

arithmetic,

algebra

KTioJandi,
was

From
astronomer

Khojand,

in

Khorassan

living

Khowarazmi,

Abu
century.

Jafar
Native

Mohammed of
Khwarazm
The title Greek

ibn

Musa.

First Arab
gave
the

part

ninth

(Khiva).
of
his

matician mathename

and
to

astronomer.

work

algebra.

Translated

certain Abu

works.
Bom
.

Kindi,

Jacob
philosopher,

ibn

Ishak,

Yusuf
astronomer

c.

813;

died

873

Arab
Kuhi,
astronomer

physician,
Rustam

and

astrologer.
Arab

Al

Vaijan

ibn
and

Abu

Sahl.
at

Lived

about

975.

geometrician
Hasan

Bagdad. Ahmed. Lived

Nasazvi,

Abul
Nasa in

AH

ibn

about

1000

From
Sagani.

Khorassan.

Arithmetician. Sagani
Abu

Al

Ahmed
From

ibn
Sagan,

Mohammed
Khorassan

al

Hamid

al

Us

turlabi.

died

Bagdad

uMgraras.
sacus,
"

Bom 428. Last

at

Clazomene, and
most

Ionia,

"

499

died
of

at

LampIonian

famous
Teacher

philosopher
of Euripides

the

school.

Taught

at

Athens.

and

Pericl

ianus
1552.

(Apian),
Wrote

Petrus.
on

Bom

at

Leisnig,

Saxony,

1495

died

in

arithmetic in
"

and

trigonometry.
Taught

poUonius
"

of
250

Perga,

Pamphylia. in
the
gave

at

Alexandria Philopator.
"

twee be-

and
books
Wrote

200,

reign him
other

of
the
works.

Ptolemy
name

His

eight

on

conies
numerous

of

the the

great general

geometer."

Solved

quadratic Louis
Writer

with

the

help

of

conies.
Born
at

og-ast,

Fran9ois
on

Antoine.
of

Mutzig,

1759
gamma

died

1803.

calculus equations.
at

derivations,

series,

tion, func-

differential
Born

himedes.

Syracuse.

"

287(?);
architect,
Egypt.
of
areas.

killed

there

by

Roman

soldiers Spent
Greatly
some

in

"

2x2.

Engineer, in

geometer, Friend of

physicist.
King of he and
Hiero.

time

Spain
the

and

developed
and
of

knowledge

mensuration
In

geometric

solids for
his

certain
in
center

curvilinear of

physics pulley

is known
screw,

work

gravity,

levers,

specific

gravity,
Born
at

etc.

hytas.
a

Tarentum
a

"

430;

died
a

"

365.

Friend
Wrote
on

of

Plato,

Pythagorean,

statesman

and

general.
tore

tion, propor-

rational
and

and
mechanics.
Robert.

irrational

numbers,

surfaces

and

sections,

nd^

Jean
life

Bom

at

Geneva,

1768
of

died
the

c.

1825.

vate Primethod

unknown.

One

of

the

inventors
complex

present

of

geometrically
Bom
"

representing Stageira, Founder

of Alexander

numbers

(1806).
;

totle.

at

Macedonia,
of
the

"

384

died

at

Chalcis, phy philosounknown

Euboea.
;

322.

the

peripatetic
Great.

school

of

teacher by
; wrote

Represented between the theory

geometry

quantities geodesy

letters;
on

distinguished
;

and

physics

suggested

of

tions. combina-

bhatta. Hindu

Bom mathematician.

at

Pataliputra
Wrote

on

the

Upper
on

Ganges,

476.

chiefly

algebra,

inclnding equations,

quadratic

equations,

permutations,

indeterminate

^g^ust,

Ernst

Ferdinand.

Bom

at

Prenzlaa,

1793

died

1870

director

of

the

KOlniach

Realgymnanam

in

Berlin.

utolykus
astronomer

of

Pitane,
;

Asia

Minor.

Lived
work
on

about

"

330.

Greek

author AH
;

of

the
ibn

oldest
Sina.

spherics.

vicenna.
Bokhara,

Aba

Hosain

Bom
in Persia,

at

Charmatin,
1036.

neai

978

died

at

Hamadam, Edited Euclid,

Arab and

sicia phyical physand

and
works

naturalist.

several
etc.

mathematical Wrote
on

of

Aristotle,

arithmetic

geometry.
Charles. Oct.
18,
Bom
at

abba^e,

Totnes.

Dec.

26,

1792

died

at

London,

1871.
Popularly

Lucasian known

professor

of

mathematics machine.

Cambridge.
Did
much
to

for

his

calculating in

raise

the

standard

of

mathematics

England.

achei.

See
Roger.

M^riac.
Bom

iuon,

at

Ilchester,

Somersetshire.
at

12

14;

died
sor profes-

Oxford,
at

June
Oxford

11.

1294.

Studied

Oxford
physicist.

and

Paris;

mathematician
Roman

and

albmM.

Lived
Bemardino.

about

zoo.

surveyor.

aldt,

Bom

at

Urbino.
scholar.

1553;

died

there,
to

16x7.
the

Mathematician

and

general

Contributed

tor his

of

mathematics. Richard.
Bom
at

ailMtr,
Giassen

Heinrich
in

Meissen

in
at

1818;

died

1887.

Professor

of

mathematics

Giessen.

arlaam, who

Bemard.
wrote
on

Beginning
astronomy

of

fourteenth

century.

monk

and

geometry.
1

Barozgi,

Francesco.

Italian

mathematician. died mathematics

537-1604.
Cambridge,
at

Barrow,
4,

Isaac.

Born

at

London, Greek

1630;

at

May

1677.

Professor mathematician,
and
successor.

of

and

Cambridge.
was

Scholar,
pupil the

scientist,

preacher.

Newton

hi

Beda,

Venerable. in and Giusto.

Bom

at
at

Monkton.
May

near

Yarrow,

Northumberland,
on

672;

died

Yarrow,

26,

735.

Wrote

chronolog

arithmetic.
Bom
'

BeUavitis,

at

Bassano, for

near

Padua.
in

Nov.

2a,

1803;

died

Nov.

6,

1880.

Known

his

work

geom

neHnus,
on

Lived
arithmetic.

about

loao.

Papil

of

Gerbert

at

Paris.

Wrote

noulli.

Famous

mathematical

family.

Jacob
27,

(often
1654 the
;

called died

James,
there Aug.

by
z6,

the

English),
1705.
Among De

bom
the
Arte

at

Basel,
to

Dec.
nize recog-

first

value
on

of

the

calculus.
Prominent engraved
;

His

ConjectancU
of
curves,

is
the Basel.
;

classic

probabilities.
spiral

in
on

the

study
monument

logarithmic

being brother Made

his
Basel,

at

John
there

(Johann), Jan.
and but
z,

his

bom
the

at

Aug.
to

7,

1667

died
an

1748.
an

first
calculus.'

attempt Also
as
a

construct
as

integral physicist, Nicholas

exponential
abilities his
29,
were

prominent
teacher. Oct.
10.

his

chiefly
;

(Nikolaus),
there Nov.

nephew

born
at

at

Basel,

1687
Basel,

died
and
Daniel, Basel

1759.
to

Professor the

St.

Petersburg,

Padua.
son

Contributed
of

study

of

differential

equations.
1700
;

John

born

at

GrOningen,
mathematics

Feb.
at

9,

died

at

in

1782.
work younger,

Professor
was on

of

St.

Petersburg.

His

chief the

hydrodynamics. of
at

John

son

John.
Nemours

17x0-1790. in in
the

Professor

at
at

Basel.

otU, 1783.

^tienne.
Algebraist, and

Born

1730; study

died of

Paris

in

prominent

symmetric

tions func-

determinants.
Born

skara
astronomer.

Acharya.
Author the

in
the

11

14.

Hindu and

mathematician
the

and

of

Lilavati

VijaganUa^
One of

containin

elements

of

arithmetic of Paris, of

and
his Apr.

algebra.
time.
21.

the

moat

prominent Baptiste. Feb.

3,

mathematicians
Bom
at

t^

Jean
place

1774;

died

same

1862.

Professor

physics,

mathematics,

astron

Voluminous Anicius
executed

writer.
Torquatus
524.

ihius,
480;

Manlius
at

Severinus. Founder
many
Wrote

Bom

at

Rome.

Pavia,

of Greek
on

medieval
writings arithmetic.

scholasti
on

cism.

Translated
mechanics,

and and

revised

ematics, math-

physics. his

While

in

prison

he

composed
Bolyai

Consolations
Bolya.

of
Bom
at

Philosophy.
Bolya,

yai:

Wolfgang
1856.

de

1775

died

in

Friend
Bolyai de

of

Gauss. his Bom

Johann
died
at

Bolya,

son.

at

Klausenburg,
the discoverers

x802

Maros-V^^hely,

i860.

One

of

(see

igano,

Bernhaid.

X781-1848.

Contriboted

to

the

study

ombellt\

Rafaele.
all

Italian.
then known

Bom
on

c,

1530.

His

algebra Contributed

(1572)

summarized
the

the

subject.

study

of

the

cubic.
Wealthy
at
same

oncompagni,
May
xo,

Baldassare.
1821
;

Italian
place,

prince.
12.

Bom
1894.

at

Rome.

died

April

Publisher

of

Boncompagni's

BuUetino.

oole,

George.

Bom mathematics

at

Lincoln.
in

1815

died

at

Cork,
Cork.

1864.

Profess theory

of

Queen's
may

College, be

The with

of

invariants

and

covariants

said

to

start

his

contrib

(1841).

ooth,

James.

1806-1878.

Clergyman

and

writer

on

elliptic

in te

orchardt,

Karl
at

Wilhelm.
Berlin.

Bom

in

18x7;

died

at

Berlin,

1880.

Professor Pietro.
at

oschi,

Bom

at

Rome,

1833

died

in

1887.

Professor

Bologna.

ouquet,

Jean

Claude.

Bom

at

Morteau

in

18

19;

died

at

Paris.

1885.

our,

Jacques
Professor

Edmond
in
the

6mile.

Bom

in

1832

died

at

Paris.

1866

6cole
de.

Polytechniqu^.

radtvardine,
1290
at

Thomas
;

Born

at

Hard 1349.

field,

near

Chichester. of Wrote
theology

died

at

Lambeth, later

Aug.

26,

Professor

Oxford

and

Archbishop

of

Canterbury.

upon

arithmetic

and

geometry.
Born

rahma^ufta.
uted
to

in

598.

Hindu

mathematician.

Contrib

geometry

and

trigonometry.

rasseur,

Jean

Baptiste.

1802-1868. Born
6,

Professor

at

Liege.

retschneider,

Carl
at

Anton.

at

Schneeberg.

May

27,

1808

died

Gotba,

November

1878.
Sevres,
to

rianchon,

Charles

Julien.
his

Born

at

1785
Pascal's

died mystic

in

1864.

Celebrated

for

reciprocal

(1806)

hexagram

Briggs,

Henry.

Born

at

Warley

Wood,

near

Halifax,

Yorkshire,

lessor
the
name.

of
value

geometry

at

Oxford.
;

Among
those

the

first

to

recognize

of

logarithms

with

decimal

base

bear

bis

ot,

Charles

August
1882.

Albert.
at

Bom
the in

at

Sainte-Hippolyte,
Paris.
; died

18

17;

died

in

Professor

Sorbonne,

uncker,
1684. the

William, First
theory

Lord.

Born

1620

(?)

at

Westminster,
Contributed
to

president of
series.

of

the

Royal

Society.

neUeschi,
16,

Filippo.
1446.

Born
Italian

at

Florence,

1379;

died

there

April

Noted

architect.

gi,

Joost
1552
system
;

(Jobst).
at

Born

at

Lichtensteig, One
to

St.
of
the

Gall, first
the

Switzerland,
to

died of

Cassel

in
The

1632.

suggest
of

logarithms.
member
Born

first
an

recognize
zero.

value

ing mak-

the

second Ettore.

of
at

equation
1855

p"rcUi,
Professor

Perugia,

;
on

died

at

Naples,

1886.

of

mathematics

and

writer

geometry. Born

rdan
^

Jerome
at

(Hieronymus,
1576.

Girolamo).
of

at

Pavia, Bologna

1501

died

Rome,

Professor

mathematics

at

and
butions contri-

Padua.
to

Mathematician, algebra
Nicolas

physician, and theory

Marguerite.
at

astrologer. epicycloids. Born

1823.
at

Chief

of

rnot,

Lazare

Nolay,

C6te
to

d'Or, em mod-

1753

died

in

exile

Magdeburg,

Contributed

geometry. Giovanni
at

sstni,

Domenico.
17x2.

Bom
Professor

at

Perinaldo,
astronomy

near

Nice, Bologna, the

1625;

died
first

Paris,
the

of
four
at

at

and

of

family the

which

for

generations

held

post

of

director

of

observatory

Paris.

stigliano,

Carlo
Eugene
;

All"erto.
Charles.

1847-1884.
Bom
at

Italian
Bruges, of

engineer. May
at

talan^ 1814

Belgium,

30,

died

Feb.

14,

1894.

Professor

mathematics

Paris

and

Li^ge.
Pietro Bologna,

taldi,
at

Antonio.
1626.

Italian Professor Pioneer

mathematician,

bom
at

1548;

died

of
in

mathematics the
use

Florence,

Perugia

and

Bologna.

of

continued

fractions.

taneo,

Francesco.

1811-1875.

Professor

of

physics

and

mechani

iBMchy,
1857.

Angnstin
Professor

Loois.
of

Bom
mathematics of

at

Paris,
at

1789
Paris.

died
One

at

Sceaax,
the
to

of

matt

prominent
theory

mathematicians

his

time.

Contributed equations, series,

;
etc.

the

of of

functions,

determinants,
functions, Bom

differential
convergent Milan, 1598

ory the-

residaes.
Bonaventura.

elliptic

avalieri,
1647.

at

died

at

Bologna. by

Paved of

the indivisibles
Bom

way

for

the

differential

calculus

his

method

(1629).
at

ayUy,
at

Arthur.

Richmond.
1895.

Surrey.
Sadlerian Prolific

Aug.
professor

x6,

z8ax

died

Cambridge.

Jan.

26,

of
on

mathe-

matica, matica.

University

of

Cambridge.

writer

matfae-

eva,

Giovanni.
versals. Michel.
12,

1648-^.

1737.

Contributed

to

the

theory

of

trana-

hasUs,
Dec.

Bora

at

Chartres,

Nov.
extensively

15,
to

1793
the

died

at

Paris.
ern mod-

1880.

Contributed

theory

of

geometry.
Domenico.
;

heUfd,

Bom

1802;
to

died
analytic

Nov.

16.

1878.

Italian mechanics.

mathematician

contributed
From
to

geometry about

and
1500.

Chuquet, and

Nicolas.

Lyons

died

Lived

in

Paris

contributed
Alexis

algebra
Bom

and
at

arithmetic. Paris,

Qairaut,

Claude.
astronomer,

1713

died

there, in the

1765. study

Physicist, of
curves.

mathematician.

Prominent

Clausberff,

Christlieb
175
Rudolf 7, 1872.
1.

von.

Bom

at

Danzig,

1689

died

at

hagen. Copen-

Clebsch,
Nov.

Friedrich
Professor

Alfred. of

Bom

January
at

29.

1833

died

mathematics

Carlsruhe,

Giessen

and

GOttingen.
"

Condor St.

cet,

Marie

Jean
Aisne.

Antoine 1743
;

Nicolas. died
at

Bom Bourg-la

at

Ribemont,
1794.
to

near

Quentin,
of of Roger.
the

Reine,

reta Sec-

Academic

des

Sciences.

Contributed

the

ory the

probabilities.
Bom
at

Cotts,

Burbage,

near

Leicester,
Professor
to
a

July
of of

zo,

1682

died

at

Cambridge,
His

June
name

5.

17x6.

astronomy

Cambridge.
geometry,

attaches

number

theorems
'
'

algebra

and

analysis.

Newton

remarked,

If

Cotes

amer, Added

Gabriel.
to

Bom
theory

at

Geneva, equations

1704
and
Wrote

died

at

Bagnols,

1752.
of
curves.

the

of
by

revived
a

the treatise

study
on

term de-

(begun
August
;

Leibnitz).
Born
at

elle,

Leopold.

Eichwerder

(Wriezena.

d.
reine

Oder),
und

1780

died

in

1855.

Founder

of

the

JoumaZ

fUr

angewandte
Alembert,

MtUhematik
le

(1826).
Bom
at

Jean

Rond.

Paris,

1717

died

there,
to

1783
the

Physicist,

mathematician,
of equations. 160Z-1652.

astronomer.

Contributed

theory
Beaune,
Geometry.

Florimond.

Commentator

on

Descartes's

la

Goumerie,
at

Jules
1883.

Antoine

Ren^
to

Maillard.

Born

in

1814

died
Monte,

Paris,

Contributed

descriptive
Wrote

geometry.

Guidobaldo.

545-1607.

on

mechanics

and

perspective.
Bom
at

ocritus.

Abdera,
Persia.

Thrace,
Wrote
on

"

460 the

died

c.

"

370.

ied Studand

in
on

Egypt

and

theory

of

numbers

geometry.

Suggested
Born

the

idea Vitry,
to

of

the

infinitesimal.
died
numbers

Maivre,

Abraham.
1754.

at

Champagne, the theory

1667

at

London, and
Morgan,

Contributed

of

complex

of

probabilities
Bom 1871. First
at

Augustus.
March
18,

Madura,
of

Madras,
mathematics

June
in also

x8o6

died

professor Celebrated

versity Uni-

of
to

London algebra

(1828)
and
Born the

teacher,

but

contribute

theory
Lyons,

of
1593

probabilities.
;

argtus,

Gerard.
founders
Rene,
at

at

died

in

1662.

One

of

the

of
du

modern
Perron. 1650.

geometry.
Born
at

cartes,

La

Haye,

Touraine,
analytic

^596
geometry.

died

Stockholm, extensively

Discoverer
to

of

Contributed

algebra.

ostraius.
Menaechmus.

Lived

about His
name

"

335.

Greek

geometer.

Brother quadratrix. Discovered

of

is connected
Greek

with
geometer.

the

des.

Lived
cissoid
which

about

"

180.

the

he

used

in

solving

the

Delian

problem.
Most
to

phantus
Greek

of

Alexandria.

Lived
contributing

about

275.

prominent

of

algebraists,

especially

indeterminate

irichlet, GSttingen. Prominent

Peter

Gnstav
1859.

Lejetine.
Succeeded
to

Born

at
as

Dtlren,

1805
at

died

Gauss
the

professor
numbers.

GOttingen.

contribator Died Known

theory

of

Dodson,
Morgan.

James.

Nov.
chie6y

23.

1757.
his

Great

grandfather
table

of

De

for

extensive

of

arithms anti-log-

(1742).
1386-

DonateUo,

1468.
Paul
at

Italian

sculptor.
Gustav. April Bom
1889.
at

Du

BoiS'Reymond,

David

Berlin, of

Dec. matics mathe-

1831

died in

Freiburg,

7.

Professor Ttlbingen.

Heidelberg.
Marie One

Freiburg, Constant. of
the Bom

and
at

Duhamel,
at

Jean
Paris,

Saint-Malo,
upon method

1797

died

1872.

first

to

write

in

ematic math-

Dufin,

Francois
1873.

Pierre

Charles.

Bom

at

Varzy,

1784

died

Paris,

DUrer,

Albrecht.
Famous
cnrves.

Born

at

Nuremberg,
the

1471
of
the

died
modem

there, theory

1528.

artist.

One

of

founders

Eisenstein,

Ferdinand
1852.

Gotthold
of

Max. earliest

Bom
workers

at

Berlin,
the

1823

die

there,

One

the

in

field

of

ants invari-

and

covariants. Professor

Enneper,

Alfred.

1830-1885.

at

GOttingen.
Wrote

EfafhrodUus.
surveying,

Lived
theory
Born
"

about of
at

200.

Roman
and

surveyor.

numbers, Cyrene,

mensuration.

Eratosthenes. 194.

Africa,

"

276 Known

died
for

at

Alexandria. "sieve"

Prominent primes.
about Soter.
300.

geographer.

his

for

finding Lived
Ptolemy

Euclid. of

"

Taught
author
or

at

Alexandria
of Elements the

in
most

the

reign famous

The

compiler

text-book books.

of

Geometry

ever

written,

the

in
,

thirteen

Eudoxus

of
Prominent

Cnidus.
geometer,

"

408,

"

355.

Pupil

of

Archytas
to

and
the

Plato.

contributing
and
at

especially

theories

proportion, Leonhard. 1783.

One

similarity,
Born

"the
Basel,

golden

section."
;

Euler,

1707

died

at

St.

Petersburg,

of

the

greatest

physicists,

astronomers

and

mathemati

writings
on

will

be

found
of

perfect

storehouse

of

investigations science."
"

every

branch

algebraical

and

mechanical

Kelland.
Bom
on

ocius.

at

Ascalon, of

480.

Geometer.

Wrote

commentaries

the

works
Carlo,

Archimedes,

ApoUonins,
Bom
study

and

Ptolemy.

nano,
in

Giulio
1766.
with

Count
to

de.
the

at

Sinigaglia,
curves.

1682

; died

Contributed the first work

of

Euler

credits

him

in

elliptic

functions.

lhaber, series.

Johann.

1580-1635.

Contributed

to

the

theory

of

mcU,

Pierre
tauban,
1601

de.
;

Born

at
at

Beaumont-de-Lomagne,

near

Monthe
most

died

Castres, of
his

Jan.
time

12,

1665.

One
on

of

versatile

mathematicians
has
never

his

work

the

theory

of

numbers

been

equalled.
Bologna, died in

rari,

Ludovico.

Born

at

1522

1562.

Solved

the

biquadratic.
Scipione del.
Nov.

ro,

Born
16,

at

Bologna,
Professor

c.

1465

died

between
at

Oct.

29

and

1526.

of

mathematics
on
a

Bologna.

Investigated the

the

geometry the
first

based
to

single

setting

of

compasses,

and

was

solve

the

special

cubic

erbcLch,

Karl

Wilhelm
to

Born elementary

at

Jena.
geometry.

1800

died

in

1834.

Contributed
See

modern

onacci.

Leonardo

of

Pisa.
Baron. Born

rier,

Jean
at to

Baptiste
1830.

Joseph,
Physicist

at

Aozerre.

1768
uted Contrib-

died

Paris,

and

mathematician.

the

theories

of

equations de

and
Bessy.

of

series.

ncle.
Fermat.

Bernard

FrhUcle

1605-1675.

Friend

of

zier,
Brest,

Am^d^e
1773.

Frangois.
One
of
the

Born

at

Chamb^ry,
of descriptive

1682

died

at

founders

geometry.

edlein,

Johann

Gottfried.

Born

at

Regensburg,

1828

died

in

1875. Sextus

tUinus,

Julius.
Born
at

40-103.

Roman

surveyor

and

engineer.

ois,

Evariste.

Paris,

181

died

there,

1832.

Founder

(ktMss,

Karl

Friedrich.
1855.
as

Bora
greatest

at

Bnmawick,
mathematician

1777; of

died
modem

at

GOt*
times.

tingen, Prominent
nnmbersi

The
a

physicist
of

and

astronomer.

The

theories

of

functions,
of genins.

equations, geometry,

of

determinants,
are

of

complex

nambers,
to

hyperbolic

all

largely

indebted

his

great

GAer.

Jabir
;

ben
on

Aflah.
spherical
z

Lived

aboat

1085.

Astronomer

at

Se vi

wroto

trigonometry.

GeUSbrand,
College.

Henry,

597-1637.

Professor

of

astronomy

at

Gresham

GtwdtiuM.
on

Boni
astronomy

at

Rhodes,

"

100

;
on

died
the

at

Rome,

"

40.

Wrote

and

(probably)

history

of

pre-Euclidean

mathematics.

Gerbert^

Pope
May
Wrote

Sylvester
13,
1003.

II.

Bom

at

Anvergne, teacher;

940;

died pope

Rome,
999.

Celebrated

elected

npon

arithmetic.
From

Gerhard

of

Cremona. in

Cremona
Born

(or, according
in
1x24;

to

others,

Carmooa
1x87.
several

Andalusia).

died

at

Toledo

Physician,

mathematician,

and
and

astrologer. mathematicians

Translated from

works
into

of
Latin.

the

Greek

Arab

Arabic

Germain,

Sophie.

1776

1831.

Wrote

on

elastic
to

surfaces.
theory

Girard,

Albert,

c.

X590-Z633.

Contributed and symbolism.

Known

the

of

tions, equa-

general Gustav Adolf.

polygons,

Gdpel,

1812-1847.

for

his

researches

on

hyperelliptic

functions.
Henricus.

Grammateus,

(German
1476.

name.

Heinrich

Schreiber.)

Bom

at

Erfurt,

c.

Arithmetician.

Grassmann,

Hermann there Sept.

26,

GQnther.
1877.
wrote

Bora

at

Stettin,
for

April

15.

1809;

died
lehre

Chiefly
on

known

his

Ausdehnung-s-

(1844).

Also

arithmetic,

trigonometry,

and

physics.
Ernst

Grebe,
X804

Wilhelm.

Born Cassel,

near

Marbach,

Oberhesse,
Contributed
to

Aug.
modem

30

died

at

Jan.

14.

1874.

elementary

geometry.

Gregory,

James.

Born

at

Drumoak,

Aberdeenshire,

Nov.

1638

drews

and

Edinbargh.
to

Proved
theory
of

the

incommensurability

of

ir

contribated

the

series. Halle
editor Bom

nert,

Johann
at

August.

Bom

at

a.

S..

1797;

died
Archiv.

in

1872

Professor

Greifswalde,

and de Malves.

of

Grunert's

Jean
died
cartes's
at

Paul

de

Qua
2,

at

Carcassonne,

171

Paris.
rule

June
of signs.

1785.

Gave

the

first

rigid

proof

of

Des

ermann,

Christoph.
at

Bom

at

Winneburg,
To him
into

March

28.

1798;
the

died

Manster,

Sept.

25,

1852.

is
modern

largely

due

introduction

of

hyperbolic

functions

analysis.
Griltz,

din,
1643.

Habakkuk
Known

(Paul).
chiefly
Pappus.

Born for his

at

St.

Gall,
on
a

1577;
solid

"^"ed
of

at

theorem

revolution,

pilfered

from

chettt, Paris,

Jean
1834.

Nicolas

Pierre.

Bom and

at

M^zi^res.

1769

died

at

Algebraist

geometer.

ey,

Edmund.
1656
his
;

Born
at

at

Haggerston,

near

London,

Nov. known

8,

died

Greenwich,

Jan.
to

14,

1742.

Chiefly
astronomy.

for

valuable George
in

contributions
Henri. 1889.
Bom

physics Rouen,

and

"

fhen,

at

Oct.

30,

1844

died

at

Versailles Paris.

Professor
to

in
theories

the

"cole
of

Polytechnique equations

at

Contributed
of
elliptic

the

differential

and

functions.
Rowan.
2,

lton,

Sir there,

William

Bom Professor
to

at

Dublin,
of of of

Aug.

3-4,
at
to

1805

died

Sept.

1865.

astronomy light

Dublin.

Contributed
but

extensively generally
Born 29,

the

theory

and

dynamics,

known

for

his

discovery

quaternions.
; died

kel,

Hermann.

at

Halle,

Feb.

14,

1839
to

at

Schramof
complex

berg,

Aug.
numbers

1873.

Contributed
to

chiefly of

the

theory

and
Gustav

the

history

mathematics.

ack, in

Karl
1888.

Axel. in

Born the

at

Dorpat,

185

1;

died
at

at

Dresden

Professor

polytechnic died

school

Dresden.

iot,
near

Thomas.
Isleworth,

Born

at
2,

Oxford,
162
1.

1560; The
most

at

Sion

House,

July
his
time.

celebrated

English

algebraist

of

Alexandria.

Lived

"

no.

Celebrated

Hesse,
at

Ladwig
Munich,

Otto.
Aug. 4,

Bom

at

KOnigsberg,
to

April
the

22,

iSii

died

1874.

Contributed

theories

of

curves

and

of

determinants.

Ifipparchus,
"

Bom Celebrated

at

Micaea.
astronomer.

Bithynia.
One

"

180

died

at

Rhodes.
writers

125.

of

the

earliest

on

spherical
Elis.

trigonometry.
Bom Mathematician,
the

Hifpias
natural

of

c.

"

460.

astronomer,

scientist.
Chios.
text-book

Discovered

quadratrix. Wrote

Hi^pocrcUes
elementary

of

Lived
on

about

"

440.

the

first

Greek

mathematics.
Bom

Homer,

William 1837.
roots

George.

in

1786

died

at

Bath,

Sept.
the

22

Chiefly of
a

known

for

his

method

of

approximating

rea

numerical

equation

(18 19).
Teacher

Hrabanus

Maurus.

788-856.

of

mathematics.

Arch

bishop

of

Mainz.

Hudde,

]ohann.
Contributed
to

Bom
the

at

Amsterdam, of 873. equations Arab

1633; and

died
of

there, series.

1704.

theories

Honein

ibn several

Ishak. Greek

Died

in

physician.

Translated

scientific
van

works.
Zuylichem.
physicist
to

Huygens,

Christiaan,
there, he 1695.

Born
and

at

the

Hague,
In

1629

died

Famous

astronomer.
curves.

mathematic

contributed

the
Roman

study

of

Hygtnus.

Lived

abont

zoo.

surveyor.

HypcUia,
several

daughter

of

Theon

of
works.

Alexandria.

375-415.
Kingsley's

Composed

mathematical Alexandria.

See

Charles

Hypatia.
on

Hypsicles
geometry

of

Lived

abont

"

190.

Wrote

soli

and
equations. Lived
of

theory

of

numbers,

and

solved

certain

minate indeter-

lamblichus.

about

325.

From

Chalcis.

Wrote

on

various

branches

mathematics.
Abul

Ibn

al

Banna.

Abbas
ibn
West

Ahmed al Arab Banna

ibn

Mohammed
Algarnati.
;

ibn

Otman
1252

Azdi

al

Marrakushi Morocco.

Born prolific

1257
Yunus,

in

algebraist
Abi

writer.

/bn

Abul

Hasan

Ali

ibn

Said

Abderrahman.

960-

"

dorus
636.
on

Hisfalensis.
Bishop
mathematics.

Bom

at

Carthagena,
Origints

570

died

at

Seville,

of

Seville.

His

contained

dissertations

ry
^

James.
Chiefly

Bom

at

Dundee.
as
a

1765

died

at

London,

Sept.

21,

1842.

known

physicist.
Born

cobi,
died
theory

Karl
at

Gustav Berlin, of

Jacob.
Feb.
18,

at

Potsdam,

Dec.

10,

1804;
to

1851.

Important and
to

contributor

the

elliptic

and

theta

functions

that

of

functional

determinants.

min,

Jules
of

C^lestin.
physics.

Bom

in

1818

died

at

Paris,

1886.

fessor Pro-

nnes
or

de 1375;

Praga

(Johannes
at

Schindel).
c.

Born Astronomer

at

K5niggrSLtz, and
mathematician.

1370

died

Prag

1450

hannes
Lived

of

Seville
1140.

(Johannes
A

von

Luna,

Johannes
wrote
on

Hispalensis).
arithmetic
and

about

Spanish

Jew;

algebra.
van

hann
C375

GmUnden. 1385
;

Bom

at

Gmtlnden
Feb*

am

Trannsee, 1442.

between
Professor full

and

died

at

Vienna,
at

23.
;

of

mathematics of
mathematics Abraham
1800.

and in

astronomy
a

Vienna
university.

the

first

professor

Teutonic

siner,

Gotthelf. Wrote
on

Bom

at

Leipzig. of

1719;

died

at

GOt-

tingen,

the

history

mathematics.

ler,
at
as

Johann.
Regensburg,
a

Born
1630.

in

WUrtemberg, Astronomer

near

Stuttgart,
of
Tycho

1571

died

(assistant
to

Brahe, the

young

man);
universe,"

"may
"

be Proctor.

said

have

constructed in

fice edithe

of

the

Prominent the "principle

introducing
of
continuity"

nseof

logarithms.

Laid
to

down

(1604);

helped

lay

the

foundation

of

the

infinitesimal

culus cal-

yyam,

Omar.

Died Popularly the

Rubatyat.

at

Nishapur,
known

1123.

Astronomer, famous

geometer,

algebraist.

for

his

collection

of

quatrains,

bel,

Jacob.
1533.

Bom

at

Heidelberg,
writer
on

1470
arithmetic
Born

died

at

Oppenheim,

in

Prominent

(1514,
Paris,

1520).
died
there,

oix,

Sylvestre

Fran9ois.

at

1765;

aguerre,

EdmcmJ
there

Nicolas.
14,

Bom

at

Bar-le-Doc,
to

April

9.

1834

died

Aug.

1886.
Comte.
10.

Cootribnted

higher

analysb.

agrange,

Joeeph
at

Loais, April
his time.

Bom

at

Turin,
the

Jan.
foremost
to

25,

1736

died

Paris,
of

1813.

One

of

mathematician

Contributed
of
of
nnmbers,

extensivelf

the

calcalns

of

variations,

theory
calculus
functions.
as an

determinants,
theory
Micamque

differential
of equations,
analytique.

equations,

finite
Author
astronomer.

differences,
of the

and
Also

elliptic celebrated
Philippe
21,

ahire,

de.
X718.

Bom

at

Paris,
to

March
the

z8,

1640;
curves

died
and

there
magic

April

Contributed

study

of

squares.
Antoine
X664.

Lalaub^tt

de.

Bom

in
to

Languedoc.
the

1600

died

at

louse Tou-

Contributed

study

of

curves.

Lambert, 1728
;

Jobann
died
at

Heinrich. Berlin,

Bom

at

MQlbausen,

Upper hyperbolic

Alsace,

1777.

Founder

of

the

nomet trigo

LanU,
on

Gabriel. elasticity
,

Bom

at

Tours.

1795

died

at

Paris,

1870.

Writer

and
Bom
1790.

orthogonal Peakirk,
theorem

surfaces.

Landen,
at

John.
Milton,

at

near

Peterborough, his

17x9
to

die

of of

(X755)

suggested

Euler

and

Lagrange

their
Simon,

study
Marquis
23,

elliptic de. died

Bom

integrals.

Laplace^

Pierre

at

Beaumont-en-Auge, March 5.

Normandy, Celebrated
to

March
astronomer,

1749;
physicist,

at

Paris,

1827. Added

and

mathematician.
equations,

the

theories
probabilities,

of

least

squares,
differential

determinants,
equations.

s r

and

Legendre,
at

Adrien Paris,

Marie.
10,

Bom

at

Toulouse,

Sept.

x8,

1752

die

Jan.

1833.

Celebrated
theory
and
"

mathematician,
elliptic

ing contributtheory

especially
numbers,

to

the

of

functions,
Discovered

least

squares,

geometry.
"the

the

"lav

of

quadratic Gottfried
in

reciprocity," Wilhelm.
17 16.

gem

of

arithmetic*'

(Gauss).
died

LeQmitz,

Bom

at

Leipsig,

1646;

Hanover times;

One
as

of
a

the

broadest

scholars
and

of

modem

equally

eminent
discoverers

philosopher infinitesimal

mathematician.

One

of

the

of

the

calculus,

eonardo Born
at

of

Pisa.
Pisa,

Fibonacci
1180;
to

(filios
c.

Bonacii,
Travelled of the
which and

son

of

Bonadas).
and
and

died
a

1250.

extensively

brought the
Ltber

back

Italy

knowledge
the Arabs,

Hindu he Flos.

numerals
set

general Abaci,

learning
Practica

of

forth

in

his

geometriae,

HosfitoU,
Mesme. first
to

Guillaume Bom recognise

at

Francois
Paris, value
1661
;

Antoine
died
there

de,

Marquis
1704.

de
One

St. the

of

the

of

the

infinitesimal

calculus.

utUer,

Simon

Antoine

Jean.

Born

at

Geneva,

1750;

died

in

1840.

Geometer. dalla Florence,

Wrote
on

bri,

Carucci
Born 28,
at

Sommaja,

Guglielmo
2,

Brutus

Icilius

Timoleon.

Jan.
the

1803

died
of

at

Villa

Fiesole, in Italy.

Sept.

1869

history

mathematics

e,

Marius
Professor

Sophus.
of celebrated
as

Bom mathematics for

Dec.
in

12,

1842;

died
and

Feb.

18,

1899.

Christiania

Leipzig.
groups of

cially Spe-

his
to

theory

of

continuous

transformatio

applied
Bora
that
at

differential
Omer,

equations.
1809
;

uville, of
the

Joseph.
journal

St.

died

in

1882.

Founder

bears Ivanovich.

his

name.

achevsky,
at

Nicolai Feb

Bom

at

Makarief,

1793; of the

died
ao-

Kasan,
non-

12-24,

1856.

One

of

the

founders

called
van

Euclidean

geometry.

dolfh

Ceulen,

See
Born of

Van

Ceulen.

cCuUagh,
1846.

James.
Professor

near

Strabane, and

1809

died
in

at

Dublin,

mathematics

physics

Trinity

lege, Col-

Dublin. Colin.
Born 1746. the

loMrin,

at

Kilmodan,

Argyllshire,

1698
at

died

at

York,

June

14.
to

Professor

of
conies

mathematics
and

Edinburgh.

Contributed
Giovanni
;

study

of

series.

falti,
1731 ric

Francesco
at

Giuseppe.
Oct. his
9,
name,

Bom
Known

at

Ala,

Sept.
geomet-

26,

died

Ferrara,

1807.

for

the

problem

which

bears
Born

us,

fitienne
Feb.
24,

Louis.

at

Paris,

June

23,

1775;

died

there,

1812.
Lorenzo. First
to

Physicist.
Born

fkeronit
c8oo.

at

Castagneta,
geometry of

1750;
the

died

at

Paris,

elaborate

the

compasses

iauroHco,

Francesco.
21,

Bom

at

Messina.

Sept.
of

16,

1494;
Wrote

died

July
00

1575.

The

leading

feometer

his

time.

also

trigonometry.
JPtanudes.

cunmus

Lived
at

aboot

1330.

From \
.

Nicomedia.
a

Greek

mathematician

Constantinople.
on

rote

commentary

on

Diophantns

also

arithmetic.
Papil
^35a

entiechmus.

Lived
conic

abont

"

Plato.

Discoverer

of

the

sections. Lived
Wrote
on

enelaus

dt

Alexandria.

aboot geometry Rupelmonde,

100.

Greek

mathematician

and

astronomer.

and

trigonometry.

erccUar,
at

Gerhard.

Born

at

Flanders,

15x2

died

Dnisbnrg,

1594.

Geographer.

erccUor,

Nicholas.

(German
c.

name

Kanfmann.)
at

Bom
Discovered

near

Cismar,
the series

Holstein.

1620;

died

Paris,

1687.

for

log

(1

-|-").
at

elius,

Adriaan.

Bom
an

Alkmaar, for

1571
ir,

died
due

at

Franeker,
to

1635

Suggested

approximation
Place,
;

really

his

father.

eustder Paris, the

de

la

Jean
at

Baptiste

Marie

Charles.
a

Bom

1754

died
of

Caasel,

1793.

Contributed

theorem

on

curvature

surfaces.
Bachet
Known

iziricu:,
1581
;

Claude died

Gaspard

de.
for his

Bom

at

Bourg-en-Bresse,

in his

1638.

Probtkmes

flaisants,

etc.

(1624)

and

translation

ol
Born

Diophantus.

obtus,

August

Ferdinand. Sept.
of 26,
Der

at

Schulpforta.

Nov.

17, in

1790

died

at

Leipzig,
Author

1868.

One

of

the

leaders

modern

geometry.

Barycentrische

Calciil{iZ2'j).

ohammed

ibn

Musa.

See

Al

Khowarazmi.

oivre.

See

DeMoivre.

ollzvetde,

Karl
at

Brandan.

Born

at

Wolfenbtlttel,
Wrote
on

Feb.
astronomy

3,

1774
and

died

Leipzig,

March

10,

1825.

mathematics.
Gaspard,
at

onge,

Comte 1818.

de

P^luse.
of

Born

at

Beaune,
geometry;

1746

died

Paris,
to

Discoverer

descriptive

contributed

the

study

of

curves

and

surfaces,

and

to

differential

tmort,

Pierre

R^mond
to

de.

Born

at

Paris,

1678

died

there.
to

1719.
summation

Contribated
of

the

theory

of

probabilities

and

the

series. Lived
his
work
at

choftUus,
Known

Manuel.

about
on

1300.

Byzantine squares.

mathematician.

for
Bom

magie
1585

orge^

Claude. the

Paris,
on

; died

there

in

1647.

Author

of

first

French
Born

treatise

conies.
then Inventor
a

ier,
1550

John.
;
to

at

Merchiston, 1617.

suburb

of

Edinburgh,
Contributed

died

there

in

of

logarithms.

trigonometry.
Isaac.

on^ 1642,

Sir O.

Bom

at

Woolsthorpe.
March
of

Lincolnshire,
20,

Dec. Succeeded
at

25,

S. ;
as

died

at

Kensington, professor

1727.

Barrow

Lucasian

mathematics

Cambridge
Invented
to to

(1669).
fluxional
theories

The

world's calculus

greatest

mathematical

physicist. extensively

(c. 1666).
equations,
then Paris,

Contributed
curves,

the

of of

series, mathematics
Born

and,

in

general,

all

branches

known.

le,

Francois.
treatise
on

at

1683;

died

there,

1758.

First

finite

differences.
Arabia. Lived
Wrote

machus

of

Gerasa.

100.

upon

arithmetic.

medes

of
bears

Gerasa. his
Cusa.
II, name.

Lived

"

180.

Discovered

the

conchoid

which
von

iaus

Born
1464.

at

Cuss

on

the

Mosel,

1401
astronomer,

died

at

Todi.

Aug.

Theologian,

physicist,

omete ge-

of

Cluny.
on

Bom

at

Tours,

879

died

at

Cluny,

942

or

943.

Wrote

arithmetic. Chios.
Lived
Born
"

ppides

of

465.

Studied

in

Egypt.
died

Geometer.

ier,

Theodore.
Aug.

at

Lyons,
on

Jan.

21,

1793

in

same

place

5,

1853. Born
on

Writer

descriptive

geometry.

me,

Nicole.
1382.

in

Normandy,

c.

1320;

died

at

Lisieux,

Wrote William.
on

arithmetic
Bora
at

and
Eton,

geometry.
;

tred,

1574

died

at

Albury,

1660.

Writer Luca.

arithmetic Fra Laca

and
di

trigonometry.

oli,

Borgo

di

Santi

Sepulchri.

Bom

at

".

1509.

Taught

in
Geometria,

several
etc..

Italian
was

cities.
the

His
gieat

Summa mathematical

ArithmeHea,
work

first

pnblbhed Alexandrift. the

mathematical

(1494V
Lived about
knowledge

Pappus

of

30a

Compi'ed

work

con

taining

of
;

his

time.

Parent,
to

Antoine. refer
a

Bom
surface
to

at

Paris.

1666

died

there

in

1716.

Fiist

three

co-ordinate
1623;

planes
died

(1700).
at

PasccU,

Blaise.

Bom

at

Clermont.
mathematician.

Paris.

1662
to

Physicist, theory

philosopher,
of numbers,

Contributed
and
geometry.

th

probabilities,
Bom
at

eirce,
Writer

Charles
on

S.
logic.
in

Cambridge.

Mass..

Sept.

xo,

1839.

PeU,

John.
10,

Born

Sussex.

March
Rahn's

x.

z6io

died

at

London,

Dec

1685.

Translated

algebra.
geometer
;

Perseus.

Lived
Georg
X423 writer
;

"

-150.
von.

Greek Born
Vienna.

studied
Upper

spiric

lines.
May taacher

Peuerbach,
30,

at

Peuerbach,
8.
1461.

Austria,

died
on

at

April

Prominent
astronomy.
;

and

arithmetic, Born

trigonometry,

-and 1765

Pfaff,
"

Johann
1825.

Friedrich.
Astronomer

at

Stuttgart,

died

at

Halle

in

and
Bom

mathematician. Aug.
on

Pittscus,

Bartholomaeus.

24,

1561

died

at

Heid^iloaod

berg, present

July

2,

1613.

Wrote

trigonometry,

and

first

th

decimal

point
Antonio

(1612).
Amedeo. Bom
1864.
at

Plana,

Giovanni

Voghera.

Nov.
astronomer

1781;

died physicist. See

at

Turin.

Jan.

2,

Mathen^atical

and

Planudes.

Maxim Antoine
at

us

Planndes. Ferdinand.
Sept. 15. Bom
1883.
at

Plateau,
1801

Joseph
;

Bmssels, of

Oct.

14

died

Ghent.

Professor

physics

Ghent.
Bom
Athens,

Plato.

at

"

429;
to

died
the

in

"

348. of Al

Founder
mathematics.

of

th

Academy.
Tivoli.

Contributed Lived
works.
Bom
at

philosophy

Plato

of

1120.

Translated

Battani's

etry trigonom-

and

other

PlUcker,

Johann.
22,

Elberfeld, of

July
mathematics

16,

i8ox
at

died

at

Bonn,

May

1868.

Professor

Bonn

and

Halle.

isson,

Simeon
1840.

Denis.

Born

at

Pithivien.
as

Loiret.

178

died

atP"Eis,
to

Chiefly
of

known
integrals

physicist. of series.

Contributed

the

study

definite

and
Metz,

celet,

Jean
of the

Victor.

Born
of

at

1788
geometry.

died

at

Paris,

1867.

One

founders

projective
at

henot^

Laurent.

Died College

Paris de

in

1732.

Professor

of

mathematics

in

the

Royale

France.

dus.

Born
on

at

Byzantium, Studied

412

died

in
plane

485.
curves.

Wrote

commentary

Euclid.

higher

lemy

(Ptolemaeus
165.

Claudius).
One
of the

Born
greatest

at

Ptolemais,
Greek

87;

died

at

Alexandria,

astronomers.

hagorcLS,

Born

at

Samos,

"

580
East.

died

at

Megapontum, the

"

501.

Studied
school
at

in

Egypt

and

the

Founded Beginning

Pythagorean

Croton.

Southern

Italy.

of

the

theory

of

numbers.
Lambert

Celebrated

geometrician.

etelett
1796;

Adolph
at

Jacques.
Feb.

Born

at

Ghent,

Feb. of
the

22,

died

Brussels, Belgium.

7,

1874.
to

Director
geometry,

royal

observatory

of

Contributed

astronomy,

and

statistics. Peter

tis,

(Pierre
at

de
massacre

la

Ramfe).
of

Born

at

Cuth,

Picardy, Paris,

1515
August

murdered
24-25,

the

St.
but

Bartholomew, also
a

1572.

Philosopher,

prominent

writer

on

mathematics.
Robert.
Born 1558.
at

orde,
at

Tenby,

Wales,

1510

died
and

in

prison,
at

London,

Professor

of
sign
=

mathematics

rhetoric

Oxford.

Introduced

the

for

equality.
K5nigsberg,

iomontanus.

Johannes
;

Mfiller.

Born 1476.

near

June
omer, astron-

6,

1436

died

at

Rome,

July

6,

Mathematician, mathematics.

geographer.

Translator

of

Greek

Author

of

first

text-

book

of

trigonometry.
Pupil

gius
on

of

Auxerre.

Died

about

908.

of

Alcnin's.

Wrote

arithmetic.
Georg 1576.

ticus,

Joachim.
Professor and

Bom

at

Feldkirch,
at

15 14 Wittenberg

died

at

Kaschau,
of

of editor

mathematics

; pupil to

Copernicus

of

his

works.

Contributed

iccoH,

Count

Jaoopo
1754.

Francesco.
to

Bom

at

Venice. and

1676

died

Treves,

Cootribntad

phjrsici

dilferf

ntial

tions. equa-

icheiot,

Friedrich
March
31,

Jnlios.
1875
in

Born
same

at

KOnigsberg,
Wrote
on

Nov.

6,

1808

died

(dace.

elliptic

and

Abelian

functions.
George

iemann,
17.
theory

Friedrich
died
at

Bemhard.

Bom
20,

at

Breselenz,

Sept.
to

1826
of

Selasca,
and
at to

Jaly
the

1866.

Contributed surfaces.

th

functions

study

of

Riese,
at

Adam.
Annaberg,

Bom

Staffelstein,
Most

near

Lichtenfels,
teacher

1492

died

1559. in
the Persone Professor
i6th

influential

of

and

writer

arithmetic
Giles

century.

RobervcU,

de.
of
cycloid.
at

Born

at

Roberval.
at

1602

died

Paris.
of

Z675.
and
Bom

mathematics

Paris.

Geometry

tangents Michel.

the

RoUe,

Ambert, the

April
theorem

22,

1652 which

died

at

Paris,
name,

Nov.
in
the

8,

17 19. of

Discovered equations.

bears

his

theory
Christo"f.

Rudolff,
German

Lived

in

first

part

of

the

sixteenth

century.

algebraist.

Sturo-Bosco,

Johannes
i20o(?);
died
at

de.
at

Born

at

Holywood

(Halifax),
of
his

shire, York-

Paris,

1256.
known

Professor
for

mathematics
Tractatus

and

astronomy
mundi.

Paris.

Chiefly

Sahara

SaitU'Venant, died
in

Adh^mar Venddme,
Gregoire
Known

Jean
1886. de. his

Claude Writer
on

Barr^

de.

Born

in
torsion.

1797

elasticity

and
; died

Saint-

Vincent, 1667.

Bom

at

Bruges,
at

1584
circle

at

Ghent.

for

vain

attempts

squaring.

Saurin,

Joseph.
of Ludwig.
Writer

Born

at

Courtaison,

1659;

died

at

Paris,

2737.

Geometry

tangents. Bom
on

Scheeffer,
1885.

at

K5nigsberg,
of

1859

died

at

Munich.

theory

functions.
de

Schindel,

Johannes.
Daniel.
of
oriental

See
Bom

Joannes
at

Praga.

Schiventer,

Nuremberg, and
of

1585
mathematics

died
at

in

1636.

Professor

languages

Altdorf

ret,

Joseph

Alfred. March
and
the
2,

Born 1885. differential Lived

at

Paris,

Aug.

30,

18 19

died

at

Versailles,
on

Author

of

well-known
calculus.
Wrote

text-books

algebra

and about

integral

tus

Julius
of

Africanus.
mathematics.

220.

on

the

tory his-

mpson,
Woolwich,
geometry,

Thomas.
May

Born
14,

at

Bosworth,
Author and

Aug.

20,

1710;
on

died algebra,

at

1761.

of

text-books

trigonometry, Francois
Liege
Walter

fluxions.
Born

ze,

Ren^ died
at

de.

at

Vis^
to

on

the

Maas,

1622 the

in
to

1685.

Contributed

the

notation

of

culus cal-

and
Henry

geometry. Stephen. Leading

Bom
at

th,

John
9,

Dublin,
writer

1826
on

died of

at

ford, Ox-

Feb.

1883.

English

theory

numbers.

ll,

Willebrord.
1626.

van

Roijen.
astronomer,

Born

at

Leyden,

1581
to

died

there,

Physicist,

and
in

contributor London,
of

trigonometry.

ottisTvoode,
there,
on

William.

Born

Jan.
Royal

11,

1825

died

June

27, and Georg

1883.

President

the

Society.

Writer

algebra

geometry. Christian
von.

udt, Tauber,

Karl

Bom

at

Rothenburg
i,

a.

d.

Jan.
contributor

24,

1798
to

died

at

Erlangen,

June
Geometric

1867.
der

Prominent

modem

geometry.
March

Lage.

iner, Bern,

Jacob.
April
Simon.
1620.
i,

Born
1863.

at

Utzendorf, Famous Bruges,

18,

1796

died

at

geometrician. 1548
;

vin,

Born

at

died

at

Leyden

(or

the

Hague),

Physicist
Born

and
at

arithmetician.
Isle

art,

Matthew.

Rothsay,

of
as

Bute,

1717;
of

died

at

Edinburgh,
at

1785.
Edinburgh.

Succeeded

Maclaurin Contributed
to

professor modern

mathematics

elementary

geometry.
Michael.
Born
at

ifel,

Esslingen, for
his

Z486 Arithmetica

or

1487; integra

died

at

Jena,

1567.

Chiefly

known

(1544).
1803
at ;

m,

Jacques
in
"

Charles Professor
theorem,"

Francois.
in the

Born

in

Geneva,

died

1855.

6cole

Polytechnique

Paris.

Sturm's

vester^

James

Joseph.

Born

in

London,

Sept.

3,

1814

died

fBometry
especially

in
the

the

Uahrenity
of

of
invariants

Oxford.
and

WritBr
covanasts.

oo

algebra,

theory

aJbU

ibn Bagdad,
works

Kurra,
got.

Bom

at

Harran

in
and

Mesopotamia,
astronomer.

833

died

Mathematician

Translated
on

of

the

Gtedi

mathematicians,

and

wrote

the

theory

of

numbers.

artaglia,
oolo

Nicolo.

(Nicholas
Bom
and
at

the Brescia,

Stammerer.
c.

Real

name,

Ni-

Fontana.)
Physicist
equations.
Bom

1500;

died
known

at

Venice,

1557.
on

arithmetician

best

lor

his

work

cabic Brook.

aylor,

at

Edmonton.

1685
Known

died

at

London. for
his work

1731.

Physicist

and

mathematician.

chiefly

holes. the
"

Bom
seven

at

Miletas,
"

"

640

died
;

at

Athens,
the
astronomy

548.
Ion inn

One School.

wise
in Egypt

men

of

Greece
there

founded

Traveled First

and

learned in
Greece.

and

etry. geom-

scientific

geometry

luaetetus Wrote
on

dt

Heradea.
irrational

Lived
numbers Lived
on

in

"

390. geometry.

Pupil

of

Socrates.

and
in

on

heodarus
teacher.

of

Cyrene.
Wrote

"

410.

Plato's

mathematical

irrational

numbers.
in

Tieon

of
Edited

Alexandria.

Lived

370.

Teacher

at

Alexandria.

works
Smyrna

of

Greek

mathematicians.
in Platonic Wrote
astronomy.

Tttim
on

of

Lived
geometry,

130.

philosopher.
history,

arithmetic,

mathematical Lived
in

and

hymaridas

of

Paros,

"

390.

Pythagorean

wrote

arithmetic

and

equations.
Born
at

orricelli, Famous

Evangelists.

FaSnza,

1608

died

in

1647.

physicist.
Barnaba. Born
at

ortoUni,
24,

Rome.

Nov.

19,

1808 his

died

August

1874.

Editor

of

the

AnnaU

which

bear

name.

rembley,
on

'\eaxi.
differential

Born

at

Geneva.

1749;

died

in

z8ii.

Wrote

equations. Ehrenfried
Walter,
at

schtrnkausen,

Graf

von.

Born

at

Kiesstheory

lingswalde,

died

Dresden,

Founded

di,

Gnido.

See

Del

Monte.

fer,

Ephraim

Solomon.

Born

at

Coswig.

1788

died

in

1870.

nus,
computed
CeuUn,

Benjamin.
tables.

1587"

1633.

Wrote

on

trigonometry

and

Lndolph.
in

Born
Dec. 31,

at

Hildesheim.
1610.

Jan.
for

18

(or 28). 1540

computations

died
of
n.

Holland,

Known

his

ermofuU,

Charles

Augnste.

Bom

at

Paris,

in

1735 les

died
et

there,

1796.

Director

ol

the

Conservatoire

poor

arts

metiers.
Eyck,

Jan.

1385-1440.

Dutch

painter.
Bom
in

Sckooten,
z66o.

Franciscns
Editor
of

(the

younger).
and
de
at

16x5

died

in

Descartes

^eta.
la

(Vieta),
nay-le-Comte,

Francois.
1540; his

Seigneur

Bigoti^e.
1603.

Bom The

at

Fontealgebraist

died
Also

Paris,
on

foremost

of

time.

wrote

trigonometry

and

geometry.

cent.

See

Saint-

Vincent.

ruz/ius.

Marcus Wrote

Vitmvins
upon

Pollio.

Lived

in

"

15.

Roman

tect. archi-

applied
Bom

mathematics. Florence,

iani,
Pnpil

Vincenzo.

at

1622

died
to

there,

1703.

of

Galileo

and

Torricelli.

Contributed

elementary

geometry. WiUiam.
at

Oace,

Born

in

1768;

died

in

1843.

PiofeMor

of

mathematics

Edinburgh.
at

Ois,

John.

Born

Ashford, geometry Suggested imaginary.

x6i6
at

died Oxford.

at

Oxford,

1703.

Samany

vilian

professor

of
works.

Published
the
modem

mathematical

(1685)

graphic

interpretation
Karl
;

of

the

ierstrass,

Theodor
at

Wilhelm.
Feb.
19,

Bora

at

Ostenfelde,
of
the

Oct. ablest

31,

1815

died

Berlin, the

1897.

One

mathematicians

of Born

century.

mer,
on

Johann.
mathematics,

at

Nuremberg, and Lived

of

1468
astronomy.

died

in

1528.

Wrote

geography,
Eger.

dmann,
at

Johann,
Leipzig.

von

in

1489.

Lectured
algebra.

on

algebra Wrote

The

originator

German

itt,

Jan

de.

Born

in

1625,

died

in

1672.

Friend

and

helper

Descartes.

olf,

Johann
Halle,
1754

Christian Professor

von.

Bom of mathematics
writer.

at

Breslau.
and

1679

died

physics

at

HaDe,

and

Marbarg.

Text-book

Voepcke,
March

Franz.
25, 1864.

Bom

at

Dessau.
the

May

6.

1826

died

at

Paris

Studied

history the Arabs.

of

the

development

mathematical
Sir in

sciences

among

V^eUt

Christopher.
1723. professor
however,

Bom
Professor
at

at

East
astronomy
:

Knoyle,
at

1632

died

at

Lon do

of
Oxford
for

Gresham
the
as

College

Savilian
Known,

president
his

of
work

Royal
an

Society.
architect

entirely

great

INDEX.*

ts,

39,

41.

Arabs,
26,

3, 191,

15.
214,

20,

35.

39.

53.

74,

76.

88

, 62,

15,
154.

25,

37.
163.

89, 181-188,

285.
of

155.

Arbitration
Arcerianus,

exchange,
2x4,

55.
2x8. 81-83, 190,

sa, Wafa,

229.

Codex,
68-71,

225,

286.
1

Archimedes,
16. 204,

78,
212.

199

ies

founded,

205,

208, 69,
X24,

210,

(iCthelhard)
S.
19, 41.
31.

of
202.

Bath,

74,

218.

Archytas,
Argand,

82,

204,

207,

2x1.

nus,

Jul.,
3".

125.
25.

34.

TJ*

78,

19a.

a8a.

Aristophane"i Aristotle,
64,

70.
18,
24,

anna,

Ibn,

30,

7^

90"

Arithmetic, Aritlimetic,
43.

36.

49,

51, of,

64,

95.

attani,
227.
61,

285.

foundations

189;

requ

i,

a,
;

77,

96,

107; work,

etymology,
iia

Arithmetical Aronhold, Aryabhatta,

146,

triangle,
250.

xx8.

first

German

sm,

75.
30,
31. 93-

12,

72,

74,

215.

216.

alsadi,

75.

76,

89,

90,

92.

Aryans,

12.

arkhi,

75.

Associative
Assurance,

law,
56-60. x8. 246.

119.

hojandi,

76.

howaracmi,
217.

29,

33,

74i

75"

88,

89,

Astronomy,
August,

uhi,

217.
34.

AusdehnungtUhre,
Austrian Avicenna,
34.

127. 28,
48.

tion,

subtraction, 76. 197.

st,

283.
30,

asawi,

Axioms,

agani,

217.
numbers,
195, 213.

le

35.

Babylonians,
64,
190.

9,
X92, xo6, 193.
134,

xo,

14,

19,

24,

as,

63

oras.

trisection

of,

196,

197,

207,

ao8,

Bachet,
Ball, W.

137. X72"".

W. 167^,

R..

ies, I79".
108, 15,

56,

148.

Baltzer, Bamberger

224".

arithmetic,
See 277.
169,

51.

288,
27.

289.

Banna.

Ibn

al

Baima.

37,

39.

Bardin,
190,

nius,
231.

80,

XS2,

200-209,

228,

Barrow,

238.

Bartl,
in
square
root,

167.

imations

70.

Barycentrischer

CalcUi^

xa9,

asa

*The

numbers

refer

to

pages,

the

small

italic

"'s

to

footnotes.

aamgart,

tS7"*

SBrgtersckmUm,
Bfirgi,
4"

q.
y". 98*
X13.

a""f.
36.

S"
S7.

DsBMiaa*.
40.

xx^

ago.

ed""

Bnache,
aM. 269.
ias"., 171.

139.

allaTitlt,

230.
148,
ia4".,

eltraaai,

Calenlating

machinea.

48. z68,
127;
170,

eman,

119m. 207".

Calcolna,
176;

differential,
directional,
of logic,

emao

and

Smith,
aas. X09.

integral,,
of

17

enedictia.

176;
X7".
40. 58
;

131;

variations,

ameckar,

arnalinna,

57, family.

Cantor,

G.,
Z65.

no,

123;

Cantor,

M.,

emoolli
15a,
152. 245;

Jacob,
238.239;
179.

148,

xso,

Capelli,
Cardan,
223.

171,
i66,

175,
ITS.

178,
175.
166.

179.
178.

John,
nS.
H^"

xoi"i03.

109.

iza"

115,

130,

Danial,
isa,

175.
tjo.

Cardioid.

241.

ertrand,

153,

Camot, Caaaini^a
Caatahmovo,

174,

244t

346^
241.

248.

essel,

297. 16s.

oral,

ettl,

273.
131.
241.

antalfia.
143,

Cataldl,
tS9*

^aout,

x^
83.

10786,
216.

Catenary,

haakara,

73,
147. 237".

74i

Cattle
Canchy,
153*

problem
62,
134.

of
119,

Archimedes,
125, 138, X74,
139,

83.

ianchi.

124.

14

ianco,

i64t

i67i

168,

i8x,

x8

ierana

da
237.

Haan,

222*.

Z89.

lndar,

Caastica,
103;

238.

inomial
theorem,
242.

coefficienta,
118.

binomial

Cavalieri,
237.

168,

173.

224,

229,

234,

23

iot,

Cayley,
26, 27,

x26m.,
253.
222.

za9".,

131, 264.

143,

146, 274.
277

oethius.

37. 133,

213. 189.

178.

337.

a63,

266,

oia"Reymond.
167*1..

Ceulen,

ttklan,

^TO-

Ceva,
Chain

244.

olyai,

170,

271.
101,

rule,

53, See

33.
Probabilities.

ombelli,

loa,

112.

Chance.

oncompagni. 133.

73.

Chappie,

244.

onnat,

Characteriatica,
h6, 139. tS7.
264.

Chasles's

method

oole,

131,

onniakowaky,

Chaales,
265.

agow.,

a4jS,

249,

236-238,

26

oDvallat,
166.

oya,

Cheaaboard
178,
32,
244.

problem,
8,
X4, X47.
19,

133. 28, 74.

rachistochrona,

238.

Chinese,

87,

2x4,

21

rahmagupta,

2x6.

Christoffel, Chuquet, Church 47,

rianchon,
292.

95.
3,

rigga,

achools,

36,

37,
;

94.

rill, 276M.,

I42M.,

173*'

"

i8o".,

189,

234,

264,

Circle,
197,

divlaion
ao7.
ai;,
2XZ.

of,
221.

24

aquaring,

278.
163.
143, 245.
134. 59.
144,

ring,

Ciasoid,
Z46.
Ciatam

rioachi,

problema,
117,
53.
iii.

34.
242.

rocard,

Clairaut,
Clausberg, Claviua.

ronncker,

rune,

ter

tchools.
Arcerianns,
and

See

Church
214.

schools.

Curvature, Curves,

measure

of,

a88.
233, 239, 24O;

classification of,
262,

of,
263;

ficients
iy2n.
i6zn.

roots,

1x5,

156.

deficiency double with

gauche
255,

(of
909;

curvature),
higher
237.

24S1

slngnlarities,

253*

inations,

70,

74,

xso,

X5x.
22,

Cusa, 60. Cycloid,

ercial

arithmetic,
law,
119.

51,

178,

S37,

tfi.

utative

asses,

single

opening,

335.
38.
lox,

d, A,

symbol
symbol

of

differentiation,
differentiation,
175, xSo.

170-172;
180.

ementary

division,

of

lex

numbers,
Complex

73, variable.
of.

Z23,

xa6, Func^

D'Alembert,
Dante,

82.

See

94.

ions,

theory
234.

DeBeaune,
Decimal

lifi.
fractions,
292.
Z20-X33,

lexes,

so"

ound

interest,
37,
2zx.

59.

Decker,

utus,

39.

Dedekind, Defective

X26, 35.

X27,

189.

hoid,

numbers, of
curves,

orce"
8z,

149.
202,

Deficiency 204-208,
228,
230,

262,

263.

es,

239,

Definite
Degrees

integrals,

174.
24.

56.

(circle),
157.

mencet,
2x0.

theory

of^ xsx.

De

Lagny,

n,

De
X09.

la

Goumerie,
29S'

s6x.

ad,

H., of

Delambre,
2x9.
X78,
131-133,

ad

Megenberg,

De 269,

r Hospital,

173,
82,
213.
X24,

178.
104,

X79.
204,

act

transformations,
fractions, XS2-15S,

276.

Delian
Democritus,

problem,

207.

inued

168.

ergency,

189.

See

ries. Se-

De

Moivre, Morgan,

152,

160.

De Cartesian,
268,
269; 231;

X43, 205,
4,

X55.

dinates,

curvilinear,

Desargues, Descartes,
140,

237,

242.

259.
1x9,
124,

elliptic,

269.

xoB, 228,

1x7.
230-233f

136,

rnicus,

289.
one-to-one,

156,

191,

338.

espondence,

25x,264,

Descriptive
Determinants,

geometry,
153, X44,

247.

259,
167,

260.

66,268. 288. 96-99,

174.

X45,

168,

ne,

262.

Z07,
"39t
6.

X09,
a4i,

I IX.

DeWitt,
Dialytic Diametral Differential

57,

148.
X44,

s,

244-

method, numbers,

145.
Z05.

ting,

in,

227.

calculus,i68,

170,
269;

171,

178;

riants,

146.

See

also

Forms,

Invariants.

equations,
267*

X74-178,

geometry,

mer,

X32.
141.

167,
845.

240;

paradox,

240.

Dimensions,
Dini, X55,

"..

275.

lle,

a57266.

X89. X979
sxz. 21a

mona,
ton,

256, 276.

Dinostratns,

Diodes,
258,
259.

ss

ratio,

Diophantus,
82, 104,
2zx.

65,
134. 62, ^77,

70,

77,

81,

84,

85,

90,

e,

duplication
of,

of,

204,

207:

93.

133.

multiplication
72.

207,

Dirichlet,
153.

X25, 181.

126, 189,

133,

X39,

X40,

vasutras,

X74.

279.

eiform

inscriptions,

9.

Discount,

54.

Divaai

niiaMnls.
tMtt,

13.
33.
44.

Endozns,
Euler,
58,
140.

79,
62,

199,
X18,

sof,

sxo,

sia,

S93.
13s 160.

Divisibility
38,
38.

134.

132.

i3

Division,

4s,

48*

49-

138, 175,

143.

I5"-I54.
240,

"58.
244.

17

Dodson.

179,

X80-182,

247.

16

Donatello,
a49.

*xj,

294.295.

Dnality.

Bvolntes,
133,

838,
5a,

t4S.

DaBois-RATmond,
ISS-

189.

Exchange.

35.
199,
ass.

Dubamel,

Exhanstions.

Daodacimal
367,

fractions,
27a of

19.

Exponents.
Eyck,
226.
aaa.

See

Symbols.

Dnpin,

Duplication ao7.
m.

the

cnba,

8a,

X04,

204,

Eycks,

Dflrer,

n4-a37.
Fagnano,
x8o,

Dyck.

S78. Farr, 59.

181.

Faulhaber,

irrationality
41.

9ft.
141.

of,

133. Felkel, Format.

Easter,

Ecole

57,
X73,

118,

X34,
234.

135,

137,

X4O1

X4

polytechntque.
224.

a6i.
168.
229.
ixa,
ixa.

Eccentricity,
8, 28a.

Ferrari,
10,

Egyptians,
190, 193,

i8.

^4,

31,

35,

63,

153,

saj.

77,
Ferro,

Fenerbach,
126,

Eisenstein,

345.

127,

X38.

Fibonacci.
theory of,
142,

See
a88.

Elimination, 8x,

Leonardo.

X43.

Finck, 205.

Ellipse,

Finger
24a.

Ellipsoid,

reckoning, 39. X7x,

X73.

as,

36,

43.

Fischer,
functions.
See

Elliptic

Functions.

Elliptic
187.

integrals,

Plozions,
classed,
183,
186,
Forms,

theory
153.

of,

X31,

143-147.

Fourier,
13X.

Ellis,

Fourth x8x".
Fractional geometry,
942.

Enneper,

dimension,
exponents, 31,
;

374.
xoa.

Enumerative

264.

Fractions,
133. z68

Envelopes,

40,

49:

continned,
282-284;

X31

Equations,
166;

sexagesimal,
19. 125.

duo

approilmate

roots,

156,

decimal. Abelian,
X55;

163;

cubic,

81,

82,

92,

93

Franpais,
11X-X13,

cyclotomic, 174-178;
163;

160-163,

Frenicle, ao7;

differential, theorem,

fundamental

106.

Fr^zier,
higher,
92.

260.

Frobenius,
1x5. 83,
77, 166;

155-X60,
84,
86,

164-X66:
93, 90; 135,

indeterminate,
Fuchs,
137,

177,
177,

xyS,
x8x.

189.

139 of

linear, Functional
156,

X78,

78,

87,

determinants, Abelian,
165, X80-X82;
X42,

limits
93,

x68. x8o,
x86, 188,

roots,

Diophantine,
79-81, 85,
91.

Functions,
X35,

189

137;

ratic, quadelliptic,

109,

periodicity
X43
;

155;

quartic,
184
:

11X-113;

quintic,
166;
234.

symmetric,
180,
i8x, x88;

theory
188,

165;

mechanical X77, theta, of

182,

solutions,
roots,

modular,

X64

18

negative

Fundamental
X31,

laws

number,

119

Equipolent,

X89.

96.
X4X,

Eratosthenes,
162.

190,

208.

Erchinger,

Galileo,
Galois,
80,
100,

237,
164.

a4X.

Eschenbach,
35.

xsi.

Euclid,

65-69,

Gauss,

60-163.
870,

167.
075,

174.

181,
094,

i88,

ao7,

a45,

Gunter,
Giinther.

288.
x6".,

6f,

179,

895.

xo7it.,

133.

168.

taom

r,

286. aga.
an.

ibrand

Haan, Hachette, Hahn, 78,

103;

233".

nus,

36x. 48.
57,

cchi,

139.
means,

etric

models,

Halley, Halphen,

58,
147, 127,
29s".

166,
253,

203,
256,

304.

76.
66,
230,

264,

269.

etry,

190,

2x4;

analytic,

191, 247,

Hamilton,
Hammer,

270.

05,

232,

346;

descriptive,
267;
190,
enumera-

59,

260;
264

differential,
;

Hank^l,
193
non-

6ff.,

124,

2471*. 78,
193,

ive,

metrical,
191,

192,

Harmonic

means,

79. 194.

rojective,

246,

247,

258; 190,
242;

Harpedonaptae, Harriot, Hebrews,

Heine,
X20,
loi,

uclidean,
358; of,
15,

270;
of

of

position,
2X1,

246,

117,

156.

48,

space,
274.

three

10.

lasses

133, 243.

133,

189.

ort,

37,
349,

40,

61,

3x8.

Helix,
Helmholtz,

3IX,

onne,
of

357.
40,

271,
277.

373.

ard

Cremona, 47".

286.

Henrici,

ardt,

Heptagon, 96,

226.
133,
24.
zx.

an

algebra,
95. xo6i".
134,
143.
3x.

X07

ties, universi-

Hermite, Herodotus,

146,

147,

165.

ing,

Herodianus,
Heron, Hess,
64,

rd,

70,

78,

8x,

84.

201.

212,

283.

s'

achoolt,
9.
143.

245.
I43-H5.

h,

Hesse,
262.

^^i,

168,

176.

244.

250.

sber,

den,

95.
66, x88.
rule,

Hessel,
92,

245.

on,

195,

313.

Heteromecic

numbers.
mystic,
237,

67.
244

el,

Hexagram,
51.

en

Heyn, 195,
233,

59. symbols,
147,
148. 9.

en

section,
144,

333.

Hieratic
Hilbert, Hindenbnrg,
Hindu

an,

146,

147.

erie,

361.
178.

133, algebra, 84;

130.

sat, 7**'

arithmetic,
geometry, following.
382,

34,71,
2x4;

72;
45,
49,

fractions,
3,

33;
13

mateus,

98,
t3i,

99,

108,

X09.

mathematics, Hipparchus, Hippias,

196,
2x3,
210.

smann,
57.

127-129,

256,

275.

366.

383.

nt,

point,
fractions,
2,

245.
32.
10,

Hippocrates, Holder,
19,
30,

65.
189.

8ti

197,

204,

3x3.

ks,

8,

14,

25,

64,

77,

Homology. Hoppe, 167,

249.

90.

193.

283.
151.

i73"M

245. X79.

ory,

Hospital,
of,
164,

X73,
x66.
108,

X78,

ps,

theory
33.

177;

point,

340

Homer,

Hudde,
138, 357. 15,

X48,

156.

rt,

Hugel, 17, 31. Hurwitz,

Huygens,

X07.
364.
131,

numerals,

rmann,

183.

X48,

233,

338*

tft.

rperdetMmloaDU,

146.

Krafft.
187.
Kronecker,

233.

pOT^Uptsc

integrftlt,
seriet,

139, 241.

165.

rpergeometric

ij).

KrOger,

ptielas,

S4,

aoo,

at.

KrumUegel
Knmmer,
Knrra, 236,

and 238.

Amthor.
139*., 236,
317.

83.

155.

370,

278.

Tabit

ibn,

for

y"i,

104.

blichas, al
Bannft,

136.
30,

Lacroix,
76,

343,

362.

90^

Lagny. Lagrange,

De,

237.
63, 236. 27s, 238,
143,

Knrra,

136,

317.

251. 279,

159

cosahedron
niiinben,

theory, 136.

iM.
260, 283,

266.
339,

267,

275.
393-

176,

"8o

deal

367,

994,

maginaries.

See

Complex qaantities.

numben.
69.

Lagnerre.

374.
106,

ncommensarable

Lahire.
See
Eqaa-

349.

ndeterminate
tions.

equations.

Lalanne.

267.

Lalonbire,
334,

238.
234.

ndivisibles.
173.

336

Lambert,

133.

i4"f

afio.

afi7f

295-

nfinite,

See
169, 306,
36-38.
an.

Series.

Lam^
170,
173,

340,

369.

nfinitesimals,

174.

Landen, Lansberg,
Laplace,

z8o,
349.

282.

344.

nsertions,

nsurance.

250,

251,
sz,

267,* 43.

273.

ntegral

calcnlns,
34.

174,

178.

Latin
Least

schools,
squares, Z39.

nterest,

249.

nvariants,

145-148,
338,
342.

363,

374.
Lebesgne,

Involntee,

Legendre.
174.

233,

Z36,

Z38-240,
270,

249,

16

Involutions,

353.

280-284, 337.
4,
167,

287,

395.

Irrational
133.

numbers,
133.
case

68,

69,

zoo,

119. Lehmns,
63,

133,

X89.

Leibnitz,
of

48,

54.

58,

227,

150-152,
242-

Irreducible
36.

cnbics,

zis.

136.

270-273.
341.

278,

339,

339.

Isidorns,

Lemniscate,

Isoperimetric
algeora,
63,

problems,
9a

179.

300.

Lencker, Leonardo

337. da
40,

Italian

Vinci.
42, 45,

325; 95,

of
202,

Pisa
207.

( b

Jacobi,
174-177.

138,

139.

143.

"44,

165.

i68,

181-187,
von

269,

376,

379.
222,

328.
158.
83.

Johann

Gmunden, 336.

95.
Lesenr,

Jonquitees,
269.

Lessing,
Letters

Jordan,

used
395.

for

quantities,

64.

Lezell,

Kalsadi.
Karup, KHstner,

See
56,
59.

A1

Kalsadi.

L' Hospital,

273,
344.

178,

279,

Lhuilier,
Lie,
61,
169,

48.
4,

247,

277,
343i".

369,

376.

Kepler,
a45.

30,

173,

191,

222-234.

Lieber,

a88.

Light, 75,
76. 89,
93, 93.

theory
342.

of,

370.

Khayyam,

Limapon, Limits of

Khojandi,
Khowarasmi.

roots,

156,
133.

160,

266.

See

Ai

Khowarazmi. 307*.,
354,

Lindemann
274. Liouville,

189,

307.

Klein,

147,
378.

165,

177,

278,

139,

282,

369.

377,

Lipschitz.
23.

247.
241.

KniUing,

Lituus.

Lobachevsky,

arithmic

series,
ago.

151;

cnrve,

841-

Morgan, Mortality

59.

arithms,
calculus
64.
340*.

tables,
106.

57,

148-

ic,

of,

131.

Moschopulus,
Muir, i67".

stic.

a,

Mfiller,
343.

47".
45t 4^*

zodrome.

Multiplication,
See

Pacioli.
of

PaclolL
197.

Muret,

277.

Hippocrates,
z68i".

Mystic
Mysticism.

hexagram, See

237.

244.

roth,

Numbers.

laarin,

15a,
36. squares,

156,

174,

z8o,

338,

939.

Nachreiser,
Napier,

x68.
47,
30,

robius,

172,
34.

aBS,

290.

ic

54,

103-107.

Nasawi, Negative
80,
9x,

nus,

265,
2io".

277.

numbers
xoi,

and
Z19.

roots,

70,

72,

er,

X09,

fatti,

159,

2S"

Neo-Platonists,
68.

68;

-Pythagoreans,

ns,

270.
230*.

ie,

Netto, Neumann,
64.

i62".

re,

961$.

C,
4,

269;

K.,

57. 15a,

hematical

Newton,

62,

1x7-119,
234.

156,

166,

thiessen,
169,

yyn.,
179.

87".,
180,
203.

io8".
170-175. 178,

a3".

ima,

New

Zealanders,
78.
210.

7.
.

n-value

theorems,
geometric

189.

Nicomachus,
78,

ns,

and

harmonic,

Nicomedes,
Nines,

79.

casting
X441V.,

oat,

35,

46,
180M.,

76.
189,
a53"

mke,

167,
244.

Noether,
256, 82,
a64,

165,

ster,

266. geometry,

aechmus, 283.
zzz.

204-207.

Non-Euclidean
Normal

870.

elaus,

schools,

33. 136; 118,

69,
lao;
zoo,

her,

Numbers,
isx.
rul",
149*.

amicable,
concept

classes ideal,
zzg,
zaa,

of, ia6;
133,
nature loz

creator,

67;

of.

chants'

si*

irrational,
Z33t

68,

riman,
23.

Z89;
of,

mysticism
zzB,
zao;

of,
negative, 68
; 141,

37t

106;
70,

hod,

snier,
P.,

243,

267.
109
;

perfect, 67,
68,

35,
136,

polygonal,
161,
162;

7X

er,

275;

W.

F.,

147;

-Hirsch,

prime,

pyrami
66;

143.

7z; xo6.
Ages,

plane
6;

and
of,

solid,
133-Z40.

iriac,

134.
3.
20,

Z37systems
44,

of,

theory
'

dle

51.

56"

zo6,

151.

Numerals,
Nunex,
zzz,

6. 243.
2z.

ima,

169.

179*

180,

aQ3.

ns.

See
128,
263,

Symbols.

Nuremberg,
129,
295-

ius,

Z33.

MA"

M9i

35o-aS2,

258,

265,

dels,

geometric,
3. X94,
Z53.
160.

276.

Oddo,

30.

hammedans,

See

Arabs.

Oekinghant, Oenopides,
Olivier,
361.

167.
195.

ivre,

Uweide,

106.
11.

mmsen,

Omar
247.

Khayyam,

75,

89.

9""

93asz,
264

nge,

176,

178.

248.

267,

t77.

One-to-one

correspondence,

re^me.

95,

loa,

Poincari,
Poinsot,
Point PoissoB.
Polar,
249,

163,
245. groups,
149,

177.

tcalatioiis,

899. 1x7,

aibtr"d,

19ft.

940.

173.

896.

nature

of,
199*
4a,
MI*

135,

307

"mtaes
322. loi.

of,

191,

Pole. Political

249.

Z93.

ai5-ax8,

arithmetic,
star.

96.
2x9, 261.
249,
224.

fteioli.

49-47,
x6. 179,

9a,

99.

96.

Polygons, Polytecbnic

2x8,

age

nanibers, 69.

schools,
246,
248,

appos, 334-

aoa,

aoj,

ao8.

209-

21a,

Poncelet, Position

292,

258.

265.

arithmetic,
295.

17.

arabola,

8t

araa,

68

name,

205.

Potbenot, Power

araboloid,

342.

series,

103.

arallel

postalate, 909.
a43,

aoi,

ayo.

Powers
Prime x62.

of

binomial,
67.

1x8.

aramater,

numbers,

68,

136,

141,

x6

arent,

347.

artition

of

perigon,
94.

i6o-i6a.

Pringsheim. Prismatoid,

i34".,

199,

189.

artnerahip,
48,
"3*.

246. 148, 2x9. 2x3,

2x4.

ascal,
"74.

57"
asfi

"8.

148.

190.

169.

173.

Probabilities,

X49.

276.

238.

Proclus,
118,

ascal's

triangle.
199, 131.
iii.

19"

Projection,
Proportion. Ptolemy,
Pussies,
2ox,

See

Geometry.

anker.

161.

79,

X09.
266,

eirca,

214,

283.

eletier,

54.

encils,

"4a.

Pythagoras,
Pythagoreans, 39. functions,

68,

X79,
35"

190.

194.

199, 136,

21

epin,

139.

66,

67,

76,

19

erfect

numbers,
of

68.
184.

X93,

198.

eriodicity

ermutations,

74.

Quadratic
226,

erspective,
107.

equations. reciprocity,
76.

See

Equations. 137,
138;

227,

299.

Quadratic
23.

essl,

estalossi,

Quadratriz,
139.

196, of

241.

etersen,

Quadrature
97.

circle.

See

Circle.

etty,

Quadrivium,
3, 153.
4a,

94.

enerbach,
151,

49,

109,

289.

Quaternions,
175. 176-

X27,
39.

xfl9.

faff.

Quetelet,
78.
8,
X49.
la

tiilolnus,

boenicians,

iazzi,

Raabe,
189.

199.
xoo.

incberle,

Radicals, 99"
Rahn,
Ramus,

itiscus,
243-

90".,

96*.

itot,

98,

xxi,

133.

lane

numbers, 67, 82,

197,

66.
207
212.

Raphson,
;

x66.

lato,

of

Tivoli,

285.

Realschulen,
Reciprocity,

23.

latonic
26.

bodies,

quadratic,
law of, polars,
146.

137,

138;

Her

liny,

mite's
144,

iacker,
a69.
275.

239.

a4"^a5a.

354.

256.

a57.

Reciprocal

249.
4.

^TJequations,

Reckoning 299
Redundant

schools,
numbers,

liicker's

35.

iomontaniis,
389,
994.

s,

4%

107,

zo8,

2x9,

Saurin,

444. 13a

387,

Scelar,
34,

ulae,

various,

41,

51,

5a,

54f

9".

Scheeffer,
Scheffler.

189.
59,

US-

137,
357.

130,

245.

*57-

ular 326,

polygons,

161, 245
;

168,
31a.

2az,

233,

Schellbach,
Schering, Scheub"l, Schlegel,

325,

337t

solids.

X39.
98,
III.

ff,

I5XM.,

Z78".

naud,

75.
159.

X37""., X74".
Van,

345.

olvents,

Schlesinger,
Schooten,

ultant,

i4)-Z45.
142.

136,

X41,

136,

041.

schle,

1G7.
98,

Schottky,
108,
1x5.

189.
131.

ers,

96.

107,

Schroder,

bda,

35.

Schubert,
288.

346,

364, 378.
336.

379.

eticus,
175.

Schwars,
Schwenter,
153,
276. I54".,

178,

cati,

13X,

ann,
372, 97,

63,

i8x,

188,

189.

Scipione
Scott,
340*.

del

Perro,

lit.

71,

275,
99,

e.

106,

no.

113,

X14,

120.

Secant,

288. i36".,

ht

angle,
169,

construction
173,

of,
234,

2x9.

Seelhoff,
Segre,
375.

X401S.

erval,

229,

336,

238.

nberg,

278.

Seidel, Semitic,

134.
9.

278.
X58.

e,

Seqt,
33;

383.
34,

fractions, 37
;

numerals,
2,

xx,

Series,
X89.

67.

Tit

74t

"05.

i5x-x54.

6,

mathematics,

8,

19,

214.

s,

andcoefficients,iis,

156;
234
;

cube,

Serret, Servois,

165.
249"

346".

3,

10};

negative,
124,
see

real

and

aginary, im-

also
69,

Numbers,
70,

Sexagesimal
X03.

system,

24,

35,

34,

64,

70,

omplex; also

square,

73,

282-284.

ee

Equations.
193
;

Sieve stretching,
3x5.

of

Eratosthenes, See

67.

stretchers,
220.

Signs.
Simpson,
Sine,
name,

Symbols.
x66. 285.

cser,

nes,

266.

nhain,
x20m.

x88.

Skew Smith,
Smith.

determinants,
D.
E., H.
232.

x68.
i78".

er, 96,

See
253.

Beman

and

xo6. 151
"

J. S.,
243,

e,

X33f

Snellins,
Soleil, Solid

295.

l,

245.
233".

377.

o,

numbers,

66
223".

lff.

4*

50,

53i

97-100,

109-XXX,

113

Sonnenburg, Spain,
3.
24X
;

15.

ini,
of

163.

Spirals,
34,

of

Archimedes,
149.

axa.

three,

5x.

See

Regulae

Squares, Squaring

least,

circle.
189.
polygons,
225, 246,

See

Circle.

symbol

of

integration,
151.

170,

X72.

Stahl,
Star Steiner,

t-Vincent,
xix.

3x8,

319,
251,

234.

gnac,

249,

256-258,

265.

on,

143,

263.

Stereographic
71.

projection,
211,

266.

-reckoner,

Stereometry,

224.

Slawart,
4"

144.

Thompson,
s""
sSf
**"t

107.
aia.

366.

Sdfol,
Its*

49*

97.
221,

99-105.
134.

log-xiii

Tlmaens,
Tonti, Tontinea, Torricelli, 56.

ii5"

"iSf

Stokat,
a4"

134.

S7*
aS7319.
of
conuct.

Stoll,

Slolx,

IflHi.

Toms,
14s.

Stringham, 966,
48,

Ttanaformations

178,

tnbbs,

Sturm,

tTo.
grovps, 164.

Transon,

370.
144. 348.

Snbstitntions,

169.

Transveraala,
Trenchant,
47.

SllBtM,8f.
families
of of,

vrteces,
177; Mcond
"6s; 355.

267

models

of,
973:

Treutlein,
TriKonometxy,

sam.^

67, 381.

96"..

97M

negative order,
313,

carvature.

363

third
356;

order,

Trisection.
Trivium,
94.

See

Angle.

tkcw,

as5;

Stciner,

ruled,

Tschirnhansen,
18,

157,

X39,

165,

178,

23

Sarreying,
94*. pan,

71.

nter,

l^lor,
A Ubaldi,
149-147, II.,
47. Pope,

te.

wan

ylow,

165.

aaB.
56. i6".

ylveater,

agA. 19.
65, 109. yx. 7",
170.

Ulpian, Unger, 88, 89,

ylveater

ymbols,
97,
197. 99,

^t
lOB,

95^
i8s"

Universities,

rise
X391S.,

of,
X30".

94.

xoa,

xi7t

171.

Unverzagt,

ymmadlana,

849. detarminaiita,
14a,
X49. Van x68
;

ymmetric
tiona,

f one-

Valentiner, Van Cenlen, der

356.
33a. 333.

Bycke,

abit

ibn

Korra,
astronomical,

136,

aiy-

Vandermonde,
Van
Eyck,

1x8,

159,

167.

ablea,
sBa;
primea,
143
143: 390,
:

386; mortality.

chords,
Van

226.
X36,
141,

factor,
141;

141;

Schooten,

148;

X56,

343.

symmetric
386
;

functions,
of

Variations.
Vector,
130. 35.

See

Calculus.

sines,

theory

numbers, Vedas,
986,

trigonometric,
393.

a8a,

389,

Veronese,
Verssd

375. sine,
us,

acqoet,
23.

174.

388.

anck,

Victor!
388. 33. 3,

37.
X08, 229,
115. 249,

angent.

Vieta,
70,
49,
xao.

107,
322,

117, 287,

119,
288.

X34,

15

annery,

191,

aruglia,

51,

53,

Vincent,
xxs,

St.,
3x5.

X15,

155,
Vitruvius,

151.

atstha,

39.

Vlacq, X53,
166,

393.
139.

aylor,

B.,
194.

359;

C,

Voigt,
334"(.

hales,

Von

Staudt,
292.

163,

346,

349,

357-359,

36

heaetetns,

3X3.

Vooght,

heodorus, of

69

heon

Alexandria,
344.

34,

70

Wafa,
Wallis,

335, 117,

286.
125, 131,

hieme,

135.

154.

173.

"3

hirty

189.
6a,
xao,

Wordsworth, 147,
178,

x3".

traas,
counting,
135.

x8i,
S3*

189.

Wren,

243,

247.

8;

practice,

jr,

the

symbol.

97.

n,

47,
226".,

51, 345,
X48. ssGm.

aao.

Year,

length

of,

34.

278.

De,

57,
59,

Zangemeiater,

11.

in,
47,

Zeller,
Zenodoms,

139.
aoo.
12,

48. X78".

nse,

Zero,

16,

39,

40,

74.

oiisa,

9fQM.

Zeuthen,

68".,

353,

264

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