JOURNAL OFTHE INSTITUTION OF ENGINEERS, SRI LANKA

Vol. XXXXIV, No. 02, April 2011 ISSN 1800-1122

ENGINEER
JOURNAL OF THE INSTITUTION OF ENGINEERS, SRI LANKA
EDITORIAL BOARD
Eng. (Prof.) A. K. W. Jayawardane
Eng. Priyal De Silva
Eng. W. T. R. De Silva
Eng. (Prof.) K. P. P. Pathirana - Editor Transactions
Eng. (Prof.) T. M. Pallewatta - Editor ENGINEER
Eng. (Dr.) D. A. R. Dolage
Eng. (Miss.) Arundathi Wimalasuriya
Eng. M. L. Weerasinghe - Editor SLEN
Eng. (Dr.) K. S. Wanniarachchi
Eng. (Prof.) S. S. L. Hettiarachchi
The Institution of Engineers, Sri Lanka
120/15, Wijerama Mawatha,
Colombo - 00700
Sri Lanka.
Telephone: 94-11-2698426, 2685490, 2699210
Fax: 94-11-2699202
E-mail: iesl@slt.lk
E-mail (Publications): ed@sltnet.lk
Website: http://www.iesl.lk
CONTENTS
Vol.: XXXXIV, No. 02, April 2011
ISSN 1800-1122
From the Editor
SECTION I
Development of an Economical High
Early Strength Concrete mix for paving of
Provincial Roads in Sri Lanka
by: Eng. (Dr.) W. K. Mampearachchi, J. V.
Kosgolla and Eng. (Prof.) S. M. A. Nanayakkara
Use of Rice Husk Ash Blended Cement
to Produce Cement Sand Blocks: Optimal
Level of Cement Replacement for
Compressive Strength
by: Eng. (Dr.) D. A. R. Dolage, K. Mylvaganam,
P. Mayoorathan, and S. Inparatnam
Laboratory and Field Investigations of
Generator Stator Insulations
by: Eng. (Prof.) M. A. R. M. Fernando and
Eng. G. A. Jayantha
Assessment of Nearshore Wave Climate off
the Southern Coast of Sri Lanka
by: Eng. (Dr.) P. P. Gunaratna, Eng. D. P. L.
Ranasinghe and Eng. Miss T. A.N. Sugandika
The following Paper was placed in the First Over
35 years of age Category at the Competition on
Water as A Catalyst for Development: Role
of Engineering and Technology 2009/2010.
Sponsored by: International Water
Management Institute (IWMI)
Irrigation Infrastructure Management
Requirements to Ensure Water Security
for Impoverished Rural Populations under
Climate Change Scenario
by: Eng. (Prof.) N. T.S. Wijesekera
SECTION II
Detention Reservoirs as a Flood Control
Measure
by: Eng. (Mrs.) P. Hettiarachchi
7UDIF&DOPLQJ,WV$SSOLFDELOLW\LQ6UL
Lanka
by: Eng. (Prof.) K. S. Weerasekera
Adjudication in Construction Contracts
by: Eng. A. Ranasinghe and J. C. Korale
Notes:
ENGINEER, established in 1973, is a Quarterly
Journal, published in the months of January, April,
July & October of the year.
$OOSXEOLVKHGDUWLFOHVKDYHEHHQrefereedin anonymity
by at least two subject specialists.
Section I contains articles based on Engineering
Research while Section II contains articles of
Professional Interest.
Sangupiddy Bridge
This new bridge was constructed at a former ferry point
over the Jaffna lagoon on the Navathkuli-Karethivu-Mannar
(A32) road, 17 km from Navathkuli. Owing to this bridge,
the travel distance from Mannar to Jaffna is reduced by
110 km. The seven span steel superstructure bridge (inset)
completed in October 2010, is 288 m long with 7.4 m wide
two lane carriageway. The center span which is the longest
is 40 m. The bridge, constructed for the government of Sri
Lanka, with Road Development Authority as the Engineer,
by Access Engineering /Mabey & Jhonson J.V., cost Rs. 1037
million and took 07 months to complete.
Courtesy of:
Eng Rohitha Swarna,
Deputy Director Bridge Designs Division, RDA
The statements made or opinions expressed in the
(1*,1((5 GR QRW QHFHVVDULO\ UHHFW WKH YLHZV
of the Council or a Committee of the Institution of
Engineers Sri Lanka, unless expressly stated.
III
01
11
21
33
43
57
61
73
FROM THE EDITOR ...................
Triumph in the war against terrorism, professed as unattainable by many, was secured by Sri Lanka,
two years ago. However, the physical scars left in the most affected parts of the country by a thirty year
long subjugation to terrorism would need more time and effort in the future to heal. Highest in the
list for rehabilitation are the destroyed or neglected infrastructure facilities in these areas of north and
east of the island. Reinstating the transport infrastructure of road and railway networks are the most
important and critical tasks faced by the government, to bring in normalcy and security to the long
suffering people of these regions.
It goes without saying that this endeavour rests solely in the active realms of Engineers. Through the state
engineering organizations of the country, Engineers have taken up this challenge, achieving milestones
at a steady rate. During the past couple of years, the road network in the north and east have improved
VXEVWDQWLDOO\WKRXJKDGYHUVHZHDWKHUFRQGLWLRQVUHVXOWLQJLQUHFRUGRRGVKDYHFUHDWHGKDYRFLQWKHVH
areas during the past year. Not merely being content with rehabilitation of the infrastructure, our
Engineers have gone a step ahead to install improved versions of the same.
The Sanguppidy bridge on the Navathkuli-Karethivu-Mannar (A32) road is a good example of this
trend. Earlier the continuation of this road over the Jaffna lagoon was via a ferry, now upgraded to a
288 m long two lane bridge. Throughout the areas for rehabilitation, as well as the other parts of the
country, Engineers are spearheading many such projects silently. While their commitment and hard
work is beyond question, populace of the country do not get to know of the achievements of these
Engineers as they are realized. Though modesty is a virtue to be admired, wouldnt Engineers be doing
the people of the country a favour by letting them know about their accomplishments?
Eng. (Prof.) T. M. Pallewatta, Int. PEng (SL), C. Eng, FIE(SL), FIAE(SL)
Editor, ENGINEER, Journal of The Institution of Engineers.
III
1
ENGINEER

Dcvc!npmcnt nf an EcnnnmIca! HIgh Ear!y 5trcngth
Cnncrctc MIx fnr PavIng nf PrnvIncIa! Rnads In
5rI Lanka

W. K. MampcarachchI, J. V. Knsgn!!a and 5. M. A. Nanayakkara

Abstract: Rigid pavenenl conslruclion has a Iong hislory. Readynixed or sile nixed concrele is used
for rigid pavenenl conslruclion. Hovever, convenlionaI concrele nixlures require nore lhan 7 days
lo gain adequale slrenglh lo aIIov for lraffic. DeveIopnenl of high earIy slrenglh concrele vouId le a
soIulion lo aIIov lraffic vilhin a reasonalIe line. Hovever, use of high cenenl conlenl in earIy
slrenglh concrele induces dislress in lhe pavenenls and vouId nol le an econonicaI nix.

A high perfornance concrele nix vas deveIoped for rigid pavenenl conslruclion using a Iov cosl
adnixlure vilh avaiIalIe naleriaIs in Sri Lanka. Sludy has shovn lhal 3 of connerciaI grade CaCI2
can le used as an acceIeralor lo ollain required conpressive slrenglh and lhe fIexuraI slrenglh of
concrele in 12 hours. Slrenglh gain vas verified ly lhe nalurily lesl conducled for a sIal pIaced
under fieId condilion. SIal lenperalure vas aIso neasured vilh line and found lenperalure rise due
lo heal of hydralion vas insignificanl. Using lhe nix proporlion deveIoped, concrele roads can le
aIIoved for lraffic in 12 hours and can aIso le used for repair vorks of lhe exisling roads.
Life cycIe cosl anaIysis vas perforned laking inlo accounl lhe conslruclion cosl, nainlenance cosl and
lhe user cosl. The sludy has shovn lhal lhere is 26 saving ly using high earIy slrenglh concrele
deveIoped in lhis sludy.
Kcywnrds: High earIy slrenglh, CaIciun ChIoride, Rigid Iavenenl, Concrele Roads, Life CycIe Cosl
AnaIysis

1. IntrnductInn
The rigid pavenenl or IorlIand Cenenl
Concrele (ICC) pavenenl shouId le pIaced
on an inproved sulgrade or on a sullase of
approved lype and lhickness. The sullase
nay le naluraI soiI or slaliIized soiI or graded
granuIar naleriaI. SIal lhicknesses nornaIIy
vary lelveen 15O nn and 3OO nn depending
on lhe sulgrade condilions and lraffic. SIal
vidlh of lhose roads varies fron 3.O n lo 3.7
n, corresponding lo lhe vidlh of a lraffic Iane.
Once lhe concrele is pIaced, suilalIe poker
vilralors or vilraling leans is used for
conpaclion.. The surfaces are finished rough.
Ior lhis purpose a nechanicaI lroon or
suilalIe hand lroon is used. Curing of lhe Iaid
concrele shouId le carried oul for a nininun
period of 7 days.
}oinl syslens are designed lo conlroI cracking
and nainlain pavenenl slrucluraI inlegrily
and riding quaIily (road roughness) al Iov
annuaI cosl. }oinls in rigid pavenenls conlroI


lransverse and IongiludinaI cracks due lo
reslrained conlraclion and lhe conlined
effecls of reslrained curIing, varping and
lraffic Ioad.
Iurlher, joinls divide lhe pavenenl inlo
praclicaI conslruclion increnenls |1Oj.
Transverse joinls are crealed nainIy lo
acconnodale lhernaI and shrinkage slresses.
Concrele Iavenenls do nol necessariIy require
expansion joinls |16j.

Eng (Dr.) W.K. Mamearachchl, 8.Sc. |ng. (Hcns)
(Mcra|uua), MSC|(scu|n ||cria), PnD(||cria),
CM||T (UK), Scnicr |cc|urcr, Dcpar|mcn| cf Citi|
|nginccring, Unitcrsi|q cf Mcra|uua,
].V. Kosgo||a, 8.Sc. |ng. (Hcns) (Mcra|uua), Rcscarcn
Assis|an|, Dcpar|mcn| cf Citi| an |ntircnmcn|a|
|nginccring, Unitcrsi|q cf Mcra|uua,
Eng (Prof). S.M.A. Nanaakkara, 8.Sc. |ng. (Hcns)
(Mcra|uua), M|ng (Tc|qc), D|ng (Tc|qc) Prcfcsscr,
Dcpar|mcn| cf Citi| |nginccring, Unitcrsi|q cf
Mcra|uua.
ENGINEER - Vol. XXXXIV, No. 02, pp. [1-9], 2011
The Institution of Engineers, Sri Lanka
ENGINEER
2
Conlraclion joinls are crealed ly naking a sav
cul in lhe sIal lo a deplh of 1/3 of lhe
lhickness of lhe sIal |1Oj. The joinls are fiIIed
vilh approved joinl fiIIer.
Load lransfer al }oinls can le furlher enhanced
ly using doveI lars across lhe joinls. DoveI
lars are usuaIIy pIaced al nid deplh of lhe
sIal vilh 3OO nn spacing for lhick concrele
pavenenl designed for heavy lraffic roads |1Oj
2. Rcscarch Nccds

Concrele paving has leen videIy used for Iov
voIune roads in Sri Lanka since 2OO7 vilh lhe
governnenl aIIocaled funding for IocaI
governnenl agencies lo conslrucl concrele
roads. Il is considered as a cosl effeclive road
conslruclion lechnique for Iov voIune roads
since concrele roads have Iess nainlenance
cosl. CurrenlIy, fev roads nanaged ly lhe
Road DeveIopnenl Aulhorily (RDA), have
aIso leen conslrucled using concrele. NornaI
concrele needs alIeasl 28 days lo gain sufficienl
slrenglh lo aIIov for lraffic. Therefore, lhe user
cosl due lo cIosure of lhe road for a Iong
period increases lhe overaII cosl of lhe projecl.
There is a need for evaIualing Iife cycIe cosl
considering conslruclion, nainlenance and
user cosl. Increase of concrele earIy slrenglh lo
aIIov lraffic al a nininun line shouId le
considered lo nake concrele paving feasilIe
for roads vilh consideralIe lraffic.
Il has leen reveaIed in fieId surveys lhal
concrele pavenenls are aIIoved lo lraffic al
earIy age of concrele due lo inadequale
aIlernalive roules lo delour lhe lraffic. Iigure 1
shovs lhe vehicIe lyre narks of lhe Middaniya
- Weerakelliya road due lo such silualion.

FIgurc 1- TIrc Marks nn ncw!y cnnstructcd

Rnad, WccrakcttIya - MIddcnIya Rnad
3. HIgh Ear!y 5trcngth Cnncrctc
MIx fnr RIgId Pavcmcnts
Gcncra! rcquIrcmcnts
High earIy slrenglh concrele shouId le
inlroduced lo reduce lhe deIays and
inconvenience lo users due lo cIosure of lhe
roads |1,2,3j. The required concrele slrenglh is
specified in lerns of fIexuraI slrenglh or
conpressive slrenglh or lolh. UsuaIIy, a
nininun 28 day fIexuraI slrenglh of 3.9
N/nn
2
(55O psi) or cule crushing slrenglh of
28 N/nn
2
(4OOO psi) is reconnended ly
nany highvay agencies |11, 12j.
The IIorida Deparlnenl of Transporlalion
(IDOT) specifies lhal lhe concrele requires a
nininun 6-hour conpressive slrenglh of 15.2
MIa (22OO psi) and a nininun 24 hour
conpressive slrenglh of 2O.7 MIa (3OOO psi)
lefore aIIoving lraffic al earIy age of concrele
|7j. The CaIifornia Deparlnenl of
Transporlalion specifies a nininun noduIus
of ruplure 2.3 MIa (333 psi) al lhe line of
opening lo lraffic and 4.3 MIa (623 psi) al 7
days|4j. Iron a siniIar sludy conducled ly
lhe aulhors using heavy vehicIe sinuIalor al
an acceIeraled pavenenl faciIily, il vas found
lhal for a 9-inch sIal pIaced on a slrong
foundalion, a nininun conpressive slrenglh
of 11 MIa (16OO psi) for lhe concrele al lhe
line of appIicalion of lraffic Ioad |12j
Reinforced concrele (O.6-O.7 of sleeI) are
reconnended for conlinuous concrele sIal
pavenenl (joinl free) lo reduce lhe crack
vidlh. DoveI lars are aIso reconnended for
leller Ioad lransfer lelveen sIals in joinled
reinforced concrele pavenenls. Hovever,
DoveI lars can onIy le inslaIIed in concrele
pavenenls vilh sIal lhickness of 6 inches or
nore. The najorily of lhe roads in provinciaI
seclor requires naxinun of 6 inches lhick
concrele sIals |8j.

Iurlhernore, Anerican Concrele Iavenenl
Associalion reconnends doveI lar pavenenl
for roads vhich carry 12O naxinun lruck
lraffic per day per Iane or naxinun
LquivaIenl Slandard axIe Ioad (LSAL) of 5
niIIion slandard axIes (nsa) or Iess during
design Iife |16j. In Sri Lanka, onIy aloul 6OO
kn of roads carries lhe Average DaiIy Traffic
(ADT) of 1O,OOO or nore lraffic(Heavey vehicIe
percenlage varies fron 3-7 in provinciaI
roads.|8j) Iigure 2 shovs lhe lraffic voIune of
NalionaI roads in Sri Lanka. Therefore, il is nol
3
ENGINEER
necessary lo use doveI lars in concrele
pavenenls for nany nalionaI and provinciaI
roads in Sri Lanka. Hovever, cIosure of lhese
roads for a Ionger period is nol possilIe
lecause lhese roads are lhe prinary and
secondary Iinks in lhe road nelvork.
VeryLow
3950
33%
Low
3949
34%
Medium
3103
27%
High
445
4%
VeryHigh
188
2%
)LJXUH5RDG/HQJWKGLVWULEXWLRQE\
7UDIILF9ROXPH

Therefore, il is necessary lo deveIop a suilalIe
concrele nix proporlion vilh a suilalIe
adnixlure avaiIalIe in Sri Lanka lo achieve
high earIy slrenglh. CaCI2 vas seIecled as lhe
acceIeralor lo achieve high earIy slrenglh in
concrele.
&DOFLXP&KORULGHDVDQDGPL[WXUH
SeveraI ChenicaIs are knovn lo acl as
acceIeralors for concrele such as CaIciun
Iornale, AIuniniun ChIoride, Iolassiun
Carlonale, Sodiun ChIoride and CaIciun
ChIoride |15j. Hovever, CaIciun ChIoride is
lhe nosl videIy used acceIeralor in
unreinforced concrele. CaIciun ChIoride
(CaCI2) is nol reconnended for reinforced
concrele as CaCI2 pronoles corrosion of
reinforcenenls. CacI2 needs lo conforn lo lhe
foIIoving requirenenls lo use as an
adnixlure.
TolaI AIkaIi ChIorides (Na
+
K
+
), nax 8.O
TolaI Magnesiun as MgCI2, nax O.5
Olher inpurilies, nax 1.O

There are severaI posilive and negalive
inpacls of CaCI2. CaIciun CIoride is readiIy
avaiIalIe and aIso usage of CaCI2 saves
enornous cosl for conslruclion |17j. Il
significanlIy reduces lolh iniliaI and finaI
selling line of concrele |18j. Aparl fron lhal
CaCI2 increases lhe resislance of concrele lo
erosion and alrasion|18j. Hovever CaCI2
increases drying shrinkage of concrele ly 1O-
15 |2Oj. ecause il has a very rapid sel.
Therefore, even vilh a sIighl hol vealher
condilions, concreling shouId le avoided.
CaIciun ChIoride does nol significanlIy reduce
lhe valer required lo produce a given sIunp.
CaIciun ChIoride does nol cause enlrainnenl
of air in concrele |18j. Il increases heal of
hydralion of concrele|18j.

CaIciun chIoride is avaiIalIe as peIIels or olher
forns such as granuIes, fIakes, or in soIulion
forn. The reguIar fIake forn conlains a
nininun of 77 per cenl of caIciun chIoride
and lhe peIIel and olher granuIar forns
conlain a nininun of 94 per cenl. The reguIar
fIake forn or induslriaI caIciun chIoride
avaiIalIe in lhe narkel is Iess expensive vhen
conpared vilh lhe anaIylicaI caIciun chIoride
vilh nininun inpurilies. The fIake forn
caIciun chIoride vas used in lhis sludy lo
deveIop nore cosl effeclive nix proporlion.
CaIciun chIoride is suppIied in noislure-proof
lags, air-lighl druns, or olher appropriale
neans and shouId le slored carefuIIy againsl
noislure. If any Iunps deveIop during slorage
lhey shouId le discarded. CaIciun chIoride
can le dissoIved in eilher coId or hol valer. In
preparalion of a soIulion, il is a good praclice
lo add lhe CaCI2 lo lhe valer. If valer is added
lo lhe CaCI2, hard coaling forns and nakes
dissoIulion sIov. IreshIy nade soIulion is
lurned lo le varn and shouId le cooIed lo
roon lenperalure lefore use.
High concenlraled soIulions of caIciun
chIoride are nol prepared lecause of lhe
possiliIily lhal excess chIoride viII sellIe lo lhe
lollon. Il is nore convenienl lo prepare a
soIulion conlaining O.65 kg of reguIar fIake
forn (vilh 77 percenl nininun caIciun
chIoride) or O.53 kg of peIIel or concenlraled
fIake or olher granuIaled forn (vilh 94 percenl
nininun caIciun chIoride) in each Iiler of
soIulion. Il lhen lecones praclicaI, lhough nol
exacl, lo add 1 Iiler of slandard soIulion per
sack of cenenl vhen 1 per cenl caIciun
chIoride is specified. The soIulion is
considered lo le a parl of lhe nixing valer for
concrele.
CaIciun chIoride soIulion nay le added
nanuaIIy, lul an aulonalic dispenser is nore
reIialIe. The soIulion shouId nol cone inlo
direcl conlacl vilh cenenl lecause il nay fIash
sel. Il is usuaIIy added lo lhe nixing valer or
lo lhe aggregales. When caIciun chIoride
soIulion is suppIied direclIy ly lhe
nanufaclurer, ils slrenglh can le assessed ly
delernining lhe specific gravily vilh a
hydroneler.
ENGINEER
4

Effcct nf CaC!2 nn 5cttIng nf Cnncrctc

CaIciun chIoride significanlIy reduces lolh
iniliaI and finaI selling line of concrele. This is
parlicuIarIy usefuI for concreling operalions
carried oul al Iov or noderale lenperalures.
Lxcessive anounls (for exanpIe, 4 per cenl ly
lhe veighl of cenenl) cause a very rapid sel.
CaCI2 shouId nol le used in hol vealher
lecause selling nay occur so rapidIy lhal
pIacing and finishing nay lecone very
difficuIl, slrenglh nay aIso le affecled. |18j.
Cnncrctc mIx dcsIgn
Slrenglh deveIopnenl of concrele is a crilicaI
faclor in delernining lhe line of opening of
lhe pavenenl lo lraffic. The 28-day slrenglh of
lhe nix shouId aIso le considered vhen
designing pavenenls for Iong-lern effecls of
faligue and olher lraffic-induced dislresses.
The nix design vas perforned lo achieve lhe
average 28-day conpressive slrenglh of 35
N/nn
2
and sIunp in lhe range of 8O-1OOnn.
y foIIoving lhe DoL nix design procedure
|21j, a nix proporlion vas ollained lo achieve
lhe required perfornance vilh lhe alove
paranelers as given in TalIe 1.
Concrele cules vere casl and lesled al 4 hours,
6 hours, 8 hours, 12 hours, 24 hours, 7 days
and 28 days. Iigure 3 shovs lhe slrenglh gain
vilh line for differenl dosages of CaCI2 lased
on cenenl conlenl.
Tab!c 1 - MIx prnpnrtInn fnr cnncrctc
pavcmcnt
Cement 0PC kgm

Fine aggiegate kgm

Coaise aggiegate kgm

Watei kgm

CaCl measuieu as a
peicentage of cement
content



FIgurc 3 - CnmprcssIvc strcngth gaIn wIth
CaC!2
As shovn in Iigure 3, highesl slrenglh gain
vas ollained for 3 of CaCI2 conlenl. Thal
anounl can le idenlified as lhe oplinun
anounl of CaCI2 for rapid slrenglh gain.
According lo a previous sludy | 11, 12j, lhe
nininun conpressive slrenglh of concrele
required lo aIIov lraffic afler pIacing of
concrele is 11 MIa (16OO psi). ased on lhe
alove research, lhe required slrenglh can le
ollained in 12 hours vilh 3 of CaCI2.

Tcmpcraturc-tImc rc!atInnshIp
Iigure 4 shovs lhe lenperalure varialion vilh
line of lesl cules ( 15O nn 15O nn 15O
nn) vilh various CaCI2 percenlages. Il can le
seen lhal lhere is a lenperalure rise in concrele
vilh CaCI2 and il increases vilh lhe increase of
CaCI2 percenlage.



FIgurc 4 - Tcmpcraturc-tImc rc!atInnshIp nf
tcst cubcs

5
ENGINEER
Maxinun recorded lenperalure difference
vilh respecl lo O CaCI2 vas 1.5 C for 3 of
CaCI2. This earIy slage lenperalure
deveIopnenl due lo cacI2 can le considered as
insignificanl for concrele pavenenls in lhe
range of 15O nn lhick. Hovever, lenperalure
rise shouId le nonilored under fieId condilion
lo verify lhis.

7LPHRISODFHPHQW
Hol vhelher concreling shouId le avoided
since lhe concrele vilh CacI2 can sel fasler and
lenperalure increase nay le significanl.
When concrele is pIaced under varn sunny
condilions, lhe naxinun lenperalure of lhe
concrele viII vary depending upon lhe line of
lhe day. Concrele paved in earIy norning viII
oflen reach a higher naxinun lenperalure
lhan lhe concrele paved in Iale norning and
aflernoon. Il has leen found fron a previous
sludy lhal concrele pIaced in lhe norning lecones
nearIy 13
O
C varner lhan lhe concrele pIaced in
Iale aflernoon. |9j. y pIacing lhe concrele in
evening (preferalIy afler 6 pn) viII reduce lhe
heal generalion in lhe concrele and aIso Iess
disruplion lo lraffic.
0DWXULW\7HVW
The slrenglh of a concrele nixlure lhal has
leen properIy pIaced and cured can le
expressed as a funclion of lhe age and
lenperalure hislory |19j. Increase in curing
lenperalure and Ionger curing lines Iead lo
increase in slrenglh deveIopnenl. Malurily
lesling provides a reIialIe lechnique for
conlinuous noniloring of slrenglh gain of
concrele. The lesl nelhod recognizes lhe
conlined effecl of line and lenperalure and
provides a lasis for eslinaling lhe in silu
slrenglh gain of concrele ly noniloring
lenperalure of concrele over line.
Malurily direclIy shovs a reIalionship lo
slrenglh. The nalurily of concrele nay le
defined as ils age nuIlipIied ly lhe average
lenperalure lhal il has nainlained. ased on
lhe definilion, lhe Iav of slrenglh gain vilh
nalurily vas deveIoped. The Iav slales:
concrele of lhe sane nixlure al lhe sane
nalurily (neasured as lenperalure-line)
gives approxinaleIy lhe sane slrenglh
vhalever conlinalion of lenperalure and
line goes lo nake up lhal nalurily |19j.

%HQHILWVDQGOLPLWDWLRQV
The nalurily approach provides a usefuI and
sinpIe neans of eslinaling lhe slrenglh gain
of concrele al earIy age (generaIIy Iess lhan 14
days oId) |5j. Il aIIovs engineers lo assess lhe
in pIace slrenglh of a concrele pavenenl
slruclure. This vaIualIe infornalion can lhen
le used lo delernine lhe appropriale line for
opening a pavenenl lo lraffic, or for saving
joinls or for slripping forns. Iurlhernore, cosl
of quaIily assurance decreases and nalurily
noniloring causes no danage lo lhe exisling
concrele pavenenl.
Hovever, caIilralion curves as shovn in
Iigure 4 are deveIoped lased on projecl-
specific naleriaIs. Any changes in lhe nix
design viII require a nev caIilralion curve.
AIso sone faclors affecling concrele slrenglh,
e.g., consoIidalion nay nol le considered in
nalurily lesling. Malurily lesl does nol
consider lhe effecl of earIy age concrele
lenperalure on Iong lern uIlinale slrenglh
|14j.
The Nurse-SauI nalurily reIalionship vas
deveIoped in 195Os and lhe nosl videIy
accepled neans of conpuling nalurily is lhe
accunuIaled producl of line and lenperalure
|14j:
N Ta To t
Wheie
N matuiity at age t
Ta aveiage conciete tempeiatuie uuiing time
inteival t
To uatum tempeiatuie
t time inteival
The uatum tempeiatuie is the tempeiatuie at which
conciete stiength gain ceases ueneially a value of
C is useu foi the uatum tempeiatuie in the NuiseSaul
equation
7HVWSURFHGXUH
Concrele sIal of 1.2 n 1.2 n 1OO nn vas
casl lo nonilor lenperalure and slrenglh
deveIopnenl. The lhernocoupIes vere pIaced
al lhe nid deplh of lhe niddIe of lhe sIal in
order lo neasure lhe lenperalure under fieId
condilion. Sixleen (16) lesl cules vere casl lo
perforn conpressive slrenglh lesl al 4 hours, 6
hours, 8 hours, 12 hours and 24 hours.
ThernocoupIes vere enledded in one of lhe
lesl cules. Curing vas done in accordance
vilh ASTM C31. Conpression lesling vas
conducled according lo ASTM C78. Afler lhal


ENGINEER
6
7
ENGINEER
noderaleIy lraffic roads. Cosl saving is nainIy
due lo nininizing user deIay cosl.
$33(1',;&267$1$/<6,6

1HW3UHVHQW9DOXH139
Nel Iresenl VaIue lechnique expIicilIy
recognizes lhe line vaIue of noney. The iniliaI
cosl lakes pIace during lhe year zero. The
annuaI cosl fron lhe year zero lo 'n nusl le
discounled lo find lhe zero year value of such
annual cost The following equation is useu to
estimate the piesent woith of each annual cost





Wheie Ai cost in i
th
yeai
i Biscounting factoi
P Life cycle cost
'HWHUPLQDWLRQRIGLVFRXQWLQJIDFWRU
VaIue of noney changes vilh lhe effecls of
infIalion and inleresl rale. ased on severaI
econonic paranelers lhe discounling rale
shouId le eslinaled. Discounling faclor
changes vilh lhe infIalion and inleresl rale.

The nalhenalicaI reIalionship for discounling
faclor (i) can le given as leIov


Wheie i uiscount iate
e Inteiest iate
u Inflation iate
Inteiest iate Cential Bank Sii Lanka
Naich
Inflation CCIP Cential Bank Sii Lanka
Naich
Bence uiscounting iate


*HQHUDOFRVWFRPSRQHQWV
There are lvo najor cosl conponenls
associaled vilh road conslruclion, (1) IniliaI
cosl and (2) Mainlenance cosl
,QLWLDOFRVW
IniliaI cosl can lasicaIIy le divided inlo lhree
najor parls, i.e. Iand acquisilion cosl, design
and professionaI fee and conslruclion cosl.
0DLQWHQDQFHFRVW
Mainlenance cosl incIudes lhe cosls of
nainlenance of lhe road surface.

(VWLPDWLRQRIFRVWRIULJLGSDYHPHQWV
Lslinalion of nainlenance cosl of rigid
pavenenls vas perforned for a lraffic voIune
of 6OOOvpd. TalIe A1 gives lhe cosl of
naleriaIs and Iaying of concrele per n
3
.


Table A Unit cost estimation
Resource Amount
per m

Cost
Cement kg Rs
Sanu kg Rs
Netal kg Rs
CaCl kg Rs
Laboui equipment Rs
Total amount pei m

Rs

Conciete thickness mm
Assuming that in one woiking uay m of m
wiue anu mm thick pavement can be constiucteu
The initial cost can be calculateu as follows
Initial cost x x x
Rs

-RLQWFRQVWUXFWLRQFRVW
}oinl conslruclion cosl = Rs.25O/= per Iinear neler
}oinl spacing = 3.On
TolaI Iinear joinl Ienglh for 5OO n Ienglh 3 n vidlh
seclion = 498 n
}oinl conslruclion cosl = Rs.249,5OO/= (using a
saving nachine as reconnended in lhe
specificalion SSCM 2OO8)

8VHUGHOD\FRVW
Lslinalion of vaIue of line for lransporl user
groups |13j.
Table A Value of time
0sei
gioup
value of
time

Rs hi
value of
time

Rs hi
vehicle
occupa
ncy
value of
time

Rshi
Cai
van
Ncycle
Public
tianspoit

vehicle composition of a typical ioau Tiansplan
uatabase is anu peicent foi cais
motoicycles van anu public tianspoit iespectively
For o troffic volume of vpJ
0sei uelay cost pei uay x x
x x x
Rs Bay
For o troffic volume of vpJ
0sei uelay cost pei uay x x
x x x
Rs Bay


ENGINEER
8
Calculation is foi i a two lane highway
Initial Cost for Uption bours closure
Baseu on cuiient ieseaich stuuy time iequiieu to
gain stiength aftei placing conciete Bouis
Theiefoi total uuiation of ioau closuie assuming
houis foi constiuction houis

0sei uelay cost For o troffic volume of vpJ pei
one lane foi Bouis Rs

Initial cost }oint constiuction cost usei uelay cost
Rs
Initial cost pei m

of conciete pavement
Rs
Initial cost foi option II uays ioau closuie
For o Joy rooJ closure As per specificotion bours
compressive strenqtb sboulJ exceeJ HPo to ollow
troffic

Initial cost }oint constiuction cost usei uelay cost
Rs

Initial cost pei m

of conciete pavement
Rs
ueneial Naintenance cost Iuentical foi both options
ueneial maintenance cost x
Rs

ueneial maintenance cost pei m

Rs

Assumption of slab replacement in every
years
Slab ieplacement cost Initial cost }oint
constiuction cost x Rs

Uption Cost estimation percent value








By consiueiing yeais Buiation foi i life
cycle cost is given below


P Rs

Cost of m

of conciete pavement mm thick foi a
uesign life of Yeais Rs

Uption Cost estimation percent value








By consiueiing Yeais Buiation foi i Life
cycle cost



P Rs

Cost of m

of conciete pavement mm thick foi a
uesign life of Yeais Rs
Cost saving of high eaily stiength conciete
100
4297
3178 297 , 4
u

5HIHUHQFHV

1. Slale-of-lhe-Arl Reporl, IHWA SpeciaI
Irojecl 2O1, Reporl IHWASA- 94-O8O,
Accc|cra|c Rigi Pating Tccnniqucs,
IederaI Highvay Adninislralion,
Washinglon, D.C., 1994.
2. TechnicaI Connillee Docunenl ACI
325.11R, Accc|cra|c Tccnniqucs fcr
Ccncrc|c Pating, Connillee 325,
Anerican Concrele Inslilule,
Iarninglon HiIIs, Mich., 2OO1.
3. Anerican Associalion of Slale
Highvay and Transporlalion OfficiaIs
(AASHTO), Guic fcr Dcsign cf
Patcmcn| S|ruc|urcs, Washinglon, DC.
,1993.
4. CaIifornia Deparlnenl of
Transporlalion, CaITrans, S|a|
Rcp|accmcn| Guic|incs, CaIifornia
Deparlnenl of Transporlalion,
IulIicalion and Dislrilulion Unil,
19OO RoyaI Oaks Drive, Sacranenlo,
CA, 2OO4.
5. Cravford, C. I., Guic |c Ncn-
cs|ruc|itc Tcs|ing cf Ccncrc|c. |HIA-
SA-97-105, .IederaI Highvay
Adninislralion, Washinglon, DC,
1997.
6. TechnicaI Connillee Docunenl ACI
224.1R-93, Causcs, |ta|ua|icn, an
Rcpair cf Crac|s in Ccncrc|c S|ruc|urcs,
Connillee 224, Anerican Concrele
Inslilule, Iarninglon HiIIs, Mich.,
1998.


Initial cost Rs pei m

Time (Years) 1 2 3 5 10

Rs.15/
Rs.23/
Initial cost Rs pei m

Time (Years) 1 2 3 5 10

Rs.15/
Rs.23/

9
ENGINEER
7. IIorida Deparlnenl of Transporlalion
(IDOT), S|anar Spccifica|icn fcr Rca
an 8rigc Ccns|ruc|icn, IDOT, Maps
and IulIicalions, TaIIahassee, IL,
2OO4.
8. Cayani, }.,K.,U., Delerninalion of
Concrele lhickness for Rigid
Iavenenls vilh RecycIed Concrele
Aggregale for Lov VoIune Roads in
Sri Lanka, Unitcrsi|q cf Mcra|uua, Sri
|an|a Mas|crs Tncsis, 2O1O.

9. CeraId, I., V., LarIy Cracking of
Concrele Iavenenl - Causes and
Repairs, presenled for lhe IederaI
Avialion Adninislralion Airporl
TechnoIogy Transfer Conference,
AlIanlic cily InlernalionaI Airporl, N},
USA,2OO2.

1O. Huang, Y. H., Patcmcn| Ana|qsis an
Dcsign, Irenlice HaII, Upper SaddIe
River, Nev }ersey, 1993, pp 168-2O7.

11. Kunara, M. W., Tia M., Chung-Lung
Wu, and ouzid Choulane, AnaIysis
of Conposile Iavenenls under
noving and Slalic WheeI Load fron a
Heavy-VehicIe SinuIalor,'Deparlnenl
of CiviI & CoaslaI Lngineering,
CoIIege of Lngineering, Universily of
IIorida, CainesviIIe, IL 2OO5.
12. Kunara, M. W., AnaIysis and
Verificalion of Slresses and Slrains and
lheir ReIalionship lo IaiIure in
Concrele Iavenenls Under Heavy
VehicIe SinuIalor Loading Ih.D.
Disserlalion, Universily of IIorida,
2OO5.
13. Kunarage, A.S.K., Assessing IulIic
Transporl Inveslnenl in lhe Transporl
Seclor, Deparlnenl of NalionaI
IIanning, Minislry of Iinance and
IIanning, CoIonlo, Sri Lanka, 2OO1.
14. NeIson, I. K., Handlook of
Nondeslruclive and Innovalive
Tesling Lquipnenl for Concrele,
IederaI Highvay Adninislralion,
Washinglon, D.C., 2OO3.

15. NeviIIe, A.M., and rooks, }.}.,
Concrele TechnoIogy, Iearson, ISN
81-78O8-647-6, 2OO4, pp- 193-2O2.
16. ICA, Thickness Design for Concrele
Highvay and Slreel Iavenenls,
Skokie, IL, 1984.
17. Ranachandran, V. S., Ca|cium Cn|cric
in Ccncrc|c. Scicncc an Tccnnc|cgq.
Lssex, LngIand: AppIied Science
IulIishers, 1976.
18. Ranachandran, V. S., Accc|cra|crs. |n
Ccncrc|c Amix|urcs nan|cc|.
Prcpcr|ics, Scicncc, an Tccnnc|cgq,
Noyes IulIicalion, Iark Ridge, N. }.,
1984.
19. SauI, A. C. A., IrincipIes UnderIying
lhe Slean Curing of Concrele al
Alnospheric Iressure, Magazinc cf
Ccncrc|c Rcscarcn, VoI. 2, no. 6. Thonas
TeIford IulIishing, London. 1951.
2O. Shoukry, S.N., WiIIian, C.W., and
Sirinivasan, S., AnaIysis of Mid- SIal
Transverse Cracking in }oinled
Concrele pavenenls. Tnc |n|crna|icna|
]curna| cf Patcmcn|s, VoI. 1, No. 3, 2OO2,
pp. 81-94.
21. Teychenne, D.C., IrankIin, R.L. and
Lnlroy, H. C., Dcsign cf Ncrma|
Ccncrc|c Mixcs, uiIding Research
LslalIishnenl, 2
nd
edilion, 1997


11
ENGINEER
ENGINEER - Vol. XXXXIV, No. 02, pp. [11-19], 2011
The Institution of Engineers, Sri Lanka

Usc nf RIcc Husk Ash B!cndcd Ccmcnt tn Prnducc

Ccmcnt 5and B!ncks: OptIma! Lcvc! nf Ccmcnt
Rcp!accmcnt fnr CnmprcssIvc 5trcngth

D. A. R. Dn!agc, K. My!vaganam, P. Maynnrathan and 5. Inparatnam


Abstract: This arlicIe prinariIy invesligales lhe varialion in conpressive slrenglh, in reIalion lo
differenl IeveIs of repIacenenl of cenenl vilh rice husk ash (RHA) vhen lIended cenenl is used lo
produce cenenl sand lIocks. The sanpIes of RHA used in lhis sludy have leen ollained direclIy fron
furnaces and vere nol furlher incineraled. This sludy considers lvo linder-sand ralios (1:3 and 1:6),
lhree valer-linder ralios (O.4, O.5 and O.6) in ils allenpl lo delernine lhe oplinun IeveI of cenenl
repIacenenl. The sludy delernines lhal al around five percenl IeveI of repIacenenl lhe conpressive
slrenglh exceeds lhal of unlIended cenenl. The conpressive slrenglh deveIoped vhen cenenl
repIacenenl IeveI is 15 percenl, is grealer lhan lhal slipuIaled in SLS 855: Iarl 1:1989 (2.5MIa) for
cenenl sand lIocks. The sludy aIso concIudes foIIoving: disregarding lhe IeveI of repIacenenl, lhe
conpressive slrenglh sleadiIy decreases vhen cenenl repIacenenl IeveIs exceed lhe Iinil of five
percenl, of lhe lhree valer-linder ralios, O.5 offers narginaIIy higher conpressive slrenglhs lhan lhe
olher lvo ralios, conpressive slrenglh does nol vary vhen cules casl using RHA sanpIes ollained
fron lhree dislricls are lesled, lhe deveIopnenl in conpressive slrenglh vhen sanpIes are nalured
leyond 28days liII 6O days is onIy 19 percenl. IinaIIy, lhe sludy concIudes lhal given aII RHA
generaled in lhe counlry can le pul in lhe use for cenenl repIacenenl, lhe lolaI saving lo lhe counlry
is approxinaleIy Rs. liIIion 2.25.

Kcy wnrds: Rice husk ash, Iended cenenl, Concrele, IozzoIanic aclion, Conpressive slrenglh



1. IntrnductInn

In Sri Lanka, lhe cosl of nanufacluring of
cenenl lased naleriaI has leen graduaIIy
increasing oving lo lhe cosl of cenenl. This is
prinariIy due lo lhe high cosl of energy needed
in cenenl produclion. In viev of lhis, il is
inporlanl lo econonise lhe use of Ordinary
IorlIand Cenenl (OIC) ly confining ils use lo
silualions vhere higher slrenglhs are
anlicipaled.

Rice husk vhich is lhe ouler covering of lhe rice
grain is an agricuIluraI ly producl generaled in
lhe rice niIIing process. Il conslilules 2O percenl
of lhe nass of lhe paddy (Canesan c| a|. 2OO8).
Sri Lanka recorded ils highesl ever paddy
produclion of 3.87 niIIion nelric lons in 2OO8
(CenlraI ank 2OO8). IncidenlaIIy, lhe lolaI
paddy produclion in 2OO9 decIined ly 5.8
percenl lo 3.65 niIIion nelric lons (CenlraI
ank 2OO9). NonelheIess, lhe paddy produclion
in Sri Lanka is lound lo increase furlher in line
lo cone vilh lhe deveIopnenl vork envisaged
in Norlh and Laslern provinces.


In Sri Lanka, rice husk generaled as a rav
naleriaI is predoninanlIy used vilhin lhe rice
niIIing process as lhe prinary energy source
for parloiIing of paddy. AIso sulslanliaI
quanlily of rice husk is lurnl in open heap
viIIage lurning nelhod al a lenperalure
ranging fron 3OOC lo 45OC, as a vay of
disposaI. This unconlroIIed lurning is oflen
considered as lhe nosl cosl-effeclive disposaI
nelhod for rice husk ash nol onIy in Sri Lanka
lul aIso in India. This seasonaI and highIy
IocaIised nassive lurning generales excessive
air poIIulion lhal invarialIy Iovers air quaIily
in lhe environnenl. When lhe husk is
converled lo ash ly unconlroIIed lurning
leIov 5OOC, lhe incineralion is nol conpIeled
and consideralIe anounl of unlurnl carlon is
Eng.(Dr.) D.A.R. Do|age, 8Sc |ng. (Mcra|uua),C|ng,
|||(Sri |an|a), MSc (Rcaing), MA (Cc|cm|c), M8A
(S]P), D8A (UniSA), Scnicr |cc|urcr, Dcpar|mcn| cf Citi|
|nginccring, Tnc Opcn Unitcrsi|q cf Sri |an|a.
K. M|taganam, 8Tccn (|ng), Tnc Opcn Unitcrsi|q cf Sri
|an|a.
P. Maoorathan, Uncrgraua|c, Dcpar|mcn| cf Citi|
|nginccring, Tnc Opcn Unitcrsi|q cf Sri |an|a
S. lnaratnam, Uncrgraua|c, Dcpar|mcn| cf Citi|
|nginccring, Tnc Opcn Unitcrsi|q cf Sri |an|a

ENGINEER
12

Iefl in lhe resuIling ash (Canesan HW DO 2OO8).

Carlon conlenl in excess of 3O percenl vas
expecled lo have an adverse effecl on
pozzoIanic aclivily of RHA (Cook 1986). The
ash produced ly conlroIIed lurning of lhe rice
husk lelveen 55OC lo 7OOC incineraling
lenperalure for one hour lransforns lhe siIica
conlenl of lhe ash inlo anorphous phase
(oaling and Skeele 199O).

This research paper invesligales lhe use of RHA

vhich conlains pozzoIanic anorphous siIica
conponenl in forning lIended cenenl in order
lo produce cenenl sand lIocks. AIso il allenpls
lo delernine lhe oplinaI IeveI of cenenl
repIacenenl lo allain a salisfaclory IeveI of
conpressive slrenglh for cenenl sand lIocks.

/LWHUDWXUHUHYLHZ

RHA is a pozzoIan vhich vhen properIy lurnl
has high SiO2 conlenl and can le used as a
concrele adnixlure. A pozzoIan is a naleriaI
vhich, vhen conlined vilh caIciun
hydroxide, exhilils cenenlilious properlies.
RHA exhilils high pozzoIanic characlerislics
and conlrilules lo high slrenglh and high
inpernealiIily of concrele. IozzoIanic
naleriaIs are siIiceous or siIiceous and
aIuninous naleriaIs, vhich in lhenseIves
possess IillIe or no cenenlilious vaIue, lul viII,
in fineIy divided forn and in lhe presence of
noislure, chenicaIIy reacl vilh caIciun
hydroxide Iileraled on hydralion, al ordinary
lenperalure, lo forn conpounds, possessing
cenenlilious properlies (Shelly, 2OO5).
IozzoIans pIay an inporlanl roIe vhen added
lo IorlIand cenenl lecause lhey usuaIIy
increase lhe nechanicaI slrenglh and duraliIily
of concrele slruclures (Isaia HW DO., 2OO3).
According lo Shelly (2OO5), IozzoIanic
naleriaIs can le divided inlo lvo groups:
naluraI pozzoIana (CIay and ShaIes, OpaIinc
Cherls, Dialonaceous Larlh, VoIcanic Tuffs and
Iuniciles) and arlificiaI pozzoIana (IIy ash,
Iasl furnace sIag, SiIica fune, Risk Husk Ash,
MelakaoIine, Surkhi).
The lype of RHA suilalIe for lhe pozzoIanic
aclion is anorphous ralher lhan cryslaIIine ash.
Il has leen adequaleIy proven lhal lhe siIica in
lhe ash undergoes slrucluraI lransfornalions
under varies lenperalure condilions. The
IozzoIanic reaclion prinariIy occurs lelveen
anorphous siIiceous naleriaIs (naneIy,
pozzoIan) and sIaked Iine (caIciun hydroxide)
lo forn caIciun siIicale hydrales. The chenislry
of rice husk ash cenenl invoIves lhe chenicaI
reaclions of lhe anorphous siIica in lhe ash
vilh Iine lo forn caIciun siIicale hydrales (LI-
Dakroury and Casser 2OO8). Al lhe lasis of lhe
pozzoIanic reaclion slands a sinpIe acid-lase
reaclion lelveen caIciun hydroxide, aIso
knovn as IorlIandile, or (Ca(OH)2), and siIicic
acid (H4SiO4, or Si(OH)4). The siIicales forned
are of lhe kinds CSHI and CSHII. According lo
oaling & Skeele (199O), lhe reaclion nay le
iIIuslraled as:
Ca(OH)2 + SiO2 = CSHI +CSHII

Where

CSHI = CaO1.5-2.O SiO2(H2O)1.O-2.5

CSHII = CaOO.8-1.5SiO22(H2O)

The producl of generaI fornuIa, CaH2SiO4 2
H2O forned is a caIciun siIicale hydrale, aIso
allrevialed as CSH in cenenl chenisl nolalion.
As lhe densily of CSH is Iover lhan lhal of
porlIandile and pure siIica, a consequence of
lhis reaclion is a sveIIing of lhe reaclion
producls. This reaclion nay aIso occur vilh
line in concrele lelveen aIkaIine cenenl pore
valer and poorIy-cryslaIIine siIica aggregales
This deIayed process is aIso knovn as aIkaIi
siIica reaclion, or aIkaIi-aggregale reaclion, and
nay seriousIy danage concrele slruclures
lecause lhe resuIling voIunelric expansion is
aIso responsilIe for spaIIing and decrease of lhe
concrele slrenglh.
Canesan HW DO (2OO8), underlook a sludy lo
assess lhe oplinaI IeveI of repIacenenl for
slrenglh and pernealiIily properlies of
concrele produced using RHA lIended cenenl.
In lhis sludy, experinenls vere carried oul in
lvo phases as per slandard lesl procedures. In
lhe firsl phase, lhe lesls lo delernine chenicaI
conposilion, physicaI properlies and
characlerizalion of RHA vere carried oul. This
aIso incIuded lesls for evaIualion of slandard
consislency, iniliaI selling line, finaI selling
line and conpressive slrenglh of RHA lIended
cenenls. In lhe second phase, lesls vere carried
oul on conpressive slrenglh, spIilling lensiIe
slrenglh, valer alsorplion, coefficienl of valer
alsorplion, sorplivily, resislance lo chIoride ion
penelralion and diffusion coefficienl. The
significanl fealure of lhis sludy is lhal lhe rice
husk residue lhal vas fired unconlroIIalIy vas
coIIecled fron niIIs and pIaced in lhe furnace.
The conlroIIed conluslion of rice husk is so
inporlanl lhal sludies have leen dedicaled lo
13
ENGINEER

invesligale lhe use of nev lechniques. In such a

sludy, Nehdi HW DO (2OO3) deveIoped a nev
lechnoIogy for lhe produclion of RHA, lased
on a Troled reaclor lhal faciIilaled producing
highIy reaclive RHA vilh nuch Iover carlon
conlenl lhan lhal of RHA produced using
fIuidized leds. The RHA produced using lhe
nev lechnique required Iess grinding line lhan
lhal produced in a fIuidised led and aIso did
nol sulslanliaIIy increase lhe valer denand
and lhe super pIaslicizer requirenenl.

There are evidences lo lhe facl lhe research
inslilules in Sri Lanka had lhe desire and
connilnenl lo expIoil lhe RHA use for
induslriaI purposes. In 1988, CeyIon Inslilule of
Scienlific and InduslriaI Research (CISIR)
conpiIed a reporl on induslriaI uses of rice
husk ash in Sri Lanka (CISIR, 2OO5). The Reporl
reconnends lhe use of RHA as a suilalIe
luiIding naleriaI due lo ils cenenlilious
properlies. Much Ialer, in 1999, lhe Research
and DeveIopnenl Cenlre of Inslilule of Iosl
Harvesl TechnoIogy (IIHT) conpiIed a reporl
on Rice Husk avaiIaliIily and consunplion
pallern in Sri Lanka (IIHT 1999). The reporl
concIuded lhal an average of 48 of rice husk
produced ly lhe niIIs is used as a fueI for
slean generalion and lhe resl is discarded, one
vay of discarding is lhrough open heap
lurning.

In a research carried oul in Sri Lanka (andara
(1994) invesligaled lhe foIIoving: lhe crilicaI
firing lenperalure and lhe isolhernaI firing
line (soaking period) for differenl varielies of
rice husk avaiIalIe IocaIIy, lhe faclors
favouralIe for lhe fornalion of aclive siIica
presenl in lhe ash fired in lhe Ialoralory
furnace and reIale lhese condilions vilh lhe
fieId lriaIs in order lo inprove lhe efficiency of
lhe produclion of ash under fieId condilions.
The sludy concIudes lhal firing lenperalure
and isolhernaI firing line for allaining high
anounl of anorphous siIica in fired ash
depends on lhe variely of rice husk ash. The
sludy aIso reveaIs lhal, as an approxinalion, a
firing lenperalure of 7OOC seens lo le lhe
oplinun for lhe four Sri Lankan varielies of
rice husk ash exanined in lhe sludy, an
isolhernaI firing line of 3O lo 6O ninules is lo
le adopled lased on lhe knovIedge of lhe
variely of rice husk. According lo lhe sludy,
conpressive slrenglh of norlar cules of five
lIended cenenl conposilions shoved Iov
earIy slrenglh deveIopnenls as conpared lo
lhose of OIC conlroI norlar, lhe conposilions
4O:6O and 35:65 (RHA:OIC) vere lhe nosl
favouralIe lIends in lerns of slrenglh
deveIopnenl. Hovever, in lhis sludy, RHA
ollained fron rice niIIs vere furlher
incineraled in an eIeclric nuffIe furnace al
lenperalures varying fron 5OOC lo 8OOC for
duralions of 3O ninules and one hour. Iurlher
incineralion of RHA ollained fron rice niIIs
using furnaces operaled eIeclricaIIy or
olhervise is, olviousIy, a coslIy affair and such
cosls nay nol varranl lhe use of RHA as a
pozzoIan.

The foregoing discussion expIains lhal il is
perlinenl lo conducl a sludy in order lo
invesligale pozzoIanic characlerislics of
unlrealed RHA in lerns of, slrenglh
deveIopnenl in reIalion lo line, oplinaI IeveI
of cenenl repIacenenl for conpressive
slrenglh. As lhe iniliaI slep, use of unlrealed
RHA in cenenl norlar is invesligaled prior lo
lhal in concrele since lhe slrenglh requirenenl
in norlar cules is nol as cruciaI as lhal in
concrele.

3. Mcthnds and MatcrIa!s

3.1 MatcrIa!s uscd

The OIC conforning lo Sri Lankan slandard
SLS 1O7: Iarl 1 2OO8 vas uliIised in preparing
lhe linder. Craded river sand passing lhrough
2.36 nn sieve vilh fineness noduIus of 2.83
(lelveen sieve sizes of 5nn and 16O nicro
nelers and specific gravily of 1.6 vas used as
fine aggregale. The RHA sanpIes vere
ollained fron loiIer furnaces fron lhree rice
niIIs Iocaled in lhree differenl dislricls naneIy
Vavuniya, Anpara and allicaIoe. Al lhe each
Iocalion, lhe sanpIes vere coIIecled fron lhree
pIaces of lhe heap vhich vere Ialer nixed in
order lo nake il nore represenlalive. Since lhe
sanpIes conlained fired rice husk ash lhal had
leen lunl in an unconlroIIed vay lhey vere
lIack in coIour, olviousIy, due lo lhe presence
of excessive anounl of carlon conlenl. The
RHA ollained in lhis nanner vas nol furlher
lurnl in Ialoralory furnace. Such unlrealed
RHA vas used in preparing cenenl norlar
cules needed for lesling.


3.2 PhysIca! ana!ysIs nf OPC and RHA

IarlicIe size dislrilulion of OIC and RHA vas
delernined lhrough parlicIe size anaIyser.
Specific surface area of OIC vas neasured as
per SLS 1O7 Iarl 2: 2OO8 using Iains air
pernissiliIily apparalus. Olher inporlanl
ENGINEER
14

physicaI properlies such as specific gravily,

luIk densily and fineness of OIC and RHA
vere evaIualed as per SLS 1O7 Iarl 2: 2OO8.

3.3 B!cndcd ccmcnts

RHA lIended cenenls vere prepared ly
repIacing OIC vilh differenl anounl of RHA
(O, 5, 1O and 15 ly veighl of cenenl) in
dry condilion. The nixlures vere lhoroughIy
honogenised and kepl in seaIed conlainers.

3.4 CnmprcssIvc strcngth nf b!cndcd ccmcnt
mnrtar cubcs

The conpressive slrenglh of RHA lIended
cenenl norlar cules having uniforn size of
1OO x1OOx 1OOnn, in linder-sand ralios of 1:3
and 1:6 and in valer-linder ralios of O.4, O.5
and O.6 vas delernined afler 7, 28 and 6O days
of noislure curing as per SLS 1O7 Iarl 2: 2OO8.

3.5 MIx prnpnrtInns and castIng nf mnrtar
spccImcns

Il vas decided lo go for four differenl cenenl
repIacenenl IeveIs in preparing lhe lIended
cenenl, vhere lhe proporlion of RHA ranging
fron O, 5, 1O and 15 ly veighl of
cenenl. The O RHA ly veighl of cenenl vas
lhe conlroI sanpIe vhich vas adopled for
conparalive purposes. The repIacenenl of
cenenl vilh RHA vas nade ly veighl in order
lo circunvenl possilIe errors due lo lhe Iov
specific gravily of RHA. The research
progranne adopled lvo, linder-sand nix
proporlions naneIy 1:3 and 1:6. Ior each of lhe
resuIling eighl differenl nix proporlions, lhree
furlher nix conlinalions vere prepared using
valer-linder ralios naneIy, O.4, O.5 and O.6.
AccordingIy, 24 differenl norlar nix
conlinalions vere prepared and fron each
nix proporlion six cules vere casl, lvo cules
for each lesl of conpressive slrenglh al 7 days,
28 days and 6O days. This resuIled in casling of
192 (2 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 3=144) norlar cules.

The RHA and cenenl vere nixed lhoroughIy
lo forn a honogeneous lIend vhich in lurn
vas nixed vilh fine aggregales. A neasured
quanlily of valer (lased on lhe valer-linder
ralio) vas added lo lhis nixlure and vas nixed
lhoroughIy vilh a shoveI unliI il reaches lhe
required vorkaliIily. Then lhe nixlure vas
pIaced in a nouId of size 1OOx1OOx1OOnn in
lhree Iayers, each Iayer vas conpacled vilh a
16nn dianeler MS rod vilh 25 lIovs. Soon
afler casling, each norlar cule vas IaleIIed so
lhal lhey can le easiIy idenlified Ialer. Afler 24
hours, lhe specinens vere denouIded and
kepl in a valer lalh for 7 days or 28 days or 6O
days, depending on lhe period afler vhich lesl
is lo le perforned. The lesl for conpressive
slrenglh of lhe norlar cules vas perforned al
lhe specific line using lhe 2OOOkN conpression
lesling nachine.

AddilionaI sel of 54 (3 x 3 x 2 x3=54) cenenl
norlar cules) vere casl in order lo lesl if lhere
vas any varialion in conpressive slrenglh
vhen RHA ollained fron differenl
geographicaI areas vere used. The lesl cules
vere prepared onIy for lhe nix proporlion 1:6
linder-sand ralio and valer-linder ralio of O.5.

4. Rcsu!ts and DIscussInn

4.1 PhysIca! ana!ysIs nf OPC and RHA

The parlicIe size dislrilulion (ISD) curves of
OIC and RHA are shovn in Iigure 1. The
parlicIes of RHA are nearIy four lines coarser
lhan lhose of OIC and are veII graded in lheir
dislrilulion. TalIe 1 depicls lhe IhysicaI
properlies of lolh OIC and RHA. The luIk
densily, specific gravily and nean grain size of
RHA are found lo le grealer lhan lhose of OIC.

4.2 CnmprcssIvc strcngth nf b!cndcd ccmcnt
mnrtar cubcs

The conpressive slrenglh of RHA lIended
cenenl norlars are shovn in TalIe 2. The nain
oljeclive of lhe sludy is lo delernine lhe
suilaliIily of use of RHA in naking cenenl
sand lIocks. The use of 1:3 linder-sand ralio
vhich invarialIy and lound lo produce grealer
conpressive slrenglh for lhe requirenenl is
aIso expensive. In lhis research, lhe lesls vere
perforned for lolh lhese nix proporlions in
order for lhe leller conparison of vaIues. A
sinpIe scanning over TalIe 2 is enough lo say
lhal linder-sand ralio of 1:3 produces
O
2O
4O
6O
8O
1OO
1 1O 1OO 1OOO 1OOOO
IarlicIe size in nicro neler
I
e
r
c
e
n
l
a
g
e

f
i
n
e
r

l
h
a
n
Cenenl
RHA
FIgurc 1: PartIc!c sIzc dIstrIbutInn curvcs nf
ccmcnt and RHA

15
ENGINEER
ENGINEER
16

AIlhough lhe varialion of conpressive
slrenglh in reIalion lo 'cenenl repIacenenl
IeveIs is sonevhal siniIar lo lhe lhree
valer linder ralios, lhe nagnilude of lhe
conpressive slrenglh is higher for linder-
sand ralio 1:3 lhan for 1:6. Wilh respecl lo
lolh linder-sand ralios 1:3 and 1:6, cenenl
repIacenenl IeveI of 5 produces lhe
highesl conpressive slrenglh.

The figures aIso shov lhal vhen cenenl
repIacenenl IeveI graduaIIy increases
leyond 5 lhe conpressive slrenglh
sleadiIy decreases.

Il is inporlanl lo cIoseIy exanine lhe
varialion in conpressive slrenglh al a given
cenenl repIacenenl IeveI vilh respecl lo
lhe lhree valer-linder ralios. Iigures 4 and
5 represenl, for differenl cenenl
repIacenenl IeveIs, lhe conpressive
slrenglh in reIalion lo differenl valer-
linder ralios for linder-sand ralios 1:3 and
1:6 respecliveIy. The highesl conpressive
slrenglh is shovn al lhe 5 cenenl
repIacenenl IeveI vhen lhe valer-linder
ralio is O.5. The highesl vaIues for
conpressive slrenglh are olserved for
sanpIes cured for 6O days, al 5 cenenl
repIacenenl IeveI vhich are 16.85 MIa and
6.1O MIa for linder-sand ralios 1:3 and !:6
respecliveIy. Anolher nolalIe olservalion
is lhal vhen cenenl repIacenenl IeveI is
15, disregarding lhe nagnilude of valer-
linder ralio, conpressive slrenglh reaches
very Iov vaIues such as 4.7O MIa and 2.95
MIa for linder-sand ralios of 1:6 and 1:3
respecliveIy. Moreover, il is olserved lhal
lhe varialion in conpressive slrenglh in
reIalion lo valer-linder ralios (O.4, O.5 or
O.6) for a given cenenl repIacenenl IeveI is
nol significanl, for lolh linder-sand ralios.

Iigure 6 shovs lhe varialion of
conpressive slrenglh of norlar cules in
reIalion lo differenl cenenl repIacenenls
IeveIs, for a given valer-linder ralio.
According lo lhe figure, lhe pallern of
varialion of conpressive slrenglh in
reIalion lo cenenl repIacenenl IeveI is
siniIar for aII lhree valer-linder ralios.
Hence, il can le deduced lhal pallern of
conpressive slrenglh varialion is nol
dependenl on lhe valer-linder ralio.

0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
0 5 10 15
Cement replacement level (%)
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h

(
M
p
a
)




W/B=0.4
W/B=0.5
W/B=0.6
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
0 5 10 15
Cement replacement level (%)
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h

(
M
p
a
)





W/B=0.4
W/B=0.5
W/B=0.6
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
0 5 10 15
Cement replacement level
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
iv
e

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h

(
M
p
a
)





W/B=0.4
W/B=0.5
W/B=0.6
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
0 5 10 15
Cement replacement level (%)
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h

(
M
p
a
)







W/B=0.4
W/B=0.5
W/B=0.6
FIgurc 2-CnmprcssIvc strcngth varIatInn
In rc!atInn tn ccmcnt rcp!accmcnt !cvc!s
(ccmcnt- bIndcr ratio 1:3)

FIgurc 3-CnmprcssIvc strcngth varIatInn

In rc!atInn tn ccmcnt rcp!accmcnt !cvc!s
(bIndcr-sand ratIn 1:6)

FIgurc 4 - CnmprcssIvc strcngth varIatInn In
rc!atInn tn ccmcnt rcp!accmcnt !cvc!s and
watcr-bIndcr ratIn (bIndcr-sand ratio 1:3)

FIgurc 5 - CnmprcssIvc strcngth varIatInn In
rc!atInn tn ccmcnt rcp!accmcnt !cvc!s and
watcr-bIndcr ratIn (bIndcr-sand ratio 1:6)

17
ENGINEER




In research sludies (Canesan HW DO 2OO8 &
andara 1994) conducled lo invesligale lhe
conpressive slrenglh of concrele or norlar
nade vilh linders vhere RHA is used lo
repIace cenenl, lhe deveIopnenl of
slrenglh in reIalion lo age is a najor
consideralion. Iigure 7 shovs lhe varialion
in conpressive slrenglh vilh respecl lo age
of norlar in days, for differenl cenenl
repIacenenl IeveIs. According lo Iigure 7,
for unlrealed RHA lhe deveIopnenl of
conpressive slrenglh for O cenenl
repIacenenl (or 1OO cenenl) and for 5
cenenl repIacenenl IeveIs (or 95 cenenl)
is very nuch siniIar. The gain in
conpressive slrenglh lelveen 7 days and
6O days is 1.2 MIa and O.9 MIa for
repIacenenl IeveIs O and 5 respecliveIy.
Hovever, for cenenl repIacenenl IeveIs of
1O and 15, lhe conpressive slrenglhs
shov a rapid rale of grovlh. The gain in
conpressive slrenglh lelveen 7 days and
6O days is 1.6 MIa for lolh cenenl
repIacenenl IeveIs 1O and 15. Iurlher, 7
days conpressive slrenglh for 5 cenenl
repIacenenl IeveI is very nuch higher lhan
lhose for lolh cenenl repIacenenl IeveIs of
1O and 15.

Therefore, in silualions vhere higher
repIacenenl IeveIs of RHA are adopled lhis
Iov iniliaI conpressive slrenglh has lo le
considered. The Iigure 7 aIso shovs very
cIearIy lhal ly adding RHA ly 5, ils
conpressive slrenglh can le increased
nore lhan lhal produced vilh 1OO cenenl
vhich is a significanl finding of lhe sludy.
The average 28 days and 6O days
conpressive slrenglh of norlar cules are
6.25 MIa and 7.46 MIa respecliveIy. This
indicales lhe increase in conpressive
slrenglh over lhe period 28 days lo 6O days
is 19 vhich is reIaliveIy a narginaI
increase.

The conpressive slrenglhs vhen cenenl
repIacenenl IeveI is 15, valer linder-ralio
is O.5 and linder-sand ralio is 1:6 are 2.65
and 2.95 for ages 28 days and 6O days
respecliveIy. According lo Sri Lanka
Slandard 855: Iarl 1:1999 (Specificalions for
Cenenl Iocks Iarl 1_ Requirenenls), lhe
conpressive slrenglh required of soIid
cenenl-sand lIocks for a singIe slorey and
lvo sloreys for norlar designalion (cenenl
-sand) 1:5 or 1:8 are 1.2 and 2.5 MIa
respecliveIy. Hence, il can le said lhal a
cenenl repIacenenl IeveI of 15, valer
linder-ralio of O.5 and linder-sand ralio of
1:6 affords a suilalIe nix specificalion for
cenenl sand lIocks lo le used for singIe or
lvo slory luiIdings. AIso il can le deduced
lhal in lhe use of lIended cenenl, for lhe
sane requirenenl, lhe oplinaI IeveI of
cenenl repIacenenl is 15.

4.2.2 VarIatInn In cnmprcssIvc strcngth In
mnrtar madc wIth RHA gcngraphIca!!y

TalIe 3 depicls lhe resuIls ollained for lhe
conpressive slrenglh of norlar cules casl
using lhe RHA ollained fron lhe lhree
geographic areas naneIy allicaIoa,
Anpara Vavuniya. Ior lhe purpose of
conparison, if ve consider conpressive
slrenglhs al 6O days, al 5 cenenl
repIacenenl IeveI (for linder: sand ralio of
1:6 and valer-linder ralio of O.5) for lhe
lhree areas allicaIoa, Anpara and
Vavuniya are 6.1O, 5.9O and 6.OO MIa
respecliveIy. This indicales lhal lhe
varialion in conpressive slrenglh of norlar
cules casl vilh lIended cenenl of vhich
RHA ollained fron differenl areas is nol
significanl.

4.2.3 Cnst Ana!ysIs

In year 2OO9, lhe annuaI paddy produclion
in Sri Lanka is 3.65 niIIion nelric lons
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
0.4 0.5 0.6
W/B ratio
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h

(
M
p
a
)






0
5
10
15
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
7days 28 days 60 days
Age
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
iv
e

S
t
r
e
n
g
t
h

(
M
P
a
)



0
5
10
15
FIgurc 7- CnmprcssIvc strcngth varIatInn
In rc!atInn tn agc
FIgurc 6-CnmprcssIvc strcngth varIatInn
In rc!atInn tn watcr-bIndcr ratIn
ENGINEER
18

AnnuaI rice husk produclion in Sri Lanka is

3.65 x O.2O niIIion nelric lons vhich neans
O.73 niIIion nelric lons, assuning husk
forns 2O of paddy grain in veighl.

AnnuaI RHA produclion in Sri Lanka is
O.73 x O.2O vhich neans O.146 niIIion
nelric lons, assuning husks vhen lurnl
reduces in veighl lo 2O of husk veighl

Tab!c 3 - CnmprcssIvc strcngth nf samp!cs
nf ObtaIncd nf DIffcrcnt DIstrIcts

DIstrIct

MIx
prnpnrtInns
CnmprcssIvc
strcngth (MPa)
OPC
(%)
RHA
(%)
7
days
28
days
60
days
allicaI
oa

95 5 5.2O 5.45 6.1O
9O 1O 2.9O 4.OO 4.5O
85 15 1.35 2.65 2.95
Anpar
a

95 5 5.1O 5.25 5.9O
9O 1O 2.7O 4.1O 4.35
85 15 1.65 2.95 3.25
Vavuni
ya

95 5 5.4O 5.O5 6.OO
9O 1O 2.3O 4.3O 4.4O
85 15 1.75 2.8O 3.25
inder:Sand =1:6 and Waler: inder=O.5

Since one nelric lon is 1OOOkg, RHA
produced in a year is 146 niIIion kg.
AIlernaliveIy, lhe equivaIenl nunler of
5Okg lags RHA lhal can le produced are
2,92O,OOO lags. In a scenario vhere
conpIele slock of RHA is usalIe as an
aIleralive naleriaI, lhe possilIe saving for
lhe counlry is Rs. 775x 2,92O,OOO =
Rs.2,263,OOO,OOO. The price of cenenl is
assuned lo le Rs.775. Hence, provided lhal
videspread avaiIaliIily of RHA can le
allained, lhe gross savings for nalionaI
econony is approxinaleIy Sri Lankan
rupees 2.25 liIIion. NeverlheIess, lhe nel
savings vouId le sonevhal Iess since lhe
anaIysis has excIuded lhe packaging,
lransporlalion and handIing charges for
RHA.

The nunler of 3OO x15O x1OO nn cenenl
sand lIocks lhal can le produced vilh one
lag of cenenl, vilhoul lIending of RHA is
6O. The nunler of 3OO x15O x1OO nn
cenenl sand lIocks lhal can le produced
vilh one lag of cenenl, using RHA in lhe
lIend is 69, assuning RHA percenlage in
linder is 15. This indicales lhal vilh one
lag of cenenl addilionaI 9 cenenl sand
lIocks can le nanufaclured. This exanpIe
can convince, of course in a rudinenlary
nanner, lhose in areas vhere peopIe have
access lo RHA, lIending RHA in cenenl is
a vialIe and econonicaI oplion.

5. Cnnc!usInns

(1) Rice husk ash ollained fron rice niIIs,
as il is, can le lIended vilh cenenl in order
lo nanufaclure cenenl sand lIocks. Ior
any given conlinalion, vhen cenenl
repIacenenl IeveI increases fron O lo 5
lhe conpressive slrenglh graduaIIy
increases and lhereafler sleadiIy decreases.

(2) The linder-sand ralio of 1:6 is
salisfaclory and has conpressive slrenglhs
of 2.65 MIa and 2.95 MIa for an age of 28
days and 6O days respecliveIy. The
nininun slrenglh specified in lhe SLS 1O7
Iarl 2: 2OO8 for cenenl sand lIocks is 2.5
MIa. Hence, cenenl repIacenenl IeveI 15
is lhe oplinun for naking cenenl sand
lIocks.

(3) The infIuence of valer-linder ralio on
lhe conprehensive slrenglh, parlicuIarIy
vilhin lhe range of O.4 lo O.6 is found lo le
narginaI.

(4)The increase in conpressive slrenglh
over lhe period fron 28days unliI 6O days is
onIy 19 percenl vhich is onIy a narginaI
increase. This indicales conpressive
slrenglhs reaches a salisfaclory IeveI vilhin
a shorl period.

(5) The deveIopnenl of conpressive
slrenglh for lolh cenenl repIacenenl IeveIs
of 1O and 15 is sIover lhan lhal for
eilher O (onIy cenenl in lhe linder) or 5.

(6) The varialion of conpressive slrenglh of
norlar cules casl vilh RHA ollained fron
dislricls allicaIo, Anpara and Vavuniya,
anong lhe dislricls is aInosl negIigilIe.
This inpIies a siniIarily in lhe degree of
incineralion of paddy husks al niIIs and
lhe lypes of paddy grovn in lhese areas.

(7) The lolaI quanlily of RHA produced in
Sri Lanka is eslinaled lo le 146 niIIion kg,
or aIlernaliveIy a nunler of 2,92O,OOO, fifly
kiIogranne lags. In a scenario vhere aII
lhe RHA can le pul inlo use lhe lolaI gross
19
ENGINEER
saving lo lhe nalionaI econony is Rs 2.25
liIIion.

(8) Al lhe nonenl rice niII ovners have
leen conpeIIed lo deslroy rice husk ly
open heap lurning. This process depIeles
lhe oxygen quanlily in lhe air and so
environnenlaIIy very hazardous. Hence, il
is a coIossaI danage lo lhe sociely if RHA
so produced, al a lrenendous cosl lo lhe
environnenl, nol pul inlo produclive use.
If lhe denand for RHA increases as
expecled rice niII ovners can adopl
lechnoIogicaIIy advanced furnaces vhich
heIp lo incinerale rice husk al conlroIIed
condilions.

$FNQRZOHGJHPHQW

The aulhors vish lo express lheir gralilude

lo HoIcin (Lanka) Lld. for lesling physicaI
properlies of RHA.

5HIHUHQFHV

1 andara, D.H.M.S., DeveIopnenl of

Iended Cenenl UliIizing lhe
IozzoIanic Anorphous SiIica
Conponenl of Rice Husk Ash, ]curna|
cf Na|icna| Scicncc Ccunci|, 1994
22(2):189-199.

2. oaling, A.A. and Skeele, D.H.,
Incineralion of Rice HuII for use as a
Cenenlalions MaleriaIs, The Cayana
Lxperience. Ccmcn| Ccncrc|c Rcscarcn,
199O, 2O, 795-8O2.

3. Ccn|ra| 8an| Annua| Rcpcr| 2009,
CenlraI ank of Sri Lanka, CoIonlo Sri
Lanka.

4. Ccn|ra| 8an| Annua| Rcpcr| 2008,
CenlraI ank of Sri Lanka, CoIonlo Sri
Lanka.

5. CeyIon Inslilule of Scienlific and
InduslriaI Research Reporl on
InduslriaI Use of Rice HuII Ash,
CISIR, CoIonlo 1988.

6. Cook, }.D., Rice Husk Ash, In: Svany
RN, edilor, Concrele TechnoIogy and
Design. Ccmcn| Rcp|accmcn| Ma|cria|s,
VoI 3, London: Surrey Universily Iress,
1986, pp.171-95.

7. LI-Darkroury, A., Casser M.S., Rice
husk ash (RHA) as Cenenl Adnixlure
for InnoliIisalion of Iiquid
Radioaclive Wasle al Differenl
Tenperalures, ]curna| cf Nuc|car
Ma|cria|s, 381 (2OO8) 271-277.

8. Caesan K., RajagopaI, K, ThangaveI, K.,
Rice Husk ash Iended Cenenl:
Assessnenl of OplinaI IeveI of
RepIacenenl for Slrenglh and
IernealiIily Iroperlies of Concrele,
]curna| cf Ccns|ruc|icn an 8ui|ing
Ma|cria|s, 22, 2OO8, pp.1675-1683.

9. Inslilule of Iosl Harvesl TechnoIogy
Research and DeveIopnenl Cenler,
Rcpcr| cn Paq Hus| Atai|a|i|i|q an
Ccnsump|icn Pa||crn in Sri |an|a,
IIHTRDC, Anuradapura, Sri Lanka,
1999.

1O. Isaia, C.C., CaslaIdini, A. L, Moraes, C.
R, IhysicaI and IozzoIanic Aclion of
MineraI addilions on lhe MechanicaI
Slrenglh of High-Ierfornance, ]curna|
Ccmcn| an Ccncrc|c Ccmpcsi|cs, VoIune
25, Issue 1, }anuary 2OO3, Iages 69-76.

11. Nehdi, M, Duquelle, }., LI Danally, A.,
Ierfornance of Rice Husk Ash
Iroduced using a Nev TechnoIogy as a
MineraI Adnixlure in Concrele, ]curna|
cf Ccmcn| an Ccncrc|c Rcscarcn, 33, 2OO3
12O3-121O.

12. Shelly, M.S., Ccncrc|c Tccnnc|cgq, 8
lh

edn. S. Chand & Conpany Lld, Ran
Nagar, Nev DeIhi, 2OO5.

13. Sri Lanka Slandard 1O7: Iarl 1: 2OO8
(Specificalions for Ordinary IorlIand
Cenenl-Requirenenls).

14. Sri Lanka Slandard 1O7: Iarl 2 1:2OO8
(Specificalions for Ordinary IorlIand
Cenenl-Tesl Melhods).

15. Sri Lanka Slandard 855: Iarl 1:1999
(Specificalions for Cenenl Iocks Iarl
1_ Requirenenls).

16. Sri Lanka Slandard 855: Iarl 1:1999
(Specificalions for Cenenl Iocks Iarl
1_Tesl Melhods).
21
ENGINEER
ENGINEER - Vol. XXXXIV, No. 02, pp. [21-31], 2011
The Institution of Engineers, Sri Lanka

Labnratnry and FIc!d InvcstIgatInns nf Gcncratnr

5tatnr Insu!atInn

M.A.R.M. Fcrnandn and G.A. Jayantha

Abstract: This paper presenls lhe condilion assessnenl of synchronous generalor slalor insuIalion
used in Sri Lankan pover slalions. The vork has lhree parls i.e. lheorelicaI, Ialoralory and fieId
invesligalions. In lhe firsl parl, lheory lehind dieIeclric insuIalions have leen lroadIy discussed vilh
lhe aid of differenl non-deslruclive lesl nelhods used lo asses lhe condilions of lhe generalor
insuIalion. In lhe Ialoralory invesligalions, lvo naluraIIy velled asphaIl nica, one dry poIyesler nica
and one dry epoxy nica spare slalor vindings vere lesled under drying and velling condilions. The
used lesl nelhods vere DC ranp, line varialion of insuIalion resislance (IR), poIarizalion and
depoIarizalion currenl (IDC), frequency dieIeclric speclroscopy (IDS) and parliaI discharge (ID) lesls
and lhe reIalionships have leen eslalIished anong lhen. In lhe fieId invesligalions, differenl
generalors leIonging lo CeyIon LIeclricily oard vere lesled ly using DC ranp lesl. Il vas found lhal
lhe DC ranp lesl, as an easy and sinpIe fieId lesl, can le effecliveIy used lo invesligale lhe noislure
effecl on generalor insuIalion.

Kcy wnrds: Synchronous generalor, Slalor insuIalion, noislure, condilion assessnenl, DC ranp lesl,
Irequency dieIeclric speclroscopy

1. IntrnductInn

Ceneralor slalor vinding insuIalion is exposed
lo ThernaI, LIeclricaI, MechanicaI and
LnvironnenlaI slresses during lhe operalion,
and faiIure of vinding insuIalion depends on
conlinalion of lhese slresses. Major faiIure
nodes of lhe vinding insuIalion can le due lo
inlernaI parliaI discharges, lhernaI cycIing or
overIoading, ageing, Ioosening of lars in lhe
sIol or vinding overhangs, over voIlages, and
conlaninalion. Oul of lhen, conlaninalion of
lhe slalor insuIalion is responsilIe for aloul
25 of lhe najor faiIures and il is nainIy due lo
noislure alsorplion vilhin or oulside fron lhe
generalor. Due lo hygroscopic nalure of nany
lype of lhe insuIalion syslens noislure can le
dravn inlo lhe lody of lhe insuIalion fron lhe
alnospheric air or fron Ieakage of valer fron
lhe cooIers of lhe generalor slalor. Thus lhis
alsorled noislure has a grealer effecl on
properlies of lhe insuIalion. In addilion,
noislure in conlinalion vilh oiI, carlon dusl
and lrake dusl vhich are aIready deposiled on
lhe vinding insuIalion and venliIalion palhs
can acceIerale lhernaI delerioralion or lhernaI
ageing of lhe generalor slalor vinding
insuIalion and slalor core. Hunidily
dependency on lhe insuIalion properlies seens
lo le associaled vilh specific slalor vinding
delerioralion process such as eIeclricaI lracking
and end vinding parliaI discharge aclivilies |1j.
There are various on-Iine and off-Iine lesl
nelhods used ly lhe engineers for diagnosing
condilion of lhe slalor vinding insuIalion of lhe
generalors in operalion |2j. Assessing lhe
renaining Iife line, deciding lhe priorily IeveI
for nexl najor nainlenance and delernining
lhe rool cause for lhe faiIure of lhe faiIed
vinding are lhe nain reasons for lesling lhe
vinding insuIalion.
Aloul 4O differenl lesl nelhods are presenlIy
used lo asses lhe condilion of slalor vinding
insuIalion |1,3-7j. Sone of lhe frequenlIy used
lesl nelhods are insuIalion resislance
neasurenenl |4,7j, high voIlage AC/DC
lesling, Off Iine parliaI discharge lesling and on
Iine parliaI discharge noniloring |6,7j, Ioss
langenl and capacilance neasurenenl |6,7j, DC
ranp lesling |3j and response neasurenenls
in line and frequency donain |5j. AInosl aII of
lhese lesls are used for noniloring lhe
synplons of lhe delerioralion of lhe insuIalion
and nainlenance engineers use lhe resuIls of
lhe lesling lo evaIuale lhe condilion of lhe
insuIalion and lo eslinale lhe risk of faiIure of




Eng. (Prof.) M.A.R.M. |ernando, 8.Sc. |ng. (Pcracniqa),
C. |ng., M|| (Sri |an|a), SM||||, Tccn |ic. (KTH), PnD
(Cna|mcrs), Scnicr |cc|urcr, Dcpar|mcn| cf ||cc|rica| c
||cc|rcnic |nginccring, Unitcrsi|q cf Pcracniqa.
Eng. G.A. ]aantha, 8.Sc. |ng. (Pcracniqa), C. |ng., M||
(Sri |an|a), Cnicf |nginccr, Assc|s Managcmcn|, Ccq|cn
||cc|rici|q 8car, Kanq.
ENGINEER
22


lhe operaling unil. Use of aII lhe lesl nelhods
is line consuning and il requires a Ionger
period of oulage vhich finaIIy counls in lerns
of cenls and rupees.
esl exanpIe is lhal lhe response neasurenenls
such as frequency dieIeclric speclroscopy (IDS)
and poIarizalion, depoIarizalion currenl (IDC),
provides usefuI infornalion.
Hovever, il usuaIIy lakes 3-4 hours lo see lhe
reaI effecl of lhe insuIalion ly eilher going
leIov nHz range or alove 1OOO s in frequency
and line donains respecliveIy. On lhe olher
hand, DC ranp lesl aIso provide usefuI
infornalion and due lo ils sinpIicily, lhis lesl
can le conducled in lhe fieId very easiIy.

Aulhors vish lo eIalorale on condilion
assessnenl of generalor slalor insuIalion
aining lo undersland lhe use of DC ranp lesl
especiaIIy lo diagnose lhe presence of noislure.
ResuIls of fieId lesl and Ialoralory lesl ly
differenl lesl nelhods are used lo eslalIish a
reIalionship anong lhe lesl resuIls and lesling
nelhods.

2. ThcnrctIca! InvcstIgatInns

2.1 Gcncratnr 5tatnr Insu!atInn
Main purpose of lhe insuIalion of lhe slalor
vinding is lo avoid shorl circuil lelveen
phases and lelveen phase and ground. Il has
lo lransnil heal due lo conduclor currenl lo lhe
oul side of lhe vinding insuIalion (lo lhe
cooIing nediun and lhe slalor core). Slrand
insuIalion, lurn insuIalion and groundvaII
insuIalion are lhe lhree nain lasic conslilules
of lhe slalor insuIalion syslen as shovn in
Iigures 1 and 2.















FIgurc 1 - Crnss scctInn nf statnr wIndIng In a
s!nt



FIgurc 2 - Insu!atInn nf statnr wIndIng

According lo lhe insuIalion naleriaI and
londing agenl of lhe nain insuIalion (Cround
vaII insuIalion), lhe insuIalion of generalor
slalor vindings can le cIassified in lo lhree
nain versions as asphaIl- nica, poIyesler- nica
and epoxy-nica. Mica is lhe nain insuIalion
naleriaI |8j.

The generalor slalor insuIalion, as a dieIeclric
naleriaI, vhen suljecled lo an eIeclric slress ly
ac or DC voIlage, currenl fIovs fron lhe cu
conduclor lo lhe ouler insuIalion or lo lhe
ground vaII. This currenl consisls of lvo parls
i.e. surface Ieakage and currenl lhrough lhe
insuIalion. The currenl lhrough lhe insuIalion is
nainIy characlerized ly lhe capacilive, Ieakage
and lhe poIarizalion lehaviour of lhe insuIalion
and can le eslinaled using enpiricaI fornuIas.
On lhe olher hand, lhe surface currenl can nol
le eslinaled lul couId le separaled ly
neasuring vilh or/and vilhoul lhe guarding
eIeclrode. In generaI, lhe lehaviour of lhe
insuIalion (dieIeclric naleriaI) can le anaIysed
in line or frequency donains depending on lhe
suppIy voIlage of DC or ac respecliveIy |9j.

2.2 TImc DnmaIn ana!ysIs

In line donain anaIysis, lhe insuIalion is
suljecled lo a DC voIlage and lhe response is
recorded vilh respecl lo lhe line. The line
varialion of currenl can le ollained fron lhe
expression for currenl densily according lo lhe
MaxveIIs equalions
( )
W
3
W
(
( + W -
c
c
+
c
c
+ = . V =
0
c o -(1)
Where L and I are eIeclric slress and
poIarizalion. The firsl, second and lhird lerns
represenl lhe conlrilulion fron conduclion,
capacilive and poIarizalion currenls
respecliveIy. The poIarizalion has conlrilulion
fron rapid and sIov phenonena as

Bottom Packing
Strand Insulation
Ground wall (main) Insulation
Side Iiller and semiconductive coating
Midstick Packing (Spacer)
Turn Insulation
Protective strip
Sliding strip
Counter wedge
Ripple spring
Slot Wedge
23
ENGINEER

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
)
+ =

W
G W ( I W ( W 3

t t t c c c -(2)
Where f(l) is lhe response funclion of lhe
naleriaI. y conlining eqv (1) and (2), lhe
currenl densily can le vrillen as
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
(

+
c
c
+ =
)

W
G W ( I W (
W
W ( W -

t t t c c o
(3)

When a voIlage U(l) is appIied, lhe currenl is
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
(

+
c
c
+ =
)

W
G W 8 I W 8
W
&
W 8 &
W ,

t t t c
c
o
(4)
Where lhe CO is geonelric capacilance. y
neasuring lhe currenl one couId separale
capacilive, conduclion and poIarizalion
conponenls.

2.2.1 DC ramp tcst
In lhis nelhod, lhe DC voIlage is ranped up
(usuaIIy al a Iov rale Iike 1 kV/nin) vhiIe lhe
currenl is conlinuousIy nonilored as a funclion
of voIlage (I-V characlerislics). Due lo
sinpIicily, leller assessnenl and appIicaliIily
of inlerrupling lhe lesl during alnornaI
condilions, lhis lesl can le effecliveIy used for
condilion assessnenl of rolaling nachines
|3,1Oj. In our vork, allenlion has leen paid lo
use lhis lesl nelhod effecliveIy and sone of our
previous findings have leen reporled in |11j.

If lhe sIope of voIlage is o (i.e. U(l) = ol), lhe
Ieakage and capacilive conponenls can le
approxinaled (according lo eqv 4) as
o o c
o
c
oo

= ~
= ~
& & ,
5
W W &
,
FDS
OHDN

(7)
Where R is represenlalion of resislance for
Ieakage currenl and C

is lhe capacilance al
higher frequencies. y assuning lhal lhe
response funclion (f(l)=Al
-n
) of lhe insuIalion
foIIovs Curie-Von SchveidIer lehaviour |9j lhe
alsorplion currenl can le approxinaled as

Q Q
DEV
W .& W $ & ,

= ~

o o (8)

Where K=A/c

.

Nov lhe resuIlanl currenl in DC ranp lesl can
le vrillen as
( )
(

+ + =

Q
W .& &
5
W
W ,

o (9)
Since lhe DC ranp lesl is conducled vilhoul
lhe guarding lerninaI, lhe surface currenl is
incIuded in lhe neasured ranp lesl resuIls.

Hovever, lhe surface currenl can le considered
as snaII. y filling lhe currenl vaIues of eqv (9)
vilh neasured I-V curve lhe varialIes of R, C

,
K and n can le ollained. Iigure 3 shovs one
exanpIe of DC ranp lesl conducled on Canyon
Iover Slalion Ceneralor U-O1 in 2OO8 }anuary.
The filled curves conprising lhe conlrilulion
fron capacilive, resislive and alsorplion
conponenls are incIuded in lhe pIol. The
capacilive and Ieakage currenls are respecliveIy
conslanl and Iinear. The eslinaled vaIues are R
= 3 T, C

= 18O nI, K = 3x1O

4
, and n=O.9.


FIgurc 3 - Mcasurcd and fIttcd DC ramp tcst
rcsu!ts fnr Canynn U-01 R Phasc (2008
January) [n fnr mcasurcd va!ucs, - fnr fIttcd
va!ucs, + fnr capacItIvc currcnt, fnr
absnrptInn currcnt, and x fnr !cakagc currcnt

2.2.2 Pn!arIzatInn and dcpn!arIzatInn currcnt
(PDC)
The insuIalion is firsl suljecled lo a conslanl
DC voIlage U and poIarizalion (charging)
currenl is neasured over a Iong period i.e.
1OOOOs. Then lhe insuIalion is shorl circuiled
and depoIarizalion (discharging) currenl is
neasured. This lesl nelhod despile line
consuning, provides usefuI infornalion aloul
lhe insuIalion. The depoIarizalion currenl
direclIy foIIovs lhe response funclion f(l) as
8 &
W ,
W I
GHSRO

~ (1O)
If lhe insuIalion is charged sufficienlIy Ionger
period i.e. al Ieasl 1OOO s, lhe conduclivily (o)
can le approxinaled as lhe difference lelveen
poIarizalion and depoIarizalion currenl
( ) ( ) | | W , W ,
8 &
GHSRO SRO
~

c
o (11)
Iigure 4 shovs one exanpIe of poIarizalion
depoIarizalion lesl conducled on a poIyesler
spare vinding laken fron UkuveIa pover
slalion. The response funclion vas caIcuIaled
according lo eqv 1O and is incIuded lhere. The
ENGINEER
24

lesl voIlage vas 1OO V. The conduclivily vas

caIcuIaled (al 27C) and vas 6.55 x 1O
-12
S/n.

1.00E-09
1.00E-08
1.00E-07
1.00E-06
1 10 100 1000 10000
Tima [s]
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

[
A
]
0.01
0.1
1
10
R
e
s
p
o
n
s
e

f
u
n
c
t
i
o
n
pol(t) depol(t) f(t)

FIgurc 4 - Pn!arIzatInn/Dcpn!arIzatInn currcnt

and rcspnnsc functInn fnr a sparc wIndIng
frnm Ukuwc!a Pnwcr statInn (agc 35 ycars)

2.2.3 Insu!atInn rcsIstancc (IR)

Here a conslanl DC voIlage i.e. 5 kV is appIied
lo lhe insuIalion. TradilionaIIy IR al one
ninule and IR al 1O ninules are neasured. The
vinding lenperalure, anlienl lenperalure
and hunidily al lhe line of lesling are
recorded. IR vaIues al one ninule depend on
lhe lenperalure of lhe vinding and hunidily
of lhe anlienl condilions. The neasurenenl
shaII le done alove dev poinl and lhe resuIls
can le used lo evaIuale vhelher lhe vinding
insuIalion is OK for lhe nornaI operalion and
sulsequenl high voIlage lesling. The IR al 1O
ninules is aIso neasured lo find lhe
poIarisalion index II (IR1O ninules / IR1
ninule) vhich is independenl of lhe
lenperalure and il can le used lo lrend lhe
resuIls. In lhis vork, ly devialing fron lhe
lradilionaI lesl nelhod, lhe IR vaIues vere
conlinuousIy nonilored since lhey couId easiIy
le conpared vilh DC ranp and poIarizalion
currenls. Once lhe DC voIlage is appIied lhe
capacilive currenl decays lo zero very rapidIy.
So, line varialion of IR can le correIaled lo DC
ranp resuIls and poIarizalion currenl as
( )
( ) W ,
8
W .&
5
W ,5
SRO
Q
=
+
=

(12)
The surface currenl is nol incIuded here, lul il
can le neasured ly laking lhe difference
lelveen IR lesl vilh and vilhoul guarding
lerninaI. Iigure 5 shovs lhe line varialion of
IR vaIues vilh and vilhoul guarding lerninaI
for a poIyesler nica spare vinding laken fron
UkuveIa Iover slalion al lenperalure 28 ` C
and RH 66.


FIgurc 5 - IR rcsu!ts fnr pn!ycstcr wIndIng
frnm Ukuwc!a pnwcr statInn (agc 35 ycars)
wIth and wIthnut guardIng tcrmIna! (n fnr
wIthnut surfacc currcnt, A for with surface
current, - for calculated current, R1950 GO OO O,
C

=1.8 nF

2.3 Frcqucncy DnmaIn ana!ysIs

In frequency donain anaIysis, ac voIlages al
differenl frequencies are appIied lo lhe
insuIalion and lheir corresponding currenls are
recorded. When lransforning lhe currenl
densily in eqv (3) inlo frequency donain, lhe
convoIulion lecones lhe producl as

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) e e c e ec c e o e ( I ( M ( -

+ + =

(13)

y defining lhe conpIex suscepliliIily as lhe
Iourier lransforn of response funclion f(l) as in
eqv (14).

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) e _ e _ e e _ M I = = (14)

Al a voIlage of U(e), lhe corresponding currenl
can le vrillen

( ) ( ) { } ( ) ( ) e e _
ec
o
e _ c e e 8 M & M ,
(

)
`

+ + =

(15)

2.3.1 CapacItancc and !nss tangcnt

In frequency donain, separalion of currenls is
difficuIl. Inslead capacilive and Ioss langenl
vaIues are used. y inlroducing conpIex
pernillivily lo lhe eqv (15), lhe currenl can le
sinpIified as

( )
( ) ( ) | | ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) | | ( ) e e e e
e e c e c e
e
8 M& & M
8 M & M
,

=
=
(16)




25
ENGINEER

Then lhe Ioss langenl is given ly

( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) e _ c
e _
ec
o
e
e
o

WDQ

+
+
= =

&
&
(17)
TradilionaIIy, lhe capacilance (C) and Ioss
langenl al pover frequency (5O Hz) is used for
evaIualion of lhe insuIalion vhich provides a
rough eslinalion on ils condilion.

2.3.2 Frcqucncy DIc!cctrIc 5pcctrnscnpy
(FD5)

IDS neasurenenls are videIy used for
condilion assessnenl of high voIlage apparalus
aIlernalive lo lhe singIe poinl neasurenenls i.e.
as in parl 2.3.1. Iron recenlIy IDS
neasurenenls have leen inlroduced lo rolaling
nachines |5j. In lhis nelhod, conpIex
capacilance and Ioss langenl vaIues are
neasured up lo Iov frequencies. In our vork,
IDS neasurenenls vere laken fron 1 kHz lo
O.1 nHz. Iigure 6 shovs frequency varialion of
conpIex capacilance for poIyesler spare
vinding fron UkuveIa pover slalion. The C
usuaIIy increases vilh lhe decreases of
frequency as shovn in lhe figure. The generaI
lendency of C is increasing lovards a Ioss
peak vilh lhe reduclion of lhe frequency. The
Ioss langenl and lhe pover faclor vere
caIcuIaled and are incIuded in lhe graph. When
Ioss langenl vaIues vere Iov, il is
approxinaleIy equaIs lo lhe pover faclor (i.e.
lano ~ sino = sin(9O-|) = cos|).


1.00E-11
1.00E-10
1.00E-09
1.00E-08
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Frequency [Hz]
C
a
p
a
c
i
t
a
n
c
e

[
F
]
0.01
0.1
1
10
t
a
n
d
e
I
t
a
,

P
o
w
e
r

f
a
c
t
o
r
C' C" tandelta PF

FIgurc 6 - Frcqucncy varIatInn nf C', C", !nss
tangcnt and pnwcr factnr fnr sparc wIndIng
fnr Ukuwc!a pnwcr statInn (Agc 35 ycars)

2.3 PartIa! DIschargc (PD) Tcst

IarliaI discharge is a IocaIized eIeclricaI
discharge in an insuIalion syslen lhal does nol
conpIeleIy lridge lhe eIeclrodes. In rolaling
nachines vhere raled operaling voIlage is
higher lhan 2-3 kV, lhis phenonenon nornaIIy
occurs and noniloring can le done in lolh off-
Iine and on-Iine using various ID sensors
(CoupIers) and noniloring equipnenl. Mosl of
lhe lechniques neasure currenl and voIlage
puIses lhal arises due ID in lhe vinding
insuIalion. On Iine noniloring of lhe ID is
popuIar anong lhe uliIilies due lo lhe reason
lhal lhe neasurenenl gives a reaIislic condilion
of lhe insuIalion al ils nornaI operalion
condilions.

The ID neasurenenl can le used lo delernine
lhe delerioralion of insuIalion syslen due lo
insuIalion deIaninalion, voids, sIol discharges,
discharges al lhe end vindings and danages lo
slress grading insuIalion. Il can le used as an
acceplance lesl of individuaI coiIs and nev
generalors vhich heIps lo assess lhe
nanufacluring process and lhe slalus of curing
of lhe vinding afler nanufacluring.

ID is a puIse vilh shorl duralion (i.e. in ns) so
lhal a device sensilive lo high frequencies is
used lo delecl ID. TypicaIIy, HV capacilors
(8OpI - 1OOO pI) connecled lo lhe Iive phase
lerninaIs of lhe rolaling nachines are used as
lhe coupIers ly nodern on-Iine noniloring
syslens. ID resuIls are usuaIIy presenled
nainIy ly nagnilude of lhe highesl ID puIse
(Qn - unils in pC or nV). In addilion, nodern
puIse counl rale (in puIses per Second, ppS)
and lhe phase angIe are aIso used.

Iigure 7 and 8 shov ID neasuring selup and
lesl resuIls ollained fron lhe Ceneralor U-O1 of
UkuveIa pover slalion vhich has poIyesler
nica insuIalion.











FIgurc 7 - BasIc arrangcmcnt nf scnsnrs fnr nn
!Inc PD mcasurcmcnts. Twn cnup!crs wcrc
uscd fnr nnIsc fI!tcrIng and thc cnup!Ing
capacItancc Is 80 pF




ENGINEER
26

FIgurc 8 - Phasc Rcsn!vcd data nbtaIncd by
capacItnr cnup!crs nn Phasc A, B, C. Pu!sc
rcpctItInn ratc Is gIvcn by dIffcrcnt cn!nurs as
In thc !cgcnd

2.4 CnmparIsnn


FIgurc 9 - CnmparIsnns nf tcst mcthnds

Oul of differenl paranelers, lhe response
funclion f(l), conduclivily (V), capacilance al
higher frequency (H
f
or C
f
), Ioss langenl al
5OHz provides lhe overaII piclure of lhe
insuIalion. The IDC resuIls direclIy provides
lhe vaIues of f(l) and V vhereas IDS resuIls
gives H
f and lanG vaIues. Hovever, line
donain resuIls can le verified vilh lhal in
frequency donain and vice versa using Iourier
lransforn or inverse Iourier lransforn
respecliveIy |9j. SiniIarIy, lhe DC ranp lesl
resuIls can le nodeIIed and verified vilh line
and frequency donain resuIls. A sunnery of
conparison of differenl lesl nelhods is shovn
in Iigure 9. In lhis sludy under Ialoralory
invesligalions (parl 3), allenlion vas paid lo
vaIidale lhe DC ranp lesl resuIls vilh
corresponding IDC and IDS vaIues. Wilh
lhose correIalions, lhe DC ranp lesl couId le
effecliveIy used lo inlerprel lhe fieId
neasurenenls in parl 4.

3. Labnratnry InvcstIgatInns

3.1 DctaI!s nf WIndIng samp!cs

Iour spare vinding sanpIes vere coIIecled
fron hydro generalors for conparison of
differenl lesl nelhods under differenl noislure
condilions. Their delaiIs are as foIIovs:

W1 - A 11 kV, asphaIl nica spare vinding fron
WinaIasurendra Hydro Iover slalion (WIS)
vilh an ageing line of 52 years. This vinding
vas found in lhe slores of lhe pover slalion
vilhoul any packing or precaulionary
neasures lo prolecl lhe vinding and vas
considered as a vel sanpIe.

W2 - A 12.5 kV asphaIl nica spare vinding
fron SananaIa Hydro pover Slalion (SIS) vilh
an ageing line of 4O years. This vinding vas
found in lhe slores of lhe pover slalion vilh
packing and vas considered as a Dry sanpIe.

W3 - A 12.5 kV, poIyesler nica spare vinding
fron UkuveIa Hydro Iover slalion (UK) vilh
an ageing line of 36 years. This vinding has
leen slored in good condilion and considered
as a dry sanpIe.

W4 - A 13.8 kV epoxy nica used vinding fron
KolnaIe Hydro Iover Slalion vilh an ageing
line of 22 years. The sanpIe vas a haIf seclion
of a vinding renoved fron service in year 2OOO
and considered as a dry sanpIe.

3.2 Tcst 5ctup

Lach vinding sanpIe vas prepared for lesling.
The vindings vere kepl horizonlaI on lop of an
insuIaling sheel on lop of four slooIs. The lvo
conduclors vere connecled logelher as lhe
HV lerninaI. olh parls of lhe ground vaII
insuIalion vere connecled logelher as lhe LV
lerninaI. IreIininary sludies vere conducled
vilh differenl lypes of lerninaI conneclions for
lhe ground vaII insuIalion in order lo represenl
lhe effecl of lhe core in reaI generalors. They
incIuded (i) a cIoseIy vound AI conduclors (1O
lurns of 2.5nn dianeler), (ii) an AI sheel
(O.5nn lhickness) and (iii) vound AI
Ramp dc
Voltage
Dc
ramp
test
Capacitive
H
f
, tanG, H HH H
IR(t)
test
PDC
test
C`, tanG
test
FDS
test
PD
test
Constant
dc
Voltage
Constant
I, ac
Voltage
Resistive
V
polarization
I(t)
Voids
C
Variable
I, ac
Voltage
27
ENGINEER

conduclors on AI sheel). Il vas found lhal lhe

configuralion for lhe LV lerninaI had
negIigilIe effecl on lhe overaII neasurenenls.
Thus configuralion nenlioned as (iii) vas used
for finaI neasurenenls. The lhird eIeclrode, i.e.
lhe guarding lerninaI vas used ly connecling
lhe polenliaI grading insuIalion of lhe vinding.
A schenalic diagran of lhe lesl sel-up for IDS
neasurenenls is shovn in Iigure 1O. The sane
configuralion vas used in olher lesl nelhods
excepl ID.

FIgurc 10 - Tcst sct-up fnr !abnratnry
mcasurcmcnts

3.3 Prnccdurc

Differenl lesl nelhods vere used in lhis sludy.
They vere DC ranp, IR, IDC, IDS and ID
lesls. In DC ranp lesl, lhe voIlage vas
increased fron O lo 15 kV al a rale of 1 kV/nin
and lhe I-V signalure vas noled using DCR5O
AdveI DC ranp lesler. The IR lesl vas
conducled al 5 kV ly using a Megger and lhe
IR vaIues vere conlinuousIy nonilored for
25OO seconds. In IDC lesl, lhe vindings vere
charged for 125Os al 5O V and discharged for
125Os. The corresponding currenls vere
recorded using KeilhIy LIeclroneler 6517A. In
IDS neasurenenl, frequency varialion of
conpIex capacilance and Ioss langenl vere
neasured using IDA 2OO al 2OO V fron 1 kHz lo
O.1 nHz. ID lesl vas done using InsuI Card
parliaI Discharge noniloring equipnenl and
neasurenenl vas done in lhe frequency land
of 1 MHz lo 2O MHz. Noise fiIlralion is done ly
noise suppression aIgorilhn.

Laloralory neasurenenls vere laken on each
vinding sanpIe al roon lenperalure (24qC -
28qC) and al reIalive hunidily IeveIs lelveen
75-9O in lhe foIIoving sequence. The DC
ranp lesl vas iniliaIIy conducled liII 15 kV. The
foIIoving day IR lesl vas conducled al 5 kV for
1OOOs and dala vere recorded in each 6O s. Wilh
adequale reIaxalion, lhe IDS vas conducled.
IDC and ID lesls vere conducled on sone of
lhe sanpIes.
Afler lhe preIininary neasurenenls, lvo
separale lesl sequences vere foIIoved, one
vilh drying process on vel vindings W1 and
W2, lhe olher under velling condilions for
vinding W3.

In lhe drying process, lhe sanpIes vere dried
inside an oven (26OOnn X 17OOnn X 8OOnn)
for nearIy lhree days. SiniIar process vas
adopled for drying ovalenna generalor vhich
vas sulnerged in valer for nore lhan 24
hours in Decenler 1991 |12j. IniliaIIy, lhe oven
lenperalure vas increased fron 29`C lo 65`C al
a rale of 5`C per hour. (Ihase I). Then lhe oven
lenperalure vas increased lo 8O`C al lhe rale of
5`C per hour |4j and kepl for 48 hours (Ihase
II). IinaIIy lhe sanpIe vas aIIoved lo cooI
naluraIIy under cIosed condilion of lhe oven for
furlher 18 hrs (Ihase III). DC ranp lesl and IR
lesls vere conducled al lhe end of each healing
process. The firsl neasurenenls vere laken in
Ihase I al coiI lenperalure of 37qC afler 23hrs.
The finaI neasurenenls vere laken al lhe end
of Ihase III al 29qC and reIalive hunidily of
66, 18 hrs afler shul dovn of lhe oven. Afler
Ihase III, IDS neasurenenls vere aIso laken
for conparison.

W3 coiI vhich vas found le fairIy dry vas
used for noislure injeclion process. Waler
ingress lo lhe generalor chanler of lhe
UkuveIa generalor had happened 2-3 lines in
nid 199Os due lo heavy Ieakages fron lhe
generalor cooIing valer Iines. During lhe
Ialoralory lesling il vas lried lo sinuIale lhe
sane condilion in lhe Ialoralory lo invesligale
lhe noislure ingress lo lhe vinding. The coiI
vas sulnerged up lo lhe IeveI of lhe seni-
conduclive Iayer, vhich is siniIar lo
sulnerging lhe vinding overhangs of lhe end
vinding of lhe generalor slalor vinding.
Tesling of DC ranp and IDS conlinued al
differenl line inlervaIs.

3.4 Rcsu!ts and DIscussInn

3.4.1 Effcct nf DryIng

Iigures 11 and 12 shov lhe DC ranp, and IDS
resuIls during drying process for W1. In aII
cases, renovaI of noislure fron lhe vinding
vas cIearIy indicaled. In DC ranp lesl, lhe
currenl IeveIs al 15kV lecane Iov afler drying
and vere conparalIe vilh dried vindings. The
iniliaI currenl IeveI al 15 kV (i.e. 135 PA)
dropped lo 56 PA afler lhe phase I and il vas
3.5 PA al lhe end of lesl. In lhe IR lesls, lhe
charging currenls dropped significanlIy (order
of 5OO lines al 1OOO s). The neasured IR vaIues
ENGINEER
28

1.00E-11
1.00E-10
1.00E-09
1.00E-08
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Frequency (Hz)
C
a
p
a
c
i
t
a
n
c
e

(
F
)
C' - |W3|Dry C" - |W3|Dry C' - |W3|Wet C" - |W3|Wet
1.0E-10
1.0E-09
1.0E-08
1.0E-07
1.0E-06
1.0E-05
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Frequency (Hz)
C
a
p
a
c
i
t
a
n
c
e

(
F
)
C' beIore drying C"beIore drying
C' AIter drying C'"AIter drying
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0
Voltage (kV)
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
m
i
c
r
o

A
m
p
s
)
Current BeIore Wetting Current AIter 24 Hrs
Current AIter 1 week
al 5 kV al one ninule vere 174 MD, 567 MD
and 8.8 CD respecliveIy. The corresponding II
vaIues vere 1, 1.6 and 4.1 respecliveIy. The
resuIls in lhe frequency donain i.e. lhe IDS
vere aIso cIearIy shoved reduclion of C
(Iosses) i.e. even up lo order of 1O lines) (see
figure 12).
In conparison lo W1, lhe sane procedure vas
adopled for lhe asphaIl dry vinding (W2). No
cIear differences vere olserved eilher in DC
ranp lesl or IDS resuIls confirning lhal lhe W2
vas in lhe dry condilion.
0
30
60
90
120
150
0 3 6 9 12 15
VoItage [kV]
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

[
u
A
]
nitial [measured] nitial [Calculated]
ntermediate [measured] ntermediate [Calculated]
Final [Measured] Final [Calculated]

Figure 11 - DC ramp test results of W1 during
drying process
FIgurc 12 - FD5 tcst rcsu!ts nf W1 durIng
dryIng prnccss

3.4.2 Effcct nf wcttIng

Iigure 13 shovs lhe conparison of DC ranp
lesl resuIls for vinding 3 al differenl inlervaIs.
Iigure 14 shovs lhe IDS resuIls afler one veek
of noislure ingress. According lo DC ranp lesl
resuIls, lhe LC IeveIs under ranped DC voIlage
increased during velling. In conparison, a
significanl change in Ioss characlerislics couId
le seen in IDS resuIls. Afler velling lhe Ioss
peak shifled and indicaled around 4 Hz.
Hovever, lhe peak IeveI is Iess significanl.
SiniIarIy, lhe change in capacilance vas Iess
significanl. ased on lhese facls, il is cIear lhal
poIyesler nica insuIalion need nore line lo
lecone vel.

Figure 13 - DC ramp results for W3 during
wetting







FIgurc 14 - FD5 rcsu!ts fnr W3 durIng wcttIng
&RPSDULVRQRIWHVWPHWKRGV
Iigure 15 shovs lhe DC ranp lesl resuIls for aII
four vindings al lhe iniliaI slage. The nodeIIed
curves are aIso incIuded for lhe conparison.
Iigure 16 shovs IDS resuIls of each vinding.

0
30
60
90
120
150
0 3 6 9 12 15
VoItage [kV]
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

[
u
A
]

f
o
r

W
1
0
1
2
3
4
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

[
u
A
]

f
o
r

W
2
,

W
3

a
n
d

W
4
W1 [measured] W1 [Calculated]
W2 [measured] W2 [Calculated]
W3 [measured] W3 [Calculated]
W4 [measured] W4 [Calculated]

FIgurc 15 - DC ramp rcsu!ts nf wIndIngs

In generaI, lhe lesls vere conducled in siniIar
IeveIs of roon lenperalures, i.e. 27-28qC, so
lhal resuIls can le conpared vilhoul
considering lhe effecl of lenperalure on
dieIeclric naleriaIs.

29
ENGINEER

1.0E-11
1.0E-10
1.0E-09
1.0E-08
1.0E-07
1.0E-06
1.0E-05
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Frequency(Hz)
C
a
p
a
c
i
t
a
n
c
e

(
F
)
C' - |W1| C" - |W1|
C' - |W2| C" - |W2|
C' - |W3| C" - |W3|
C' - |W4| C" - |W4|

FIgurc 16 - FD5 rcsu!ts fnr wIndIngs

y conparing differenl lypes of insuIalions
(asphaIl, poIyesler, epoxy), il is considered,
epoxy is superior |8j and asphaIl nica
insuIalion is nore prone lo noislure ingress.
The resuIls aIso prove lhis for asphaIl vindings
(W1 and W2) ly ollaining higher Ieakage in
DC ranp lesl and high Iosses in IDS lesl,

The conparison of capacilance al infinily
provides usefuI infornalion aloul lhe
dinensions of lhe insuIalion as veII as reIalive
pernillivily. The capacilance vaIues caIcuIaled
ly filling lhe DC ranp lesl resuIls vere in
siniIar range vilh lhe neasured C in IDS lesl.

4. FIc!d InvcstIgatInn

The periodic DC ranp lesls are conducled on
generalors during lheir annuaI nainlenance
period. In lhis vork, sone generalors vilh
differenl lypes of insuIalion (asphaIl, poIyesler
and epoxy) vere seIecled and delaiIs are given
in TalIe 1. Sone exlracled cases are iIIuslraled
leIov.

Tab!c 1- DctaI!s nf thc tcstcd gcncratnr
wIndIngs
Slalion S
|MWj
V
|kVj
InsuIalion Year
WIS 25 11 AsphaIl 1957
SananaIa 37.5 12.5 AsphaIl 1969
Nev
Laxapana
5O 12.5 IoIyesler 1972
UkuveIa 2O 12.5 IoIyesler 1973
ovalhenna 4O 11 IoIyesler 198O
KeIanilissa 2O 11 Lpoxy 1982
RandenigaIa 6O 12.5 Lpoxy 1985
KolnaIe 67 13.8 Lpoxy 1986





4.1 Kc!anItIssa turbn gcncratnr (MnIsturc
absnrptInn)

Lffecl of cIeaning and drying vas sludied in
one of lhe lurlo generalors of 2OMW capacily
al KeIanilissa Cas lurline pover slalion and
resuIls are shovn in Iig 17. In 2OO9, lhis
generalor lripped vilh earlh fauIl indicalion.
Al lhe line of lripping il vas raining heaviIy.
(CooIing syslen of lhe generalor is an open
syslen using oul side air. Oul side air vas
laken lhrough a fiIler and afler cooIing of lhe
generalor lhe air vas reIeased lo lhe
alnosphere).

InsuIalion resislance neasurenenl vas nol
possilIe since lhe IR al 5OOV DC indicale Zero.
DC ranp lesl vas done on May 11, 2OO9.
Sudden up lurn of lhe Ieakage currenl vas
olserved during lhe firsl neasurenenl jusl
afler lhe generalor lripped due lo earlh fauIl.
The lesl vas inlerrupled al O.97 kV. (resuIls is
indicaled as 11-O5-2OO9.

Ceneralor slalor vinding vas cIeaned afler
renoving rolor (duralion of cIeaning vas eighl
days) and lhe generalor vas lesled again using
DC ranp lesl on May 18, 2OO9. Lven afler
cIeaning lhe vinding for eighl days, non Iinear
pallern vas shovn in lhe DC ranp lesl resuIls
as indicaled as 18-O5-2OO9 confirning
consideralIe noislure alsorplion in lhe
vinding. Drying of lhe vinding conlinued
unliI lhe Ieakage currenl curves aInosl
overIapped. IinaI Ieakage currenl al vinding
lenperalure of 38 `C vas 21.8 A al 14.81 kV.
The corresponding insuIalion resislance (IR
one ninule) reading vas 679 M. DC ranp
lesl resuIls during lhe drying of lhe vinding
on }une O3, 2OO9 and }une 17, 2OO9 are aIso
incIuded in lhe figure.
FIgurc 17 - DC Ramp Tcst rcsu!ts nf GT4 'R'
Phasc


0
30
60
90
120
150
180
210
0 3 6 9 12 15
VoItage [kV]
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

[
u
A
]
AIter a Iault on 11-05-2009
AIter cleaning on 18-05-2009
During drying on 03-06-2009
AIter drying on 17-06-2009
ENGINEER
30

4.2 Kntma!c Gcncratnr (Changc nf
cxcItatInn)

KolnaIe UO1 generalor had leen operaled vilh
slalic excilalion syslen for nore lhan 15 years.
During lhis period lhe generalor vindings
vere required lo le cIeaned reguIarIy due lo
lhe deposilion of carlon dusl. Lxcilalion vas
changed lo lrushIess in 2OO8 and Iigure 18
shovs lhe DC ranp lesl resuIls during 2OO7
and 2OO9. The resuIls indicale a significanl
change currenl (nainIy lhe capacilive
conponenl) due lo inprovenenl of dryness of
lhe generalor vindings.

0
3
6
9
12
15
0 3 6 9 12 15
VoItage [kV]
C
u
u
r
e
n
t

[
u
A
]
R-2009 Y-2009 B-2009 R-2007
Y-2007 B-2007


FIgurc 18 - DC ramp tcst rcsu!ts nf Kntma!c
UnIt 01 Gcncratnr durIng 2007 and 2009 nn
RYB phascs.

4.3 WIma!asurandra gcncratnr

Iigure 19 shovs lhe DC ranp lesl resuIls for
WinaIsurendra generalor during 2OO8 (51
years) and 2O1O (53 years). Il is inleresling lo
nole lhal asphaIl nica insuIalion aged for nore
lhan 5O years shoved conparaliveIy good
currenl IeveIs in lhe DC ranp lesl. The
Ialoralory lesled vinding (W1) vhich vas
dried aloul lhree days is aIso shovn in lhe
figure for conparison. In WIS generalor, 14
vindings are connecled in series and lhree such
paraIIeI unils are connecled lo one phase. So, I-
V curve for singIe vinding vas nodified lo
represenl lhe generalor (42 lines of lhe
currenl). According lo lhe figure, lhe eslinaled
currenl IeveI for lhe dried vinding vas higher
lhan lhe neasured currenl of lhe generalor
confirning lhal noislure alsorplion vas nol
fuIIy evaporaled and sliII need Ionger period in
lhe drying process. Al lhe sane line, lhe
capacilive currenl conponenls (vinding and
lhe generalor) seen lo le in lhe sane order.


When conparing lhe lesl resuIls during 2OO8
and 2O1O, no significanl change olserved.
Iurlher periodic lesling and invesligalion of lhe
lrend viII provide lhe ageing effecl of lhe
vinding.

0
30
60
90
120
150
0 3 6 9 12 15
VoItage [kV]
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

[
u
A
]
Generator - 2010
Generator - 2008
Winding - dried

FIgurc 19 - DC ramp tcst rcsu!ts nf
WIma!asurcndra gcncratnr

5. 5ummcry and Cnnc!usInns

Moislure alsorplion in slalor vinding is one of
lhe nain reasons for generalor faiIures. When
noislure is presenl, lhe resislance of lhe slalor
insuIalion drops, aIlernaliveIy, Ieakage currenl
aclivily increases. AccordingIy, Ieakage currenl
lhrough lhe insuIalion lecones high in DC
ranp and poIarizalion/depoIarizalion (IDC)
lesls. SiniIarIy, Ioss langenl increases in
frequency dieIeclric speclroscopy (IDS) lesl
vhereas parliaI discharge (ID) lesl shovs
increase ID IeveI. Thus in lhis sludy, allenlion
vas paid lo lesl differenl generalor vindings
under differenl noislure condilions and lo
invesligale lheir perfornances vilh differenl
lesl nelhods i.e. DC ranp, IDC, IR, IDS and
ID lesls.

The Ieakage currenl lhrough lhe insuIalion is
characlerized ly ils capacilive, resislive and
poIarizalion conponenls. AccordingIy, reIalive
pernillivily (H
f
), conduclivily (V) and lhe
response funclion (f(l)) or lanG (conline V and
f(l)) are lhe key paranelers descriling lhe slale
of lhe insuIalion. The IDC lesl provides direcl
correIalion lo V and f(l), vhereas lanG and H
f

can le easiIy found fron IDS lesl. Hovever,
vhen lhe I-V signalure of DC ranp lesl is
properIy nodeIIed and filled vilh lhe differenl
currenl conponenls, lhe key paranelers such
as H
f
, V, and f(l) can le nunericaIIy evaIualed.
Thus one couId use DC ranp lesl as a sinpIe
and effeclive fieId lesl lo evaIuale lhe condilion
of generalor insuIalion. Il is suggesled lhal
periodic lesling lhe DC ranp during lhe annuaI
31
ENGINEER

nainlenance period viII provide a record of lhe

slale of lhe insuIalion and carefuI olservalion
of lhe varialion of lhe alove paranelers nay
provide a cIear piclure aloul fulure usage. In
lhis paper, lhe aulhors eIalorale lhe usage of
DC ranp lesl in condilion assessnenl ly an
exlensive Ialoralory invesligalion on generalor
vinding sanpIes and severaI case sludies in lhe
fieId.

5HIHUHQFHV

1. Slone, C. C., ouIler, L. A., CuIlerl, I., & Dhirani,
H., ||cc|rica| |nsu|a|icn fcr Rc|a|ing Macnincs-
Dcsign, |ta|ua|icn, Agcing, Tcs|ing an rcpair, ILLL
Iress, ISN O-471-445O6-1, 2OO4

2. ILLL Sld 95-2OO2, |||| Rcccmmcnc Prac|icc fcr
Tcs|ing |nsu|a|icn Tcs|ing cf AC ||cc|ric Macnincrq
(2300V an A|ctc) ui|n Hign Dircc| Vc||agc, 2OO2.

3. Rux, L., & Dernid, . Mc., Assessing lhe
Condilion of Hydro-Ceneralor Slalor InsuIalion
Using lhe Ranped High Direcl-VoIlage Tesl
Melhod, |||| ||cc|rica| |nsu|a|icn Magazinc, VoI.
17, No.6, 2OO1, pp. 27-33.

4. ILLL Sld 43-2OOO, |||| Rcccmmcnc Prac|icc fcr
Tcs|ing |nsu|a|icn Rcsis|ancc cf Rc|a|ing Macnincrq,
2OOO.

5. Iarahani, M., orsi, H., & Cockenlach, L.,
DieIeclric Response Sludies on InsuIaling
Syslen of High VoIlage Rolaling Machines,
|||| Trans. cn Dic|cc|rics an ||cc|rica| |nsu|a|icn,
VoI. 13, No.1, Iel. 2OO6.

6. Lnery, L.T., IarliaI Discharge, Dissipalion
Iaclor, and Corona Aspecls for High VoIlage
LIeclricaI Ceneralor Slalor ars and Windings,
|||| Trans. cn Dic|cc|rics an ||cc|rica| |nsu|a|icn,
VoI. 12. No. 2, ApriI 2OO5, pp. 347-361.

7. KaufhoId, M., Schafer, K., auer, K., elhge, A., &
Risse, }., Inlerface Ihenonena in Slalor Winding
InsuIalion - ChaIIengers in Design, Diagnoslics
and Service Lxperience, |||| ||cc|rica| |nsu|a|icn
Magazinc, VoI. 18. No. 2, March/ApriI 2OO2, pp.
27-36.

8. ouIler, L.A., & Slone, C.C., HisloricaI
DeveIopnenl of Rolor and Slalor Winding
InsuIalion MaleriaIs and Syslens, |||| ||cc|rica|
|nsu|a|icn Magazinc, VoI. 2O, No. 3, May/}une
2OO4, pp. 25-39.

9 }onscher, A. K., Dic|cc|ric Rc|axa|icn in Sc|is,
CheIsea DieIeclrics Iress, London UK, ISN O-
95O8711-O-9, 1983.



1O. David, L., Codin, T., eIIenare }., & Lanarre, L.,
ModeIIing of lhe DieIeclric Response of a Slalor
Winding InsuIalion fron a DC Ranp Tesl, ||||
Trans. cn Dic|cc|rics an ||cc|rica| |nsu|a|icn, VoI.
14, No. 6, Dec. 2OO7, pp. 1548-1558.

11. }ayanlha, C.A., Iernando, M.A.R.M., &
Lkanayake, C.M.., LvaIualion of lhe Condilion
of Cround WaII InsuIalion of Ceneralor Slalor
Winding Using DC Ranp Tesl - Lxperience on
CL Hydro Ceneralors, Trans. cf |nc |ns|i|u|icn cf
|nginccrs (SL), 2OO9.

12. CL Reporl on ovalenna Iover Slalion
RehaliIilalion Irojecl, Repairing &
Connissioning of Ceneralor, VoIune 3.

$FNQRZOHGJHPHQW

The aulhors vouId Iike lo express lheir deep
gralilude lo CL and Universily of Ieradeniya
lo conducl lhe lesls and providing vinding
sanpIes.

33
ENGINEER
ENGINEER - Vol. XXXXIV, No. 02, pp. [33-42], 2011
The Institution of Engineers, Sri Lanka

Asscssmcnt nf Ncarshnrc Wavc C!Imatc nff thc
5nuthcrn Cnast nf 5rI Lanka

P.P. Gunaratna, D.P.L. RanasInghc and T.A.N. 5ugandIka

Abstract: NunericaI nodeIIing of vave propagalion vas carried oul lo assess lhe varialiIily of
nearshore vave cIinale off lhe soulhern coasl of Sri Lanka. The nodeIIing vas lased on lhe
appIicalion of MIKL 21 SW (IM) nodeI in a donain covering lhe enlire soulhern coasl and parl of lhe
soulh-easlern coasl of Sri Lanka, vilh lhe offshore loundary Iocaled in lhe deep sea. ased on nodeI
resuIls, a vave lransfornalion nalrix approach vas used lo lransforn lhe avaiIalIe vave dala fron
lhree pasl vave recording Iocalions, lo desired Iocalions. SveII and sea vave syslens vere
considered separaleIy vilh appropriale vind fieIds inlroduced lo nodeI sea vave propagalion. The
sludy resuIled in lhe eslalIishnenl of nearshore vave slalislics on a seasonaI lasis for coaslaI seclors
aIong lhe nodeI donain. These vave slalislics are usefuI in ollaining necessary design paranelers for
any pIanned coaslaI and narine slruclures vilhin lhese coaslaI seclors lhrough lhe appIicalion of IocaI
area nodeIs.

Kcywnrds: Waves, Sea, SveII, Nearshore


1. IntrnductInn

The econonicaI and safe design of coaslaI and
harlour slruclures require a reaIislic
assessnenl of vave condilions lhey viII le
suljecled lo during lheir Iife line. The
slruclures need lo le designed lo vilhsland
exlrene vave condilions lhal lhey viII le
exposed lo during lheir Iifeline. Waves and
vave induced currenls are lhe prinary sea
nolions causing lransporl of sedinenl in lhe
nearshore areas. The associaled leach profiIe
and coaslIine changes resuIl in erosion and or
accrelion aIong coaslIines. In order lo predicl
such changes, knovIedge of year round
varialiIily of nearshore vave cIinale is
required. The evaIualion of effecliveness of any
coaslaI slaliIizalion schene designed lo conlroI
coaslaI erosion aIso requires a proper
assessnenl of vave cIinale.

The infornalion on seasonaI or annuaI vave
cIinale and exlrene vave occurrences can le
ollained in lhis Iong lern vilh an inslrunenl
engaged for vave recordings in lhe sea.
Hovever, il is nol feasilIe lo underlake vave
recordings al aII Iocalions vhere such dala are
required. Inslead, lhe nosl prudenl approach
is lo conducl vave recordings al seIecled fev
Iocalions and lransforn lhese vave dala lo any
olher desired Iocalion. This oljeclive can le
achieved ly nunericaI vave propagalion
nodeIIing, considering varialion of sea led
lalhynelry.



In lhis paper, a research sludy carried oul lo
eslalIish nearshore vave cIinale aIong lhe
soulhern coasl of Sri Lanka using nunericaI
vave propagalion nodeIIing is presenled. The
approach adopled nakes oplinaI use of vave
recordings avaiIalIe fron fev Iocalions. The
sludy area of inleresl is divided inlo segnenls
vhere nearshore vave cIinale on an annuaI
and seasonaI lasis is ollained for aII segnenls.
The exlrene vave occurrences are aIso
delernined ly exlrapoIalion of vave slalislics.
The oulcone of lhis sludy consliluled a usefuI
vave dalalase for coaslaI engineering sludies
for fulure inpIenenlalion of deveIopnenls in
lhe coaslaI zone aIong lhe soulhern coasl of Sri
Lanka.

2. Wavc CnndItInns nff thc
5nuthcrn Cnast

The vave cIinale off lhe soulhern coasl of Sri
Lanka is characlerized ly lhe year round
Eng. (Dr.) P.P.Gunaratna, 8.Sc. |ng. (Mcra|uua),
C. |ng., M||(Sri |an|a), M.|ng. (A|T), Pn.D. (C|ar|scn),
Marinc Prcjcc|s Spccia|is|, Ccas|a| Zcnc c Ia|cruaqs
Managcmcn| Scc|icn, Du|ai Municipa|i|q, Du|ai, UA|.
Eng. D.P.L. Ranaslnghe, 8.Sc. |ng. (Rununa), AM||(Sri
|an|a), M.Sc. (Mcra|uua), Pn.D Cania|c, Graua|c
Scncc| cf |nginccring, Tcnc|u Unitcrsi|q, ]apan.
Eng. Mlss T.A.N. Sugandlka, 8.Sc. |ng. (Rununa),
AM||(Sri |an|a), |nginccring Managcr, |an|a Hqrau|ic
|ns|i|u|c, Ka|u|ca, Mcra|uua.
.
ENGINEER
34

occurrence of Iong period sveII vaves and IocaI
vind generaled shorl period sea vaves, nainIy
of nonsoonaI origin. The sveII vaves are lhose
vaves generaled in lhe soulhern Indian Ocean
and have propagaled oul of lhe generalion
felches. These vaves approach fron a nore or
Iess soulherIy direclion in deep valer. The
nosl vioIenl and significanl sea vaves are
IocaIIy generaled due lo soulh vesl nonsoonaI
vinds. These vaves are sliII leing generaled
ly vind fieIds vhen approaching nearshore
coaslaI valers. AIlhough soulhern coasl is nol
direclIy infIuenced ly norlh easl nonsoonaI
vealher, lhe vaves generaled ly lhose vind
fieIds affecl lhe soulh easlern parl of lhe
soulhern coasl al a reduced slrenglh. These
vaves in parlicuIar effecl lhe safe navigalion
and anchorage of fishing crafls.

The seasonaI varialiIily of lhe vave cIinale off
lhe soulhern coasl causes spaliaI and lenporaI
changes in sedinenl lransporl and coaslIines.
The nosl vioIenl sea condilions are olserved
during lhe soulh vesl nonsoon season during
vhich lolh sea and sveII vaves occur al
naxinun slrenglh. In lhe soulh easlern parl
vhich is affecled ly lolh nonsoonaI sea vaves,
severe sedinenlalion prolIens are possilIe
vilh Kirinda fishery harlour leing a cIassicaI
exanpIe.


3. Instrumcnt Wavc RccnrdIngs

Inslrunenl vave recordings have leen
conducled off lhe soulhern coasl of Sri Lanka
since 1984 over inlernillenl periods (Iigure 1).
These vave neasurenenls nay le lroadIy
cIassified inlo non-direclionaI recordings (lhose
in vhich onIy vave heighl and vave period
paranelers are neasured) and direclionaI
recordings (in vhich vave direclion is aIso
neasured). TalIe 1 (LHI, |2j) sunnarizes lhe
avaiIalIe vave dala fron inslrunenl vave
recordings in Soulhern Sri Lanka.

The nosl conprehensive vave dala lase
avaiIalIe for lhe soulhern coasl is lhal due lo
lhe direclionaI vave recordings conducled
around 7On valer deplh, aloul 8 kn offshore
in CaIIe, under lhe CCD/CTZ direclionaI vave
cIinale sludy (Scheffer, el. aI., |3j). Under lhis
vave recording progranne, using a pilch and
roII lype vave profiIing luoy, vaves vere
neasured over a lolaI duralion of around 5
years during lhe period 1989-95. The recorded
rav dala had leen suljecled lo speclraI anaIysis
and lased on a cul-off frequency, lhe sveII and
sea vave syslens vere separaled and slalislicaI
heighl, period and direclion paranelers vere
ollained, for lolh vave syslens as veII as for
lhe overaII (conlined sea and sveII) vaves.

Nn. LncatInn/Dcpt
h
Frnm Tn Instrumcnt Data Typc
1. CaIIe(23n) Sep 1984
Sep 1988
Aug 1986
Aug 1995
Wave Rider uoy Non-
DireclionaI
2. CaIIe (7On) Iel 1989
May 1994
Sep 1992
Sep 1995
WAVLC Iilch and RoII
uoy
DireclionaI
3. CaIIe (23n) }un 199O }uI 199O Marsch Mcirney LCM DireclionaI
4. CaIIe (17n) }an 1999 Mar 1999 Inler Ocean S4DW LCM DireclionaI
5. KudaveIIa
(15n)
}an 1996 Iel 1997 Inler Ocean S4DW LCM DireclionaI
6. TangaIIe (16n) May 1986 Sep 1986 Wave Rider uoy Non-
DireclionaI
7. Kirinda (2On) May 1988 Mar 1989 Wave Rider uoy Marsch
Mcirney LCM
DireclionaI
8. Kirinda (2On) Mar 1993 Aug 1994 Wave Rider uoy Marsch
Mcirney LCM
DireclionaI
9. Hanlanlola
(17n)
Dec 2OO2 Mar 2OO3 Inler Ocean S4DW LCM DireclionaI
1O. Hanlanlola
(17n)
Apr 2OO6 }une 2OO9 Inler Ocean S4DW LCM DireclionaI
Tab!c 1 - Thc 5ummary nf AvaI!ab!c Wavc Data In 5nuthcrn 5rI Lanka (LHI, [2])
35
ENGINEER




















FIgurc 1 - LncatInns nf AvaI!ab!c Wavc Data In
5nuthcrn 5rI Lanka

4. 5tudy Mcthndn!ngy

The sludy nelhodoIogy is lased on lhe
appIicalion of MIKL 21 SW (IM) nodeI lo
sinuIale vave propagalion off lhe soulhern
coasl and using a vave lransfornalion nalrix
approach lo lransforn vave recordings lased
on nodeI resuIls. The sludy area vas divided
inlo segnenls lounded ly proninenl
headIands for lhe purpose of delernining
nearshore vave cIinale (Iigure 2).


























The coaslaI segnenls used in lhe CCD-CTZ
direclionaI vave cIinale sludy (W1, W2, W3
elc.) vere relained as lhey are and addilionaI
segnenls covering soulhern and parl of soulh
easlern coasls (N1, N2, N3 elc.) vere
inlroduced. Ior each coaslaI segnenl, a
represenlalive nearshore vave cIinale vas
eslalIished al 15 n valer deplh.

MIKL 21 is a lvo dinensionaI nodeIIing
syslen nainIy used in coaslaI engineering
appIicalions, deveIoped al Danish HydrauIic
Inslilule, Dennark. Il consisls of
conpulalionaI noduIes for hydrodynanics,
vave propagalion, sedinenl lransporl,
norphoIogy, adveclion-dispersion processes
elc. MIKL 21 SW (IM) is a speclraI vave
noduIe vilhin MIKL 21 capalIe of sinuIaling
grovlh, decay and lransfornalion of vind
generaled vaves and sveIIs in offshore and
coaslaI areas. Il is lased on an unslruclured
nesh discrelizalion of lhe nodeI donain. The
vave phenonena accounled for ly lhis noduIe
incIude shoaIing, refraclion, diffraclion, lollon
friclion, vave lreaking, vave grovlh ly lhe
aclion of vind and vave-currenl inleraclion.
The conservalion equalion of vave aclion is
soIved ly a ceII cenlered finile voIune schene
in lhe nodeI donain vhich nay le discrelized
inlo lrianguIar or quadranguIar eIenenls. The
line inlegralion is perforned using a fraclionaI
slep approach vhere a nuIli sequence expIicil
nelhod is appIied for lhe propagalion of vave
aclion.























FIgurc 2 - Cnasta! 5cgmcnts CnnsIdcrcd fnr DctcrmInIng Ncarshnrc Wavc C!Imatc
ENGINEER
36


5. RcgInna! Wavc Mndc!

The RegionaI Wave ModeI for vave
propagalion sinuIalions vas eslalIished ly
digilizing fron lhe AdniraIly Charls (3265,
1583 and 813). The exlenl of lhe nodeI covered
lhe enlire soulhern coasl and parl of lhe soulh
easlern coasl as veII. The offshore loundary of
lhe nodeI vas exlended lo deep valer in excess
of 1OOO n. The nodeI lalhynelry is depicled
in Iigure 3. A lvo IeveI nesh resoIulion vas
used vilh a reIaliveIy fine resoIulion adopled
in shaIIov nearshore areas.

6. Wavc TransfnrmatInn MatrIccs

Wave propagalion nodeIIing vas carried oul lo
lransforn vave recordings fron 3 Iocalions
(CaIIe, Hanlanlola and KudaveIIa) lo
represenl Iocalions al 15 n deplh in lhe seIecled
coaslaI segnenls. Since lhe recording Iocalions
are scallered al differenl valer deplhs, in lhe
procedure adopled, aII vave recordings vere
lransforned lo lhe offshore loundary of lhe
nodeI and lhereafler lransforned lack lo lhe
desired deslinalion Iocalions. Since
lransforning severaI lhousands of individuaI
vave recordings is a cunlersone process, a
lransfornalion nalrix approach funclioning on
lransfornalion of seIecled sel of vave
condilions al lhe offshore loundary vas
adopled. A sel of vave condilions conprising
conlinalions of foIIoving vave paranelers
vere specified al lhe offshore loundary.

5ca Wavcs
Significanl Wave Heighls: O.75n, 2.25n, 3.75n,
5.25n
Ieak Wave Ieriods: 2s, 3s, ....., 1Os
Mean Wave Direclions: 6O, 7O,...., 3OO

5wc!! Wavcs
Significanl Wave Heighls: O.75n, 2.25n, 3.75n,
5.25n
Ieak Wave Ieriods: 6s, 7s, ....., 2Os
Mean Wave Direclions: 12O, 13O, ..., 24O

In lhe case of sea vaves, lhey are sliII leing
generaled ly lhe IocaI vind fieIds. Dala on
IocaI vind fieIds over open sea generaling
vaves are nol avaiIalIe. In lhe alsence of such
dala, in lhe sinuIalion of sea vaves, a vind
speed correIaled vilh lhe offshore significanl
vave heighl vas appIied over lhe nodeI
donain lased on eauforl scaIe descriplion of
narine vealher |4j as given in TalIe 2.

























The vind direclion vas assuned lo le in lhe
sane direclion as lhe offshore vave direclion
over lhe enlire nodeI donain.

Tab!c 2 - Assumcd WInd 5pccds fnr Offshnrc
5IgnIfIcant Wavc HcIghts

Offshnrc 5IgnIfIcant
Wavc HcIght (m)
WInd 5pccd (m/s)
O.75 4.5
2.25 1O.1
3.75 13.4
5.25 16.1

The specified significanl vave heighls of O.75
n, 2.25 n, 3.75 n and 5.25 n vere assuned lo
represenl offshore significanl vave heighl
ranges O - 1.5 n, 1.5 - 3.O n, 3.O - 4.5 n and 4.5
- 6.O n, respecliveIy. The sinuIalion resuIls for
lhe alove specified vave condilions vere
exlracled al source vave dala recording
Iocalions al CaIIe, KudaveIIa and Hanlanlola
as veII in aII deslinalion Iocalions represenling
seIecled coaslaI segnenls. These resuIls vere
lhen organized inlo 3 nalrices al each Iocalion.
The rovs of lhese nalrices correspond lo
offshore vave periods vhiIe lhe coIunns
correspond lo offshore vave direclions. The
eIenenls in lhe 3 nalrices consisled of vave
heighl ralios (vave heighl al exlracled
Iocalion/offshore vave heighl), vave periods
al exlracled Iocalions and vave direclions al
exlracled Iocalions.
FIgurc 3 - RcgInna! Wavc Mndc! Bathymctry

37
ENGINEER


Having eslalIished lhe vave lransfornalion
nalrices, individuaI vave recordings vere
lransforned lo desired Iocalions ly
inlerpoIaling fron lhe lransfornalion nalrices.
This vas a lvo-vay process, in vhich firslIy
vave recordings vere lransforned lo offshore
loundary and lhen lransforned lack lo lhe
desired deslinalion Iocalion. In lhe case of sea
vaves, vave period aIso changes due lo energy
lransfer fron vind. As such, direcl
inlerpoIalion fron vave lransfornalion
nalrices is nol possilIe vhen lransforning
source vave paranelers lo lhe offshore
loundary. This lask had lo le acconpIished
ileraliveIy slarling vilh lhe iniliaI assunplion
lhal offshore vave period is sane as lhal
recorded al lhe source vave dala Iocalion. Due
lo non-convergence of ileralions or due lo vave
paranelers Iying oulside lhe range of
lransfornalion nalrices, il is nol possilIe lo
lransforn aII vave recordings fron a source
vave dala Iocalion lo a deslinalion Iocalion.

&RPSDULVRQ RI 7UDQVIRUPHG
DQG5HFRUGHG:DYH'DWD

DireclionaI vave recordings al CaIIe had leen
conducled in deep valer and can le considered
as represenlalive for a Iarge coaslaI slrelch.
Therefore vave dala lransforned fron CaIIe lo
any nearshore Iocalion on lhe soulhern coasl
can le considered lo represenl lhe vave cIinale
al lhal Iocalion. Hovever, vave recordings
fron lhe lvo nearshore Iocalions al KudaveIIa
and Hanlanlola need lo le verified prior lo
lransforning lhen lo olher Iocalions. This
verificalion process vas carried oul ly
lransforning CaIIe vave dala lo KudaveIIa
and Hanlanlola. The lransfornalion vas
carried oul on a 4 season lasis, separaleIy for
sea and sveII vave syslens. The 4 seasons of
lhe year considered vere:

Soulh Wesl Monsoon season (SW) - (May lo
Seplenler)
Inler nonsoon 1 Season (IM1) - (Ocloler lo
Novenler)
Norlh Lasl Monsoon Season (NL) - (Decenler
lo Ielruary)
Inler nonsoon 2 Season (IM2) - (March lo
ApriI)







The lransforned vave dala fron CaIIe vere
lhen conpared vilh acluaI vave recordings al
lhese Iocalions for lhe corresponding seasons.
Since lhere vas no overIap lelveen any of
lhese vave recordings, conparison vas nade
on a slalislicaI lasis. Since CaIIe vave
recordings are of a Ionger duralion, il is IikeIy
lhal dala lransforned fron CaIIe lo KudaveIIa
or Hanlanlola viII conlain higher vaves lhan
lhose recorded al lhese lvo Iocalions.
Therefore, in lhe slalislicaI conparison onIy lhe
direclionaI dislrilulions of vaves vere
considered ly conparing vave anpIiludes.

The conparison of direclionaI vave anpIiludes
indicaled nisnalches of vave anpIiludes for
sea vaves al KudaveIIa and Hanlanlola for
lhe SW nonsoon season (Iigures 4 and 5). A
siniIar nisnalch vas aIso found al
Hanlanlola for IM1 season.

Therefore, sea vaves lransforned fron CaIIe lo
lolh Hanlanlola and KudaveIIa shoved
nisnalch in direclion dislrilulion vilh
recorded vaves for SW nonsoon sea vaves.
This is indicaled in figures 4 and 5.
AddilionaIIy for sea vaves in IM1 season aIso
siniIar nisnalch vas found onIy al
Hanlanlola. This is nol indicaled in a figure in
order lo Iinil lhe nunler of figures. Inslead a
case vhere direclionaI dislrilulions nalched
vilh each olher for sveII vaves SW nonsoon al
KudaveIIa is indicaled in Iigure 6. Aparl fron
vave dala fron KudaveIIa and Hanlanlola
vilh lhis direclionaI nisnalch, aII olher vave
dala vere lransforned lo aII deslinalion
Iocalions and conlined on a seasonaI lasis for
lhe lvo vave syslens.



















ENGINEER
38

(a) Transfnrmcd frnm Ga!!c Offshnrc (b) Rccnrdcd at Kudawc!!a

FIgurc 4 - Wavc Rnscs fnr Kudawc!!a at 15 m Watcr Dcpth fnr 5W Mnnsnnn 5ca Wavcs
(a) Transfnrmcd frnm Ga!!c Offshnrc (b) Rccnrdcd at Hambantnta
FIgurc 5 - Wavc Rnscs fnr Hambantnta at 17 m Watcr Dcpth fnr 5W Mnnsnnn 5ca Wavcs
(a) Transfnrmcd frnm Ga!!c Offshnrc (b) Rccnrdcd at Kudawc!!a
FIgurc 6 - Wavc Rnscs fnr Kudawc!!a at 15 m Watcr Dcpth fnr 5W Mnnsnnn 5wc!! Wavcs
39
ENGINEER

8. Ncarshnrc DIrcctInna! Wavc
5tatIstIcs

Aparl fron vave dala fron KudaveIIa and
Hanlanlola for lhe seasons vhich nisnalched
vilh lransforned vave dala fron CaIIe
offshore, aII olher vave dala recordings vere
lransforned lo represenlalive Iocalions al 15 n
valer deplh in seIecled coaslaI segnenls. The
lransforned vave dala fron differenl sources
vere conlined and lased on vave dala line
series ollained, direclionaI vave slalislics vere
ollained on a seasonaI lasis.

A rough eslinale of reIalive slrenglhs of sea
and sveII vave syslens in any coaslaI segnenl
can le ollained ly consideralion of lvo
veighling faclors. The firsl of lhese veighling
faclors is lased on lhe conparison of square of
lhe heighls of average significanl vave heighls
(+P) for sea and sveII vave syslens since
vave energy is proporlionaI lo lhe square of lhe
vave heighl. AccordingIy:

































** Ave - Average Significanl Wave Heighl
ReIalive Weighl 1 (sea vaves) =

VZHOO PR VHD PR
VHD PR
+ +
+
, ,
,

.............(1)

ReIalive Weighl 1 (sveII vaves) =

VZHOO PR VHD PR
VZHOO PR
+ +
+
, ,
,

....................(2)

The second reIalive veighl is appIied on a
seasonaI lasis lased on lhe fraclion of nunler
of days of lhe year conlained in a parlicuIar
season. OveraII veighling faclors on a seasonaI
lasis vere ollained ly nuIlipIicalion of lhe
lvo veighling faclors. The sunnalion of lhese
seasonaI veighling faclors resuIls in overaII
annuaI veighling faclors for lhe lvo vave
syslens. The resuIls are given leIov for lhe
coaslaI seclors W9, W1 and N7 in TalIes 3 lo 5.
















Tab!c 3 - Rc!atIvc 5trcngths at 5ca and 5wc!! Wavcs In Cnasta! 5cgmcnt W9


Tab!c 4 - Rc!atIvc 5trcngths at 5ca and 5wc!! Wavcs In Cnasta! 5cgmcnt W1


Tab!c 5 - Rc!atIvc 5trcngths at 5ca and 5wc!! Wavcs In Cnasta! 5cgmcnt N7


ENGINEER
40

These coaslaI seclors vere seIecled lo
denonslrale cIearIy lhe spaliaI varialion of
vave heighls, as W9 and N7 are Iocaled al
exlrene ends of soulhern coasl and W1 al lhe
cenlre of lhe soulhern coasl.

The resuIls exlracled fron lhe alove anaIysis
given in TalIes 3 lo 5 indicale lhal sveII vaves
are sonevhal slronger conpared lo sea vaves
in lerns of conlrilulion lo lhe annuaI vave
energy, aIlhough consideralIy high sea vaves
do occur during soulh vesl nonsoon season.
Moving lovards lhe soulh easlern parl of lhe
soulhern coasl narked infIuence of norlh easl
nonsoonaI sea vaves is seen. This is cIearIy
indicaled in TalIe 5 for lhe norlh easl nonsoon
season for lhe N7 coaslaI segnenl, vhere sea
vaves are seen lo conlrilule nore lhan 75
percenl of vave energy conpared lo sveII
vaves.

1HDUVKRUH([WUHPH:DYHV

The exlrene occurrences of vaves need lo le

assessed in lhe design of coaslaI and narine
slruclures. The exlrene vave heighls can le
delernined ly exlrapoIaling lhe peak vave
heighls occurring during slorn evenls using
appropriale prolaliIily dislrilulions. In lhe
case of sveII vaves high vaves have occurred
nore or Iess during soulh vesl nonsoon
season. This is aIso lrue for lhe sea vaves as
veII. Hovever, norlh easl nonsoonaI vind=
induced exlrene sea vaves are inporlanl in lhe
soulh easlern parl of lhe soulhern coasl due lo
lheir dislinclIy differenl direclion of approach.

Lxlrene vave heighls vere delernined ly
using CunleI and WeiluII prolaliIily
dislrilulions lo exlrapoIale peak vave heighls
occurring in independenl slorn evenls
exceeding a seIecled lhreshoId vave heighl
(Kanphuis, |1j). The prolaliIily of exceedance,
vhich is lhe prolaliIily lhal any vave heighl
+ exceeding a specified vave heighl + as per
lhese lvo prolaliIily dislrilulions is given ly:

CunleI Dislrilulion:

!
E
J +
+ + 4 4 exp exp 1 ) ' (
...................... (3)

WeiluII Dislrilulion:

!
D
E
J +
+ + 4 4 exp 1 ) ' (
...................... (4)
Where E D, and J are lhe paranelers of lhe
dislrilulions.

In lhe appIicalion of lhis nelhod, seIecled 1
nunlers of peak vave heighls vere arranged
in lhe descending order of nagnilude vilh an
assigned ranking of 1 for lhe highesl vave
heighl and lhe Iovesl vave heighl receiving lhe
rank 1. The prolaliIily of exceedance Q is
defined as:
2
1
F 1
F L
4

.............. (5)
The vaIues of lhe conslanls
1
F and
2
F for lhe
lvo prolaliIily dislrilulions vere eslinaled as:

CunleI Dislrilulion: 44 . O
1
F and 12 . O
2
F
WeiluII Dislrilulion: D / 27 . O 2 . O
1
F and
D / 23 . O 2 . O
2
F

The paranelers E and J of lhe CunleI
Dislrilulion vere delernined ly Iinear
regression anaIysis lased on a rearranged forn
of Lq. (3). In lhe case of WeiluII Dislrilulion,
for specified vaIue of , D lhe paranelers E and
J vere delernined ly a siniIar procedure
lased on Lq. (4). Upon delerninalion of
paranelers of lhe prolaliIily dislrilulions, lhe
vave heighls of any desired relurn period
5
7
in years can le conpuled fron Lqs. (3) or (4) as
appropriale since lhe prolaliIily of exceedance
4 is reIaled lo relurn period as:
5
7
4
O
1
.............. (6)
In vhich, O is lhe nunler of slorn evenls per
year, vhich is knovn since lhe duralion of lhe
lransforned vave heighl line series is knovn.
Ior a parlicuIar sel of seIecled peak vave
heighls of slorn evenls CunleI and WeiluII
Dislrilulions (for varying vaIues of
paranelerD ) vere appIied lo predicl exlrene
vave heighls of differenl relurn periods. The
sel of exlrene vave heighls resuIling fron lhe
highesl coefficienl of correIalion in lhe
regression anaIysis vas seIecled as lhe nosl
represenlalive. The sunnarized resuIls for lhe
lhree seIecled coaslaI seclors are laluIaled for
lhe coaslaI seclors W9, W1 and N7 in TalIes 6
lo 8. Il shouId le noled lhal coaslaI seclors W9
and W1 are hardIy infIuenced ly NL nonsoon
sea vaves and lherefore exlrene vave heighls
vere nol delernined for lhis season.




41
ENGINEER

Tab!c 6 - Extrcmc 5IgnIfIcant Wavc HcIghts fnr 5ca and 5wc!! Wavcs In Cnasta! 5cgmcnt W9

Wavc CnndItInns
Extrcmc Wavc HcIghts (m) fnr DIffcrcnt Rcturn
PcrInds (Ycars)
1 Yr 5 Yr 10 Yr 25 Yr 50 Yr 100 Yr
Sea Waves - SW Monsoon Season
IrolaliIily Dislrilulion: WeiluI ) 4 . 1 ( D
CorreIalion Coefficienl: O.9915
2.41 2.67 2.78 2.9O 2.99 3.O8

SveII Waves - SW Monsoon Season
IrolaliIily Dislrilulion: WeiluI ) 8 . O ( D
CorreIalion Coefficienl: O.9643
2.43 3.O1 3.3O 3.7O 4.O2 4.35


Tab!c 7 - Extrcmc 5IgnIfIcant Wavc HcIghts fnr 5ca and 5wc!! Wavcs In Cnasta! 5cgmcnt W1

Wavc CnndItInns
Extrcmc Wavc HcIghts (m) fnr DIffcrcnt Rcturn
PcrInds (Ycars)
1 Yr 5 Yr 10 Yr 25 Yr 50 Yr 100 Yr
Sea Waves - SW Monsoon Season
IrolaliIily Dislrilulion: WeiluI ) O . 1 ( D
CorreIalion Coefficienl: O.9835
2.19 2.53 2.68 2.87 3.O2 3.17

SveII Waves - SW Monsoon Season
IrolaliIily Dislrilulion: WeiluI ) 4 . 1 ( D
CorreIalion Coefficienl: O.9814
2.7O 2.96 3.O6 3.18 3.27 3.35


Tab!c 8 - Extrcmc 5IgnIfIcant Wavc HcIghts fnr 5ca and 5wc!! Wavcs In Cnasta! 5cgmcnt N7

Wavc CnndItInns

Extrcmc Wavc HcIghts (m) fnr DIffcrcnt Rcturn
PcrInds (Ycars)
1 Yr 5 Yr 10 Yr 25 Yr 50 Yr 100 Yr
Sea Waves - SW Monsoon Season
IrolaliIily Dislrilulion: WeiluI ) O . 2 ( D
CorreIalion Coefficienl: O.9884
2.O6 2.21 2.25 2.31 2.36 2.4O

SveII Waves - SW Monsoon Season
IrolaliIily Dislrilulion: WeiluI ) O . 2 ( D
CorreIalion Coefficienl: O.9878
1.6O 1.72 1.75 1.8O 1.83 1.85

Sea Waves - NL Monsoon Season
IrolaliIily Dislrilulion: WeiluI ) 5 . O ( D
CorreIalion Coefficienl: O.9823
1.27 1.52 1.7O 2.O2 2.31 2.65



ENGINEER
42

10. Cnnc!usInns

The varialiIily of vave cIinale aIong lhe
soulhern coasl of Sri Lanka vas assessed
lhrough nunericaI vave propagalion
nodeIIing naking use of vave recordings
avaiIalIe al lhree Iocalions in lhe sludy area.
AIlhough infornalion on offshore vave cIinale
in lhe sludy area vas nol avaiIalIe, lhrough lhe
appIicalion of vave lransfornalion nalrix
approach, il vas possilIe lo lransforn vaves lo
any desired Iocalion fron lhe lhree source
vave dala Iocalions al CaIIe, KudaveIIa and
Hanlanlola. The sludy findings are usefuI in
assessing exlrene vave condilions, annuaI and
seasonaI vave cIinale for IilloraI drifl
caIcuIalions and shoreIine changes in differenl
seclors of lhe sludy area.

Rcfcrcnccs

1. Kanphuis, WiIIian, }., Inlroduclion lo CoaslaI
Lngineering and Managenenl, WorId Scienlific,
Singapore, 2OO2, pp. 81-1OO.

2. Lanka HydrauIic Inslilule (LHI), Hanlanlola
Seaporl DeveIopnenl Ihase I - MalhenalicaI
ModeI Tesl on Wave IieId, A Reporl prepared
for Sri Lanka Iorls Aulhorily, 2OO7.

3. Scheffer, H-}., Iernando, K.R.M.D., and Iillschen,
T., DireclionaI Wave CIinale Sludy Soulh Wesl
Coasl of Sri Lanka, Sri Lankan Cernan
Cooperalion, CCD_CTZ Coasl Conservalion
Irojecl, 1994.

4. vvv.spc.noaa.gov/faq/lornado/leauforl.hlnI,
Augusl 2O1O.






























































43
ENGINEER
ENGINEER - Vol. XXXXIV, No. 02, pp. [43-56], 2011
The Institution of Engineers, Sri Lanka

,UULJDWLRQ,QIUDVWUXFWXUH0DQDJHPHQW5HTXLUHPHQWV
WR(QVXUH:DWHU6HFXULW\IRU,PSRYHULVKHG5XUDO
3RSXODWLRQVXQGHU&OLPDWH&KDQJH6FHQDULR

176:LMHVHNHUD

$EVWUDFW CIinale change sludies have cone lo nalurily vilh lhe 4

lh
reporl of lhe InlergovernnenlaI
paneI on CIinale Change in 2OO7. ConcIusions aloul lenperalure increases, rainfaII varialions,
cIinale change reIalionships vilh evaporalion elc., have nore or Iess reached consensus. Hovever
cIinaloIogisls have lo fine lune cIinale nodeIs lo refine lhe prediclions. Il is nov necessary lo assess
lhe suslainaliIily of lhe valer and ils surrounding environnenl vilh lhe anlicipaled cIinale changes.
As al presenl in Sri Lanka lhere is nininun research allenpling lo Iink cIinale change inpacls lo
infraslruclure deveIopnenl, and lhere is none in lhe area of irrigalion. Therefore il is necessary for
counlries Iike Sri Lanka vhere najorily of lhe popuIalion depends on irrigaled agricuIlure uliIising a
Iarge nunler of snaII reservoirs, lo ascerlain lhe effecl on ils irrigalion syslens and idenlify lhe
adaplalion neasures lhal shouId le inpIenenled. A significanl increase of valer for irrigalion seclor
vouId nean pressure on olhers vhich conpele for valer. If valer is inadequale for irrigalion lhen il
vouId cerlainIy Iead lo socio econonic issues connencing fron lhe farning connunily. In order lo
address lhese issues and lo idenlify suilalIe adaplalion oplions, lhe presenl research carried oul
spaliaIIy dislriluled irrigalion valer denand nodeIIing lo assess lhe adninislralive dislricl vise
requirenenls in lhe year 2O25. Reservoir valer laIance nodeIIing vas carried oul for four seIecled
dislricls lo sludy lhe adequacy of ninor irrigalion reservoirs. Iresenl vork descriles lhe nodeIIing
efforls lhal incorporaled syslen delerioralion due lo Iack of nainlenance superinposed on lhe
cIinale changes. The sludy used irrigalion deparlnenl guideIines, pulIished dala and nade ralionaI
assunplions lo quanlify lhe inpacls on lhe irrigalion syslens. Il vas reveaIed lhal il is necessary for
valer and reIaled infraslruclure nanagers and engineers lo incorporale suilalIe nainlenance
prograns, and nake significanl efforls lo inprove lhe projecl efficiencies as cIinale change
adaplalion neasures.

.H\ZRUGV CIinale Change, Irrigalion, Waler aIance, ModeIIing, SpaliaIIy Dislriluled

,QWURGXFWLRQ

Reporls of lhe InlergovernnenlaI IaneI on
CIinale Change 2OO7 (IICC 2OO7a, 2OO7l)
provides lhe decision nakers vilh a nuch
lroader sel of evidence on olserved inpacls
coning fron a Iarger nunler of fieId sludies
vhen conpared vilh siniIar efforls in lhe pasl
lo idenfy cIinale changes, inpacls and
adaplalion neasures. Hovever sliII lhere is
nuch uncerlainily aloul lhe polenliaI cIinalic
changes and inpacls arising oul of such
changes. Sone of lhe anlicipaled chaIIenges
fron cIinalic change incIudes lhe changes lo
precipilalion and ils pallern, changes lo
irrigalion denands, changes lo soiI noislure
due lo lenperalure varialions, changes lo
quanlilies evaporaled fron irrigaled Iands and
irrigalion reservoirs. Il is aIso said lhal il is


possilIe lo Iose sensilive pIanl, fish and olher
Iiving organisns lhal dveII in lhe irrigaled
area ecosyslens.

Sri Lanka vhich is calegorised as an
agricuIluraI counlry has Irrigalion as lhe najor
valer use seclor. Oul of an eslinaled surface
valer avaiIaliIily of 43,OOO MCM, 28 is for
irrigalion usage (ID 2OO3). In lhe Dry zone
vhich consisls of lolh lhe dry and lhe
inlernediale regions of lhe counlry covers
approxinaleIy 75 of Sri Lanka (InluIana,
Eng. (Prof.) A.1.S. Wijesekera B.Sc. Eng . Hons, (Sri
Lanka), P.G.Dip (Moratuwa),M.Eng. (Tokyo), D.Eng.
(Tokyo), C.Eng., FIE(Sri Lanka), MICE(Lonaon),
Professor of Civil Engineering, Department of Civil
Engineering, University of Moratuwa
ENGINEER
44

Wijesekera, and Neupane 2OO6). Irrigaled

agicuIlure in lhe Dry Zone is nainIy vilh an
exlensive nunler of snaII and nediun
reservoirs lhal caplure nosoonaI rains. The
schenes providing irrigalion faciIilies for over
4O helares are cIassified as najor irrigalion
schenes vhiIe lhe resl are caIIed ninor
irrigalion schenes. There are approxinaleIy
533 Major Irrigalion schenes under lhe
Deparlnenl of Irrigalion serving an exlenl of
aloul 34O,OOO helares vhiIe lhere are nearIy
25,OOO ninor irrigalion schenes under lhe
Deparlnenl of Agrarian Services serving
aloul 162,OOO helares(Survey 1988). These
Iands logelher vilh lhe MahaveIi projecl
vhich vas connenced vilh lhe largel of
providing irrigalion faciIilies lo 265,OOO helare
of nev Iand and 1OO,OOO helare of exisling
agricuIluraI Iands indicale lhe nagnilude of
irrigaled agricuIlure in lhe counlry.

Sri Lankas dry zone consisls of a vasl nunler
of ninor reservoirs caIIed viIIage irrigalion
lanks. According lo Iernando (1982) lhere had
leen aloul 35,OOO ninor reservoirs in lhe
isIand and nore vere leing discovered. These
reservoirs are lhe pivolaI poinl of dry zone
farning connunilies. They slore valer for
irrigalion, doneslic and olher environnenlaI
needs. Successive governnenls have aIIocaled
significanl financiaI resources and efforl lo
ensure lhe deveIopnenl and suslenance of
lhese syslens lecause of lheir inporlance lo
lhe dry zone farners and lhe agricuIluraI
seclor econony.

As such any adverse effecl on Sri Lankas
irrigaled agricuIlure and ils irrigalion
reservoir syslens vouId nol onIy seriousIy
affecl lhe slalus of lhe farning connunily lul
aIso on lhe food securily of lhe counlry.
CIinale change appears lo affecl lhe rainfaII
and lhe vegelalion in lhe lropics. Therefore
runoff inlo lhe reservoir syslens vouId le
affecled. CIinale change has leen predicled
lo affecl lhe pallern of rainfaII and hence
vouId change lhe lining of lhe receipl of
reservoir infIovs. Reservoir slorage and
especiaIIy lhose having high valer spread area
vouId le affecled ly increase of evaporalion
as a resuIl of rising lenperalure. Magnilude
and lhe lenporaI dislrilulion of Irrigalion
denand vouId le affecled due lo possilIe
changes lo soiI noislure as a resuIl of
increased evaporalion, and due lo any changes
lhal vouId lake pIace in lhe voIune and
lining of rainfaII.

Aparl fron lhe effecls of cIinale change, lhere
is an ongoing concern lhal irrigalion schene
nainlenance has leen given a secondary
inporlance ly lhe slale. The presenl syslen
of handing over of syslen nainlenance lo
farner organisalions is reIaliveIy nev and
lhere is aIso a concern lhal lhe lransfer of
nainlenance nay Iead lo a furlher
delerioralion of lhe irrigalion infraslruclure.
In case irrigalion syslens are delerioraling
and counlry is faced vilh cIinale changes lhal
have leen predicled, lhen il is olvious lhal
irrigalion syslens vouId le adversIy affecled.
Mosl of lhe Dry zone reservoirs are of
reIaliveIy snaII capacily, vilh high
valerspread aeras, and presenlIy cuIlivaling
naxinun Iand aera lhal couId le underlaken
vilh lhe prevaiIing size of reservoir. Il is
cruciaI lo idenlify vhelher lhese reservoirs
couId alIeasl guaranlee lhe presenl cuIlivalion
exlenl, once lhe counlry is exposed lo lhe
cIinale changes.

The nosl inporlanl queslion of a valer
nanager lhal requires an ansver is vhal is
lhe nagnilude of lhe effecl due lo cIinale
change`. To ansver lhis queslion fuIIy, il is
necessary lo perforn schene IeveI syslen
anaIysis vhich incorporale lhe caIcuIalion of
valer yieIds and conpulalion of reservoir
valer laIance for valer denands ollained
lhrough crop valer requirenenl nodeIIing. Il
is necessary lo assess lhis prolIen very
carefuIIy lecause cIinale nodeIs have yel lo
provide eslinales lhal are acceplalIe as
reasonalIe inpuls lo snaII valersheds lhal are
of lhe size associaled vilh Sri Lankan
irrigalion reservoirs. There are aIso prolIens
vilh olher inpul dala requirenenls such as
eIevalion-capacily delaiIs for ninor reservoirs,
rainfaII of lhe area, crop lypes and area of
coverage, evaporalion eslinales elc. In lhis
lackdrop a valer nanagers lesl oplion is nol
lo vail unliI lhe dala and prediclions are of
sufficienl resoIulion, lul lo perforn
conpulalions vilh avaiIalIe infornalion lo
conpule lhe order of nagnilude of cIinale
change inpacls so lhal lhe seIeclion of suilalIe
adaplalion aIlernalives couId le done vilh
scenario assessnenls.


45
ENGINEER

The presenl vork carried oul conpulalions lo

idenlify irrigalion valer requirenenl under
various cIinale and irrigalion syslen
perfornance silualions vhiIe considering
adninislralive dislricls as lhe spaliaI unil. In
order lo idenlify lhe effecls of CIinale Change
scenario on avaiIalIe irrigalion infraslruclure,
nainIy lhe Iarge nunler of snaII irrigalion
reservoirs, an assessnenl of lhe polenliaI
irrigalIe area under lhese reservoirs vas aIso
nodeIIed using irrigalion syslen anaIysis
lechniques.

2. Backgrnund

2.1. C!Imatc Changc PrcdIctInns

There is nov higher confidence in projecled
pallerns of varning and olher regionaI-scaIe
cIinale change fealures, incIuding changes in
vind pallerns, precipilalion and sone aspecls
of exlrenes (IICC 2OO7a). Il is projecled lhal
crop yieIds couId increase up lo 2O in Lasl
and Soulh-Lasl Asia vhiIe lhey couId decrease
up lo 3O in CenlraI and Soulh Asia ly lhe
nid-21
sl
cenlury. Taken logelher and
considering lhe infIuence of rapid popuIalion
grovlh and urlanisalion, lhe risk of hunger is
projecled lo renain very high in severaI
deveIoping counlries (IICC, 2OO7l). Il is aIso
slaled vilh very high confidence lhal valer
resource in nany snaII isIands is IikeIy lo le
seriousIy conpronised. As a resuIl of cIinale
change lhey are IikeIy lo experience valer
slress and prediclions shov reduced rainfaII in
sunner. Therefore il is unIikeIy lhal denand
viII le nel during Iov rainfaII periods.
Increased rainfaII in vinler viII le unIikeIy lo
conpensale, due lo a Iack of slorage and high
runoff during slorns (Iarry el aI 2OO7).

A sludy in Soulh Africa has reveaIed lhal lhe
increase of valer surface evaporalion,
reduclion of runoff due lo droughl, and
increased deposilion of siIl due lo change of
rainfaII and lenperalure is, nuch nore in case
of reservoir syslens lhan for a run of river
schenes (Mukheilir 2OO7). MaII el aI (2OO6)
reporls lhal lhe hydroIogic sensilivily sludies
for lhe Kosi asin in India, lo assess lhe
projecled Iand use and polenliaI cIinale
change scenarios has reveaIed lhal runoff
increase vas higher lhan precipilalion increase
in aII lhe polenliaI cIinale change scenarios
appIying colenporary lenperalure. Hovever
lhe scenario of conlenporary precipilalion
and a rise in lenperalure ly 4C caused a
decrease in run-off ly 2-8, depending upon
lhe areas considered and lhe nodeI used. The
CCM sinuIalions have reveaIed lhal projecled
increases in polenliaI evaporalion vere IargeIy
due lo increases in lhe vapour pressure deficil
resuIling fron higher lenperalure (MaII el aI
2OO6).

A sludy of seasonaI and annuaI surface air
lenperalure for 1ong lern lrend using dala in
India during 19O1-82 for a veII-dislriluled
nelvork of 73 slalions has indicaled a
significanl varning of O.4C/1OO years in lhe
nean annuaI lenperalures for lhe counlry as a
vhoIe. In a sulsequenl sludy il had leen
found lhal aII India nean annuaI lenperalure
has shovn significanl varning lrend of O.O5
C/ 1O year during lhe period 19O1-2OO3, lhe
recenl period 1971-2OO3 has seen a reIaliveIy
acceIeraled varning of O.22 C/ 1O yr, vhich
is IargeIy due lo unprecedenled varning
during lhe Iasl decade. The recenl acceIeraled
varning over India is nanifesled equaIIy in
day line and nighl line lenperalures (MaII,
halIa and Iandey (2OO7).

The inpacl of lenperalure on runoff has aIso
leen reporled as sulslanliaI due lo
evapolranspiralion. CCC (2OO9) ciles a sludy
conducled in CoIarado River asin ly Nash
and CIeick, vhere vilh no change in
precipilalion, a 2C increase in lenperalure
has shovn a reduclion of nean annuaI runoff
ly 4 lo 12 percenl. The change in runoff for a
4C increase has leen indicaled lelveen 9 and
21 percenl and lhal for a lenperalure increase
ly 4C, precipilalion vouId need lo le
increased ly nearIy 2O percenl lo nainlain
runoff al hisloricaI IeveIs.

Navaz, AdeIoye, and Monlaseri (1999)
invesligaled lhe sensilivily of lhe slorage-yieId
reIalionships of lvo nuIlipIe reservoir
syslens vilh respecl lo cIinale change
lhrough lhe incorporalion of reservoir surface
nel evaporalion fIux and idenlified lhal for
lhese Iranian calchnenls vhere evaporalion is
higher lhan lhe rainfaII, lhere is a nel
addilionaI oulfIov vhich Ieads lo an increase
in slorage requirenenl for a given yieId or
vouId experience a reduclion of lhe usealIe
yieId fron a reservoir of a given capacily. The
sludy aIso enphasizes lhe inporlance of
having CCM oulpuls in lhe forn of nonlhIy
percenlage change in rainfaII, lenperalure,
ENGINEER
46

radialion, hunidily and vind speed for grid

squares so lhal lhe rainfaII and polenliaI
evaporalion scenario in a nonlhIy lasis couId
le easiIy incorporaled in lhe conpulalions.

2.2. C!Imatc and Watcr Rcsnurccs nf 5rI
Lanka

Sri Lanka Iocaled lelveen Ialiludes 6 N and
1O N and Iongiludes 8O L and 82 L consisls
of an approxinale Iand exlenl of 65,61O square
kiIonelres. eing cIose lo lhe equalor, Sri
Lanka experiences a cIinale of unifornIy high
lenperalures lul does nol experience
lenperalure exlrenes and il is slaled lhal lhis
is as a resuIl of lhe surrounding ocean.
AnnuaI pan evaporalion vaIues indicale lhal
lhere is a significanl spaliaI varialion
consisling of vaIues lelveen 19OO and 795 nn
per year. Average annuaI reference crop
evapolranspiralion al severaI slalions in lhe
counlry indicales a varialion lelveen 2.4 nn/
day and 5.2 nn/ day (ID 1999).

RainfaII in Sri Lanka is nainIy governed ly
lhe Norlh-Lasl (Decenler - Ielruary), and
lhe Soulh-Wesl (May-Seplenler) nonsoons.
Rain during inler nonsoonaI periods are
nainIy due lo IocaI conveclions. ased on
rainfaII, Sri Lanka is connonIy divided inlo
lhree cIinalic zones naneIy lhe vel,
inlernediale and dry zone (Survey 1988) and
lhe spaliaI varialiIily varies significanlIy over
line and a conparison of varialions averaged
over four 24 year periods (Wijesekera 2OO5)
shovs an indicalion of expanding dry area
over line.

Though Irrigalion seclor is lhe najor user,
slalus of Sri Lanka appears lo le al a nuch
leIov consunplion IeveI vhen conpared
vilh neighlouring India vhich uses aloul
83 of avaiIalIe valer for agricuIlure (MaII el
aI 2OO6). According lo InluIana, Wijesekera,
and Neupane (2OO6), annuaI runoff is
eslinaled lo le around 35-4O of lhe annuaI
rainfaII and lhe vaIues presenled indicale lhal
lhere are consideralIe varialions in lhe
individuaI vaIues across rivers. Very Iov
runoff ralios have leen olserved in nosl of
lhe dry zone rivers, generaIIy Iess lhan 35.
According lo a sludy ly Anarasinghe,
Muluvalle and SaklhivadiveI(1999) lhe per
capila doneslic vilhdravaI and lhe induslriaI
vilhdravaI lolh in 1991 had anounled lo
aloul 1 vhich is nuch Iess lhan lhal
indicaled ly lhe Deparlnenl of Irrigalion (ID
2OO3).

2.3. 5rI Lankan C!Imatc Changc Factnrs

ModeIing underlaken ly lhe Sri Lankan
Cenlre for CIinale Change Sludies, suggesl
lhal lhe changes in Sri Lanka lroadIy foIIov
lhe regionaI expeclalions: (i) The regionaI
lenperalure lrends are pIayed oul in Sri
Lanka. y 21OO, lhe lenperalure increase
during lhe soulhvesl nonsoon season (May lo
Seplenler) is anlicipaled lo le 2.5 C, vhiIsl
lhe norlheasl nonsoon season (Decenler lo
Ielruary) is expecled lo yieId a lenperalure
increase of 2.9 C, (ii) RainfaII is sIighlIy
differenl lo lhe regionaI lrend, vilh Sri
Lankas rainfaII IeveIs anlicipaled lo increase
in lolh sunner and vinler seasons. Hovever,
lhe rainfaII change is expecled lo le grealer
during lhe soulhvesl nonsoons lhan
norlheasl nonsoons (iii) In lolh seasons
rainfaII and lenperalure is projecled lo
increase vilh line, fron 2O25, 2O5O lo 21OO,
and (iv) RainfaII changes are aIso uneven
across Sri Lanka - nuch grealer increases are
expecled on lhe vindvard side of lhe cenlraI
hiIIs (IA 2OO9).

An anaIysis of lrends in 15 cIinalic slalions of
Sri Lanka using 13O year dala series, has
indicaled slalislicaIIy significanl lenporaI
changes in Soulhvesl - Monsoon - reIaled
precipilalion al five of lhe slalions, vilh lhree
slalions shoving enhanced rainfaII anounling
lo a lolaI of 1OO nn/nonlh over lhe enlire
line inlervaI and al lvo slalions a decrease in
rainfaII vilh line anounling lo a lolaI of 15O
nn/nonlh. In addilion, one slalion
experienced a decrease of lolh Iirsl and
Second Inler-nonsoon rainfaII over line vilh
a lolaI of 8O nn/nonlh. Slalions shoving
Ioss of rainfaII are confined lo higher eIevalion
areas and lhose exhililing enhanced rainfaII
are Iocaled in lhe IovIands confined lo lhe
soulhveslern seclor of Sri Lanka. None of lhe
slalions had indicaled any significanl change
in Norlheasl Monsoon precipilalion lhrough
line (MaIngren el aI 2OO3).

AnaIysis of Iong-lern lenperalure dala of lhe
isIand has indicaled an increasing lrend of air
lenperalure, parlicuIarIy during lhe recenl
fev decades. Mean annuaI air lenperalures of
Sri Lanka since 193O, in lerns of lhe varialion
fron lhe Iong-lern nean has shovn a
47
ENGINEER

varning lrend during lhe recenl fev decades
(}ayaliIIake el aI 2OO5). }ayalhiIIeka eI aI (2OO5)
quoling, Iernando and ChandrapaIa (1992)
and (ChandrapaIa 1996), reporls lhal an
anaIysis of lenperalure records of over 1OO
years al aII lhe neleoroIogicaI olservalion
slalions has indicaled an increase in lhe nean
air lenperalure of Sri Lanka in lhe order of
O.O16
O
C per Annun, during lhe period fron
1961 lo 199O.

RainfaII records of Sri Lanka has shovn a high
year lo year varialiIily. Mean AnnuaI RainfaII
fIuclualions fron 188O liII 2OO3, in lerns of lhe
deparlure fron lhe Iong lern nean has shovn
lhal lhe period fron 188O liII 197O has
aIlernaling dry and vel periods lul a
significanl change lo lhis lehaviour is visilIe
in lhe 3O year period fron 197O lo 2OOO vhere
lhe average annuaI rainfaII has reached leIov
average for lhe enlire period excepl for lhree
years (}ayaliIIake el aI 2OO5).

Conparison of lhe seasonaI and annuaI
rainfaII vaIues aIong vilh coefficienl of
varialions for lvo recenl 3O year reference
periods of 1931-6O and 1961-9O has shovn an
overaII decrease of 7 in lhe average annuaI
rainfaII vilh lhe change concenlraled lo lhe
period fron Decenler lo ApriI. The najor
reduclion has leen during lhe Norlh Lasl
nonsoon vhiIe lhere had leen no significanl
change in lhe second inler nonsoon. This
decrease has caused a shifl in lhe denarcalion
of currenl Wel Zone, Dry Zone and lhe
Inlernediale Zone (}ayaliIIake el aI 2OO5).

2.4. C!Imatc PrcdIctInns fnr 5rI Lanka

Iulure lenperalure and rainfaII of Sri Lanka
as conpuled ly lhree AOCCMs forced vilh
A2 SRLS enission scenario logelher vilh
olserved vaIues for lhe period 1961-9O as
given in }ayalhiIaka el aI (2OO5) shov lhal lhe
pallern of dislrilulion has a high siniIarily
vilh lhe HadCM3 indicaling lhe highesl
vaIues vhiIe lhe CCMS had lhe Iovesl. The
lhree generaI circuIalion nodeIs lhal had leen
used vere, CCCM (Canadian CeneraI
CircuIalion ModeI), HadCM3 (HadIey Cenlre
CeneraI CircuIalion ModeI - Version 3), and
CSIRO (ConnonveaIlh Scienlific and
InduslriaI Research Organizalion CeneraI
CircuIalion ModeI). SpaliaI dislrilulions
presenled ly }ayalhiIaka el aI (2OO5) cIearIy
indicales lhal lhe prediclions in lhe year 2O5O
presenls a significanl expansion of lhe dry
areas of lhe counlry lherely suggesling a
significanl pressure on lhe valer resources
and lhe need lo effecl suilalIe adaplalion
neasures lhrough syslenalic sludies.

3. Apprnach and Mcthndn!ngy

3.1. IrrIgatInn Dcmand Mndc!!Ing

Lileralure poinls lo a generaI decIine of Sri
Lankas rainfaII and an increase in
lenperalure. Increase in lenperalure resuIls
in an increase in evaporalion and
evapolranspiralion. A seIecled crop having a
specific crop valer requirenenl depending on
ils crop deveIopnenl slage vouId require an
anounl of valer as irrigalion denand, given
lhe Iand preparalion requirenenls, farn Iosses
and projecl efficiencies. An irrigalion valer
denand nodeI vilh a nonlhIy conpulalionaI
line slep vas deveIoped according lo lhe
ID(1984). ModeI conpulalions vere carried
oul considering lhe adninislralive dislricls as
lhe spaliaI unil for aggregalion. Coverning
equalions used for lhe conpulalions are as
foIIovs.









In lhese equalions, l is lhe considered line
slep for conpulalions and n is lhe nunler of
line sleps per period. LI is lhe valer
requirenenl for Iand preparalion, LTc is lhe
valer requirenenl for crop
evapolranspiralion, and IL is lhe valer
required lo conpensale for farn Iosses. IWR
is lhe fieId valer requirenenl, LR is lhe
effeclive rainfaII, IIR is lhe fieId irrigalion
requirenenl, ID is lhe irrigalion denand and
K is lhe projecl efficiency.

Lvapolranspiralion and rainfaII vere laken as
spaliaIIy dislriluled inpuls for nodeI
conpulalions. Crop lypes seIecled ly farners
for each season, Iand preparalion valer
requirenenls, farn Ioses and lhe projecl
efficiency vere assuned as uniforn inpuls for
aII spaliaI unils since no spaliaIIy dislriluled
dala on crop lypes, pIanling dales elc., vere
t
n
ID
seasonal
_ (ID)
t
----- (4)
(FWR)
t
(LP)
t
(Et
c
)
t
(FL)
t
----- (1)
(FIR)
t
(FWR)
t
- (ER)
t
----- (2)
(ID)
t
(FIR)
t
/K

----- (3)
ENGINEER
48

avaiIalIe. AIso il vas feIl lhal ly keeping

conslanl vaIues for lhese vouId enalIe an easy
anaIysis of valer requirenenl vaIues lhrough
lhe nodeI.

Irrigaled area in each spaliaI exlenl had lvo
lypes of cuIlivalions as paddy or olher fieId
crops (OICs). Irrespeclive of lhe crop lype,
period of irrigalion for each Iand unil vas
assuned as 1O5 days for lhe YaIa season (SW
nonsoon) and 135 days for lhe Maha season
(NL nonsoon). In lhe OIC cuIlivalion area, il
vas assuned lhal lhe sane crop vas
cuIlivaled and lhis crop vas laken as ChiIIies.
The vaIues of crop grovlh slages and crop
faclors given in lhe Irrigalion Deparlnenl
guideIines vere used for lhe conpulalion of
lenporaIIy dislriluled evapolranspiralion
requirenenls for each unil area.

Land preparalion for aII spaliaI unils and for
lhe Maha and YaIa seasons vas laken lo
connence in lhe nonlhs of Ocloler and May
respecliveIy. In order lo oplinise lhe valer
resources infraslruclure, lhe connonIy
incorporaled lhree slagger syslen vas
assuned as lhe cuIlivalion pallern in each
irrigaled area.

In lhis sludy lhe nonlhIy 75 prolalIe
rainfaII dala given in lhe ID (1984) vere laken
as lhe lase dala for lhe represenlalion of
prevaiIing silualion. Year 2O25 vas laken as
lhe conparison line Iine lecause of lhe
avaiIaliIily of CCM prediclions. Rale of
change of annuaI rainfaII conpuled using lhe
olserved averages of 1961-9O period and
CSIRO prediclions in }ayalhiIIeka el aI (2OO5)
vas assuned equaI lo rale of change of
rainfaII vaIues in ID (1984). This assunes lhal
lhe 75 prolalIe rainfaII reporled in 1984
couId le laken as lhal for lhe period lelveen
1969 -199O. Rale of change of nodeIIed vaIues
for lhe year 2O25 vhen conpared vilh lhe
averaged 1961-9O vaIues, indicaled a decIine in
rainfaII excepl in seven dislricls.

Tvo fulure scenarios perlaining lo nonlhIy
rainfaII dislrilulion vas considered for
irrigalion denand nodeIIing. One vas lhal
lhe rale of change of annuaI rainfaII vas
uniforn over each nonlh of lhe year. The
olher vas lhal, lhe assuned rale of change
resuIled due lo an increase of peak nonlhIy
rainfaII ly 2O vhiIe lhe resl of lhe nonlhs
had an apporlioned rale of change resuIling in
lhe sane average olserved in lhe annuaI
vaIue. VaIue of 2O vas laken as a
conparalive figure afler carrying oul a fev
lriaI and error conpulalions. The second case
vas deveIoped as an allenpl lo consider lhe
cIinale change prediclions vhich indicaled
higher rain during rainy periods, and drier
dry nonlhs. Agro ecoIogicaI region rainfaII
vaIues (ID 1984) vere aggregaled lo lhe
adninislralive dislricl loundaries ly
caIcuIaling lhe area veighled average for each
dislricl. Irrigalion Deparlnenl ID(1984) vaIues
of Ian evaporalion vere spaliaIIy dislriluled
using Thiessen (Voronoi) poIygons and lhen
conpuling area veighled average for each
dislricl. Irrigalion deparlnenl reconnended
pan coefficienl of O.8 vas used for valer
denand nodeIIing.

Lileralure survey idenlified lhal affecling a 2
change in lenperalure vhiIe keeping aII olher
paranelers conslanl vouId give rise lo a
change in runoff ly 4-12 and lhis vas
assuned as a resuIl of lhe change in
evaporalion. AccordingIy, lhe presenl vork
assuned lhal a 2 degree increase of
lenperalure vouId affecl an increase of 8 in
evaporalion. This rale vas used vilh lhe
olserved lrend of lenperalure rise lhal had
leen reporled for Sri Lanka ly }ayalhiIIeka el
aI (2OO5). SpaliaI vaIues of evaporalion
conpuled using vaIues fron ID (1984) vere
unifornIy increased lo caler lo lhe enlire
increase during lhe 34 year period reaching
year 2O25. Irrigalion valer requirenenl
conpulalions vere lased on lhe Iaddy and
OIC cuIlivalion area and olher appropriale
delaiIs per dislricl as reporled in lhe
Anarasinghe, Mulhuvalle and SaklhivadiveI
(1999).

3.1.1. 5ccnarIn IdcntIfIcatInn

Irrigalion valer denand nodeIIing
considered lhe foIIoving five scenarios lo
conpare lhe valer resources nanagenenl
requirenenls in case of cIinale change. As lhe
lase case lhe nodeI used a projecl efficiency
vaIue of 7O for aII dislricls.

%DVH6FHQDULR
Conpulalion of lhe irrigalion valer
requirenenl for lhe lase year vhich is
considered as 1991, having paranelers
and inpuls as given in lhe irrigalion
deparlnenl guideIines or in lhe reporled
49
ENGINEER

Iileralure and having an overaII irrigalion

projecl efficiency of 7O lhroughoul lhe
counlry.

Sccnaric 1. SC1_70 (Tcmpcra|urc Risc an
Unifcrm Varia|icn cf Rain)
Conpulalion of lhe irrigalion valer
requirenenl in lhe year 2O25, vilh lhe
predicled annuaI rainfaII change keeping
in Iine vilh lhe CSIRO nodeI. The change
lo lhe annuaI rainfaII vaIue of a parlicuIar
spaliaI enlily is effecled unifornIy over
each nonlh of lhe year. Change of
evaporalion is lased on lhe lenperalure
rise lhal had leen olserved in lhe pasl
dala. Irojecl efficiency is 7O.

Sccnaric 2. SC2_70 (Tcmpcra|urc Risc an
Rainfa|| nas a Higncr Pca|)
Conpulalion of lhe irrigalion valer
requirenenl under lhe sane condilions as
in lhe Scenario 1 lul vilhoul effecling a
uniforn inler annuaI varialion,
apporlioned lhe rainfaII lo have a higher
percenlage of rain in lhe peak rain nonlh
and Iess rain in lhe olher nonlhs.

Sccnaric 3. SC3_70 (Tcmpcra|urc Risc, Unifcrm
Varia|icn cf Rain, |ncrcasc cf Grcun Arca)
Conpulalion of lhe irrigalion valer
requirenenl under lhe sane condilions as
in Scenario 1 lul for lhe irrigalion Iand
area lo increase in order lo refIecl ongoing
food cuIlivalion drives. This scenario
assunes a 5 increase of lhe paddy area
and a 2 increase in lhe OIC exlenls.

Sccnaric 4. SC4_65 (Tcmpcra|urc Risc, Unifcrm
Varia|icn cf Rain, |ncrcasc cf Grcun Arca,
Rcucc Prcjcc| |fficicncq)
Conpulalion of lhe irrigalion valer
requirenenl under lhe sane condilions as
in Scenario 3 incorporaling an overaII
projecl efficiency delerioralion fron 7O
lo 65.

Sccnaric 5. SC5_75 (Tcmpcra|urc Risc, Unifcrm
Varia|icn cf Rain, |ncrcasc cf Grcun Arca,
|ncrcasc Prcjcc| |fficicncq)
Conpulalion of lhe irrigalion valer
requirenenl under lhe sane condilions as
in Scenario 3 incorporaling an overaII
projecl efficiency inprovenenl fron 7O
lo 75.

Dislricl vise valer denand for irrigalion in
each season vas conpuled reIalive lo lhe
laseIine year. In each Dislricl, change in lhe
valer denand vas conpared vilh lhe
corresponding change in rainfaII for lolh
Maha and YaIa seasons.


3.2. IrrIgatInn Infrastructurc fnr Mndc!!Ing

In case of valer resource uliIisalion,
prediclions due lo cIinale change vouId give
rise lo addilionaI lurdens on lhe avaiIalIe
infraslruclure. Capacilies of lhe prevaiIing
canaI syslens and reservoirs perlaining lo
irrigalion syslens vouId require lo le
assessed. This is necessary lo check lhe
capacily of lhe reservoirs lo slore lhe syslen
infIovs even vilh a changed quanlily and a
varialion in lhe lining vhiIe lhere is a change
in syslen oulfIov vilh a change in lhe vaIue
of evapolranspiralion and changed effeclive
rainfaII vaIue. In olher vords lo perforn a
check of lhe syslen valer laIance
incorporaling changes lo inpuls and oulpuls
due lo cIinale change, vhiIe keeping lhe
naxinun slorage of lhe syslen unchanged.
In case of valer suppIy syslens loo il is
essenliaI lo assess valer inlake capacilies,
slorage sizes and lransnission Iine syslen
adequacies.

In lhis sludy, a ninor reservoir of a lypicaI
lerrain in lhe Dry Zone vas considered al four
FIgurc 1- 5patIa! DIstrIbutInn nf thc
5c!cctcd DIstrIcts and thc AntIcIpatcd
RaInfa!! Changc In 2025 whcn cnmparcd
tn thc Basc Ycar
ENGINEER
50

seIecled dislricls and vas suljecled lo various

cIinalic scenarios corresponding lo each of lhe
dislricls. Consideralion of a lypicaI reservoir
for lhe presenl vork is feIl adequale for a
conparalive assessnenl of lhe cIinale change
inpacl on a per reservoir lasis for lhe seIecled
dislricls. Though il vas nore reaIislic lo
incorporale acluaI reservoir dala fron each
dislricl, due lo Iack of dala lhe presenl sludy
assuned lhal lhe lhree dislricls have a siniIar
lerrain and lhen used a reservoir led survey
dalasel of a reservoir in lhe Anuradhapura
dislricl as lhe lypicaI dalasel. During valer
laIance nodeIIing, ninor adjuslnenls vere
incorporaled lo lhe reservoir dinensions and
irrigalIe areas of lhe lase case scenario lo
ensure reaIislic oulpuls. Anuradhapura,
Anpara, IoIIonnaruva and KurunegaIa,
vhich significanlIy conlrilule lo lhe paddy
cuIlivalion of Sri Lanka vere lhe seIecled
dislricls. Iigure 1 shovs lhe spaliaI
dislrilulion of seIecled dislricls and
anlicipaled rainfaII change fron lhe lase year.


3.2.1. RcscrvnIr Watcr Ba!ancc Mndc!!Ing

IrrigalIe area under lhe reservoir al each
dislricl vas nodeIIed for Maha and YaIa
seasons considering changes lo lhe infIov
fron rainfaII, evaporalion on lhe reservoir
valer, irrigalion denand due lo changes in
crop valer requirenenls elc. ModeI
conpulalions vere lased on lhe valer laIance
of lhe reservoir syslen descriled in lhe
guideIines of Irrigalion Deparlnenl (ID 1984).
Coverning equalion for valer laIance of
reservoir syslen is as shovn in Lqualion (5).

Il - (Ll+Sei+Spl +Dl) = Sl - Sl-1 ----- (5)
In lhis equalion l is lhe line slep vhich vas
considered as one nonlh, I is lhe InfIov, L is
lhe evaporalion fron lhe valer surface, Se is
lhe seepage fron lhe reservoir led, Sp is lhe
spiIIage fron lhe reservoir, D is lhe irrigalion
denand, S is lhe slorage of lhe reservoir.

Waler laIance under lhe lase scenario, and
scenarios SC1-7O, SC2-7O, SC2-65, SC2-75 vere
carried oul lo conpule lhe feasilIe irrigalIe
area for Maha and YaIa Seasons. IieId
irrigalion requirenenls and irrigalion denand
per unil area vere conpuled lhrough lhe
irrigalion denand nodeI vhere dislricl vise
irrigalion denands vere delernined. Since
lhis sludy vas lo idenlify possilIe irrigalion
exlenls, lhe scenarios SC3, SC4 and SC5 vere
nol appIicalIe. Inslead onIy lhe sensilivily of
irrigalIe area under various projecl efficiency
vaIues vas sludied.

Since paddy is lhe najor crop grovn in lhe
dry zone of Sri Lanka, nodeI conpulalions
vere confined lo lhe assunplion lhal under
lhe irrigalion reservoir, onIy paddy is grovn
during Maha and YaIa seasons.

3.2.2. Ratc nf changc nf RaInfa!!

ResuIls reporled ly }ayalhiIIika el aI (2OO5)
indicaled lhe fulure annuaI rainfaII perlaining
lo adninislralive dislricls. Increases indicaled
vaIues lelveen O.8-8.3, vhiIe lhe decreases
shoved vaIues fron O.7-1O.7. Rale of change
of rainfaII conpuled using lhe olserved and
CCM predicled vaIues vere lhen appIied lo
lhe 75 prolalIe rainfaII vaIues lo caIcuIale
nodeI inpuls.

3.2.3. Mnnth!y RaInfa!! DIstrIbutInn

Irrigalion Denand and Reservoir valer
laIance nodeIIing incorporaled lhree rainfaII
dislrilulions al each dislricl for scenario
conparisons. The lase Iine (1991), uniforn
dislrilulion of annuaI increase or decrease
(SC1), and a dislrilulion vilh an increased
peak (SC2) for Anpara Dislricl is shovn in
Iigure 2 lo iIIuslrale a lypicaI nodeI inpuls.


FIgurc 2- 75% Prnbab!c RaInfa!!
(mm/mnnth) fnr 1991 and Futurc RaInfa!!
5ccnarIn - Ampara DIstrIct 5rI Lanka
0.0
50.0
100.0
150.0
200.0
250.0
M
a
y
J
u
n
J
u
l
A
u
g
S
e
p
O
c
t
N
o
v
D
e
c
J
a
n
F
e
b
M
a
r
A
p
r
1991 SC1 SC2
51
ENGINEER

Rcsu!ts and DIscussInn

3.3. Changc In IrrIgatInn Dcmand

Iercenlage change in dislricl vise seasonaI
valer denand for irrigalion vas conpuled
reIalive lo lhe laseIine year (Iigure 3) in order
lo assess lhe seasonaI varialions as a resuIl of
anlicipaled cIinale changes. Iurlhernore,
nodeI conpulalions enalIed lhe idenlificalion
of change in valer denand reIalive lo lhe
corresponding change in lhe rainfaII (Iigure 4)
for each irrigalion season. In Iigure 4 lhe X
axis corresponds lo lhe change in rainfaII and
Y axis corresponds lo lhe Change in Irrigalion
Denand. Lach poinl represenls an
adninislralive dislricl.

3.3.1. Maha 5casnn

ModeI conpulalions indicaled lhal during
Maha season, for scenario 1 and 2, lhe range of
increase in valer denand vas 5. (Iigure 3).
Maha season leing lhe rainy period, an
increase in peak runoff affecled ly rainfaII
scenario 2 resuIled posiliveIy for nosl
dislricls. Hovever an increase of irrigaled area
(SC3) indicaled a narked rise in lhe valer
denand. Togelher vilh a delerioralion of
deIivery efficiency, lhis increase in valer
denand in severaI dislricls rose lo vaIues in
lhe range of 1O-15. In case of an efficiency
inprovenenl lo a 75 shoved lhal il is
possilIe lo negale lhe negalive effecls lhal
arose fron a decrease of rainfaII and an
increase of evaporalion.

Iigure 4 shoved an expecled lehaviour vhere
a reduclion of rainfaII vouId Iead lo an
increase of Irrigalion Denand. Il couId le
noled lhal in case of scenario 1 and 2, lhe
increase of valer denand vas Iess lhan lhe
decrease in rainfaII and lhis couId le due lo
lhe high valer avaiIaliIily in lhe Maha season.
Hovever as lhe irrigalion area gels increased
and vhen lhe irrigalion infraslruclure gels
delerioraled lhen lhis advanlage gels
dininished.

3.3.2. Ya!a 5casnn

In case of YaIa season, nodeI resuIls (Iigure 3)
shovs a higher valer denand for scenario 1
and 2 in dislricls such as CoIonlo having
reIaliveIy Iov irrigaled agricuIlure. SiniIar lo
Maha season, lhe Scenario 3 and 4 shov lhe
Change in Maha (NE) Season
rrigation Water Requirment in 2025 wrt 1991
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
C
o
l
o
m
b
o
G
a
l
l
e
G
a
m
p
a
h
a
K
a
l
u
t
a
r
a
K
a
n
d
y
K
e
g
a
l
l
e
M
a
t
a
r
a
N
u
w
a
r
a

E
l
i
y
a
R
a
t
n
a
p
u
r
a
A
m
p
a
r
a
A
n
u
r
a
d
h
a
p
u
r
a
B
a
d
u
l
l
a
B
a
t
t
i
c
a
l
o
a
H
a
m
b
a
n
t
o
t
a
J
a
f
f
n
a
(
1
)
K
i
l
l
i
n
o
c
h
c
h
i
K
u
r
u
n
e
g
a
l
a
M
a
n
n
a
r
M
a
t
a
l
e
M
o
n
a
r
a
g
a
l
a
M
u
l
l
a
i
t
i
v
u
P
o
l
o
n
n
a
r
u
w
a
P
u
t
t
a
l
a
m
T
r
i
n
c
o
m
a
l
e
e
V
a
v
u
n
i
y
a
%

C
h
a
n
g
e




_
Maha_Sc1 Maha_Sc2 Maha_Sc3 Maha_Sc4 Maha_Sc5
Change in Yala (SW) Season
rrigation Water Requirment in 2025 wrt 1991
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
C
o
l
o
m
b
o
G
a
l
l
e
G
a
m
p
a
h
a
K
a
l
u
t
a
r
a
K
a
n
d
y
K
e
g
a
l
l
e
M
a
t
a
r
a
N
u
w
a
r
a

E
l
i
y
a
R
a
t
n
a
p
u
r
a
A
m
p
a
r
a
A
n
u
r
a
d
h
a
p
u
r
a
B
a
d
u
l
l
a
B
a
t
t
i
c
a
l
o
a
H
a
m
b
a
n
t
o
t
a
J
a
f
f
n
a
(
1
)
K
i
l
l
i
n
o
c
h
c
h
i
K
u
r
u
n
e
g
a
l
a
M
a
n
n
a
r
M
a
t
a
l
e
M
o
n
a
r
a
g
a
l
a
M
u
l
l
a
i
t
i
v
u
P
o
l
o
n
n
a
r
u
w
a
P
u
t
t
a
l
a
m
T
r
i
n
c
o
m
a
l
e
e
V
a
v
u
n
i
y
a
%

C
h
a
n
g
e




_
Yala_Sc1 Yala_Sc2 Yala_Sc3 Yala_Sc4 Yala_Sc5
FIgurc 3- CnmparIsnn nf Rc!atIvc DIstrIct wIsc IrrIgatInn Dcmand Changc fnr Each C!Imatc
Changc 5ccnarIn
ENGINEER
52

inpacl of cIinale effecls logelher vilh an

irrigaled area expansion and a Iovering of
deIivery efficiency. The scenario 3 indicaled a
rise of valer denand in severaI dislricls lo
vaIues lelveen 1O-17. As in lhe Maha
season, an inprovenenl on lhe efficiency
vouId le alIe lo counler lhe cIinale change
effecls during lhe YaIa Season loo.

ModeI resuIls in Iigure 4 for YaIa season,
indicale lhal lhe changes of rainfaII does nol
shov a cIear reIalionship lo lhe changes
refIecled in lhe irrigalion Denand vaIues.
Though lhe generaI lendency couId le seen in
case of Scenario 3 and 4, lhe response is
insensilive for snaIIer changes of rainfaII.
This cIearIy refIecls lhe lehaviour of lhe
regions vilh very Iov rainfaII vhere lhe
reduclions do nol have a significanl inpacl on
lhe irrigalion denand. Moreover lhe very Iov
rainfaIIs and very high rainfaIIs are Iooked
afler in lhe denand nodeIIing lhrough lhe
incorporalion of lhreshoId vaIues for effeclive
rainfaII as given in lhe Irrigalion Deparlnenl
CuideIines. Therefore sinpIe reIalionships or
concIusions cannol le idenlified vhen lhe
syslen inpuls are cIose lo lhe lhreshoIds or
leyond lhe lhreshoIds.

3.4. Changc In Cu!tIvatInn Extcnt

Rales of change of possilIe cuIlivalion area for
Maha and YaIa seasons under a reservoir and
for each scenario vilh respecl lo lhe laseIine
are shovn in Iigure 5.

ModeI resuIls shov lhal even al a conslanl
efficiency IeveI, lhe cIinale scenario 1 and 2,
Maha Season ID Change with RF
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
-25.00 -20.00 -15.00 -10.00 -5.00 0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00
YaIa Season ID Change with RF
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
-25.00 -20.00 -15.00 -10.00 -5.00 0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00
FIgurc 4- CnmparIsnn nf RaInfa!!
Changc and thc CnrrcspnndIng
IrrIgatInn Dcmand Changc fnr cach
5patIa! UnIt and Each C!Imatc Changc
YaIa Season
-60%
-40%
-20%
0%
SC1-70 SC2-70 SC2-65 SC2-75
Maha Season
-60%
-40%
-20%
0%
SC1-70 SC2-70 SC2-65 SC2-75
FIgurc 5 - VarIatInn nf Maha and Ya!a
IrrIgab!c Arca % Undcr a MInnr
IrrIgatInn RcscrvnIr
53
ENGINEER

vouId creale a significanl Ioss of irrigalIe area

under each lank in case of a cIinale change
resuIling a reduclion of rainfaII. In lhe Anpara
dislricl vhere lhe rainfaII is expecled lo
increase vilh respecl lo 1991, lhe Scenario 1
vouId supporl lhe funclioning of lhe syslen
even vilh lhe possiliIily of enhancing lhe
exlenl under cuIlivalion. Hovever vhen lhe
rainfaII is concenlraled lo lhe vel nonlh lhe
reservoir syslen does nol receive a lenefil as
spiIIage occurs in nosl of lhe occasions.
Under such exlrene vaIue changes, il is noled
lhal lhe YaIa season reduclion of exlenl is
grealer. Scenario 4 indicales lhal lhe
delerioralion of lhe deIivery syslen or having
a poor deIivery syslen and having a poor
nanagenenl syslen vouId aggravale lhe
silualion. Maxinun possilIe irrigalIe area
under each reservoir conpuled lhrough
reservoir valer laIance, vere converled lo
percenlage change in area in order lo ollain
dislricl vise Iand exlenls. Lileralure reporled
Maha and YaIa paddy cuIlivalion exlenls
(Anarasinghe, Muluvalle and
SaklhivadiveI1999) in each seIecled dislricl
vere used vilh a proporlionaIily reIalionship
lo conpule lhe dislricl vise irrigalIe area
change due lo cIinale change scenario (Iigure
6).

These nodeI resuIls for Maha and YaIa shov
lhal lhere vouId le a very significanl inpacl
on lhe paddy farners as a resuIl of cIinale
change and lhis vouId reach very high vaIues
in case of poor nanagenenl of reservoir
syslens.


3.5. Cnnc!usIvc DIrcctInns and
Imprnvcmcnts

A. The sludy indicales lhal lhe cIinale
change scenario has a significanl inpacl
on lhe valer requirenenl for irrigalion
purposes. This vouId lurden or slress lhe
environnenlaI fIovs and aIso exerl
pressure on lhe irrigalion infraslruclure
eilher requiring expansions or forcing lo
funclion cIoser lo lheir design Iinils.
. This silualion vouId aggravale vilh
irrigaled area expansions as a resuIl of
cuIlivalion drives vhich are forced ly
high food prices in lhe IocaI narkel, high
inporl liIIs for inporled food ilens and
lhe grovlh of popuIalion.

C. The presenl sludy shoved lhal negIecling
lhe irrigalion syslens lherely decreasing
lhe efficiencies vouId significanlIy
increase lhe valer requirenenls vhich
vouId Iead lo nore expendilure on
infraslruclure rehaliIilalion and nev
syslen expansions. As such il is of
exlrene inporlance lo effecl suilalIe
nanagenenl inlervenlions in order lo
idenlify and niligale lhe cIinale change
inpacls. Capacily luiIding, effecling
suilalIe nainlenance progrannes,
idenlificalion of valer aIIocalions,
eslalIishing suilalIe dala coIIeclion
progrannes, are severaI oplions anong
olher IWRM aIlernalives for niligaling lhe
cIinale change inpacls.

D. In lhis sludy severaI assunplions such as
a projecl efficiency vaIue vilhoul spaliaI
or lenporaI varialion, a connon farn Ioss
for aII dislricls, a fixed coefficienl for inlra
annuaI rainfaII dislrilulion vere
incorporaled. AIso lhe paddy lype
cuIlivaled in each season, and lhe OICs
used for nodeIIing vere uniforn for aII
dislricls. Though lhese assunplions
provide resuIls lo nake nalionaI IeveI
decision naking in lhe presenl day conlexl
vhere no research has leen done lo Iink
cIinale change inpacls lo irrigalion
YaIa Season (Ha)
-24,000
-20,000
-16,000
-12,000
-8,000
-4,000
0
4,000
SC1-70 SC2-70 SC2-65 SC2-75
Maha Season (Ha)
-24,000
-20,000
-16,000
-12,000
-8,000
-4,000
0
4,000
SC1-70 SC2-70 SC2-65 SC2-75
FIgurc 6 - EstImatc nf Maha and Ya!a
IrrIgab!c Arca VarIatInn In Ha fnr Each
5c!cctcd DIstrIct
ENGINEER
54

infraslruclure, sludies siniIar lo lhe one

descriled in lhis vork shouId le carried
oul vilh nore specific dala and in grealer
delaiI in order lo idenlify schene IeveI
resuIls vilh regards lo lhe oplinun
paddy or OIC varielies, Iand areas lo le
irrigaled, and cuIlivalion caIendars
incorporaling lhe spaliaI varialion of rain
and evaporalion.

L. The nodeIIing efforls in lhis vork
assessed lhe prolalIe inpacls of reservoir
Iinilalions as a resuIl of cIinale change
lhrough a sludy of four dislricls vhich
vouId experience decIining as veII as
increasing rainfaIIs. Lven vilh an increase
of rainfaII, scenario 2 and 3 indicaled lhal
Anpara dislricl vouId experience
difficuIlies vilh a reduclion in cuIlivalion
area. In case of IoIonnaruva lhe reduclion
of area vilh scenario 3 vas lhe highesl al
53 in YaIa and lhe Iovesl al 3 in Maha.
Therefore sludy on lypicaI ninor
reservoirs and possilIe effecls on lhe
irrigalIe area reveaIs lhal even if lhere is
adequale valer resources in lhe counlry lo
cope vilh lhe cIinale change scenario al
lhe presenl or a noderale IeveI of
deveIopnenl, lhere couId le a najor
prolIen due lo lhe conslrainls of ninor
reservoirs due lo capacily Iinilalions.
AccordingIy il is very inporlanl for
nanagers and poIicy IeveI decision
nakers lo effecl earIy adaplalion aclions
lo slrenglhen lhe valer resources
nanagenenl in lhe irrigalion seclor and
especiaIIy in ninor lank cascade syslens.

I. The scenario idenlificalions seIecled
lypicaI vaIues of projecl efficiencies. In
case of leller approxinalions, lhe
conpuler nodeIs used for irrigalion
denand conpulalions and syslen valer
laIance, provide oplions for a decision
naker. Hovever, delaiIed sludies shouId
incorporale lhe spaliaI varialion of
connencenenl dales, projecl efficiencies,
and crop lypes so lhal leller oul puls
desired al projecl IeveI couId le conpuled
for lhe incorporalion of nanagenenl
inlervenlions lo niligaled cIinale change
inpacls.

C. In lhe alsence of hisloricaI rainfaII records
lo assess lhe lesl suiled nodeI, lhe CSIRO
nodeI oulpuls vhich provided vilh
noderale vaIues vas chosen for lhe
conparalive assessnenl in lhe presenl
vork. In case of idenlifying a reIialIe
cIinale prediclions vhich is of paranounl
inporlance for niligalion or adaplalion
aclivilies, il is inporlanl for Sri Lanka lo
use pasl dala for lhe conparison of acluaI
vaIues vilh nodeIIed cIinale predicalions
in order lo eslalIish reIalionships. Since
lhese reIalionships vouId faciIilale nore
reIialIe oulpuls, sludies perlaining lo such
shouId le inilialed al lhe earIiesl.

&RQFOXVLRQV

1. A spaliaIIy dislriluled seasonaI valer
resources anaIysis enalIed lhe
idenlificalion of dislricl vise cIinale
change inpacls on irrigalion valer
denand and lhe inpacl on lhe cuIlivalIe
exlenls faciIilaling lhe decision naker lo
seIecl appropriale adaplalion neasures.
2. The nodeIIing cIearIy indicaled lhe order
of nagnilude of adverse effecls lhal nay
arise due lo Iack of nainlenance of
irrigalion infraslruclure conlined vilh
predicled cIinale change lherely
enphasising lhe inporlance of effeclive
and efficienl valer and associaled
infraslruclure nanagenenl for a
suslainalIe socio-econonic environnenl.
3. Il is necessary lo carryoul individuaI
irrigalion schene or reservoir syslen
lased nodeIIing vilh suilalIe spaliaIIy
and lenporaIIy dislriluled dalasels for
incorporalion of Iocalion specific
adaplalion neasures.
4. CIinale change inpacls aIong vilh a
delerioralion of irrigalion syslen
efficiency fron 7O lo 65, and pressured
ly increase of cuIlivalion exlenls, vouId
increase valer denands in lolh seasons
reaching vaIues as high as 15-17 al sone
dislricls.
5. Inpacl of reservoir slorage Iinilalions on
lhe anlicipaled cIinale change scenario al
lhe sludied Iocalions, idenlified lhal vilh
a delerioraling syslen efficiency fron 7O
lo 65 vouId Iead lo reduclion in
connand areas reaching lo vaIues of 17
in Maha and 53 in YaIa.

55
ENGINEER

5HIHUHQFHV

1. Anarasinghe, U.A., Muluvalle L. and
SaklhivadiveI, R., Waler Scarcily
Varialions vilhin a Counlry: A Case Sludy
of Sri Lanka, Research Reporl 32,
InlernalionaI "Waler Managenenl
Inslilule, ISN 92-9O9O-383-X, ISSN 1O26-
O862, CoIonlo, Sri Lanka,1999.

2. Lvaporalion and Transpiralion, CIinale
Change CIearinghouse, Waler Research
Ioundalion,hllp://vvv.lhecIinalechang
ecIearin ghouse.org/-HydroIogicLffecls,
Visiled in Dec. 2OO9

3. Iernando, A.D.N., The Ancienl HydrauIic
CiviIislion of Sri Lanka in ReIalion lo
NaaluraI Resources, ]curna| cf |nc Sri |an|a
8rancn cf |nc Rcqa| Asia|ic Sccic|q, Reid
Avenue, CoIonlo 7, 1982

4. Iernando, T.K. and ChandrapaIa, L.,
CIolaI Warning and RainfaII VarialiIily
- The Sri Lankan Silualion., Prccccings cf
5
|n
|n|crna|icna| Mcc|ing cn S|a|is|ica|
C|ima|c|cgq, Toronlo, Canada, 1992

5. Ionrajah, A. }, I., Dcsign cf |rrigicn
Hcaucr|s fcr Sma|| Ca|cnmcn|s, 2
nd
Ldilion,
Irrigalion Deparlnenl, CoIonlo, Sri
Lanka, 1984

6. ID 2OO3 Irrigalion Deparlnenl, Ia|cr
S|a|is|ics nan|cc|, Deparlnenl of
Irrigalion, CoIonlo,Sri Lanka, 2OO3

7. InluIana, K.A.U.S., Wijesekera, N.T.S. and
Neupane .R., (eds.), Sri |an|a Na|icna|
Ia|cr Dctc|cpmcn| Rcpcr|, MAI&MD, UN-
WWAI, UNLSCO and Universily of
Moraluva, ISN 955 -8395-O1 -3, Sri
Lanka, Iaris and Nev DeIhi, 2OO6

8. SoIonon, S., Qin, D., Manning, M., Chen,
Z., Marquis, M., Averyl, K.., Tignor M.,
and MiIIer, H.L., (eds.)., Summarq fcr
Pc|icqma|crs. |n. C|ima|c Cnangc 2007. Tnc
Pnqsica| Scicncc 8asis. Ccn|ri|u|icn cf
Icr|ing Grcup | |c |nc |cur|n Asscssmcn|
Rcpcr| cf |nc |n|crgctcrnmcn|a| Panc| cn
C|ima|c Cnangc, Canlridge Universily
Iress, Canlridge, Uniled Kingdon and
Nev York, NY, USA.

9. Iarry, M.L., Canziani, O.I., IaIulikof, }.I.,
Vander Linden, I.}., and Hanson, C.L.,
Lds., Summarq fcr Pc|icqma|crs. |n. C|ima|c
Cnangc 2007. |mpac|s, Aap|a|icn an
Vu|ncra|i|i|q. Ccn|ri|u|icn cf Icr|ing Grcup
|| |c |nc |cur|n Asscssmcn| Rcpcr| cf |nc
|n|crgctcrnmcn|a| Panc| cn C|ima|c Cnangc,


Canlridge Universily Iress, Canlridge,
UK, 7-22.

1O. }ayaliIIake, H.M., ChandrapaIa, L.,
asnayake, .R.S.. and Dharnaralne,
C.H.I. Waler Resources and CIinale
Change Prccccings Icr|sncp cn Sri |an|a
Na|icna| Ia|cr Dctc|cpmcn| Rcpcr|, 2OO5.

11. }ayaliIIake, H.M., ChandrapaIa L.
asnayake .R.S.., Dharnaralne C.H.I.,
Waler Resources and CIinale Change,
Prccccings cf |nc Prcpara|crq Icr|sncp cn
Sri |an|a Na|icna| Ia|cr Dctc|cpmcn|
Prcjcc|, 2OO5.

12. }ayaliIIake, H.M., ChandrapaIa, L.,
asnayake, .R.S.. and Dharnaralne,
C.H.I., Waler Resources and CIinale
Change Prccccings Icr|sncp cn Sri |an|a
Na|icna| Ia|cr Dctc|cpmcn| Rcpcr|, eds.
Wijesekera, N.T.S., InluIana, K.A.U.S, and
Neupane, .,WorId Waler Assessnenl
Irogranne. Iaris, Irance, 2OO5

13. MaII, R. K, Cupla AkhiIesh, Singh Ranjeel,
Singh, R. S. and. Ralhore, L. S., Waler
Resources and CIinale Change: An Indian
Ierspeclive, Currcn| Scicncc, VoI. 9O, No.
12, 25, }une 2OO6.

14. MaII, R.K., halIa, R., and Iandey, S.N.,
Waler Resources in India and Inpacl of
CIinale Change, ]u|tigqun Samcc|snu,
VoI. 22, 2OO7.

15. jorn MaIngren, Ranalunge HuIugaIIa,
Yousay Hayashil and Takehiko Mikani,
Irecipilalion Trends In Sri Lanka Since
lhe 187Os and ReIalionships lo LI NiNo-
Soulhern OsciIIalion, |n|crna|icna| ]curna|
cf C|ima|c|cgq |n|. ]. C|ima|c|cgq. : 1235-
1252, IulIished OnIine in WiIey
Inlerscience, 2OO3.

16. Mukheilir, I., IossilIe CIinale Change
Inpacls on Iarge HydroeIeclricily,
Schenes in Soulhern Africa, ]curna| cf
|ncrgq in Scu|ncrn Africa, VoI 18 No 1,
Ielruary 2OO7

17. Navaz, N. R., AdeIoye, A. }., and
Monlaseri, M.,The Inpacl of CIinale
Change on Slorage-YieId Curves for MuIli-
Reservoir Syslens, Nordic HydroIogy, 3O
(2), 1999, 129-146

18. IraclicaI Aclion, Ironoling Adaplalion lo
CIinale Change in Sri Lanka, A lriefing
for Covernnenl Advisors and
ENGINEER
56

DeveIopnenl Iraclilioners,
hllp://praclicaIaclion.org/advocacy/docs
/advocacy/Adaplalion_lo_cIinale_chang
e_Sri_Lanka.pdf, visiled in Decenler 2OO9

19. Iarry, M.L., Canziani, O., I IaIulikof, }.I.,
vander Linden I.}., and Hanson, C.L.,
Lds., TechnicaI Sunnary. CIinale
Change 2OO7: Inpacls, Adaplalion and
VuIneraliIily. Conlrilulion of Working
Croup II lo lhe Iourlh Assessnenl5HSRUW
RI WKH ,QWHUJRYHUQPHQWDO 3DQHO RQ &OLPDWH
&KDQJH Canlridge Universily Iress,
Canlridge, UK, 23-78.

2O. Survey 1988, 7KH1DWLRQDO$WODVRI6UL/DQND
$JUR (FRORJLFDO 5HJLRQV Survey
Deparlnenl, ISN 955-9O59-OO-9, Sri
Lanka, 1988

21. Wijesekera, N.T.S., (ed in chief),
LnvironnenlaI AlIas of Sri Lanka,
CenlraI LnvironnenlaI Aulhorily,
Minislry of Lnvironnenl and NaluraI
Resources, allaranuIIa, ISN 955 -9O12-
31 -2, Sri Lanka, 2OO5
57
ENGINEER
ENGINEER - Vol. XXXXIV, No. 02, pp. [57-60], 2011
The Institution of Engineers, Sri Lanka

DctcntInn RcscrvnIrs as a F!nnd Cnntrn! Mcasurc

P. HcttIarachchI

Abstract: LnpIoying delenlion reservoirs for niligaling fIoods is a videIy appIied slralegy, aII over
lhe vorId. This is suilalIe for snaII urlan drainage syslens as veII as for Iarge fIuviaI fIood
proleclion schenes. This lechnique is noslIy appIicalIe for lhe urlan areas vhere conslruclion of
fIood lunds is reslricled due lo high vaIue of properlies lo le renoved.

Delenlion reservoir can le Iocaled vilhin lhe area lo le prolecled or sonevhere upslrean vilh Iov
popuIalion densily and Iov econonic vaIue. This viII nol onIy prolecl lhe area lo le prolecled fron
fIooding lul aIso provide faciIilies for valer lased recrealionaI aclivilies, an allraclive fealure of
nodern cilies. Iurlher, il is a suslainalIe and Iov cosl approach, free of adverse effecls such as Iand
sulsidence, depIelion of ground valer elc.

This paper viII discuss hov lhis lechnique couId le appIied for lhe proleclion of cilies Iocaled in fIood
pIains of najor rivers of our counlry.


1. IntrnductInn

IIood hazards of our counlry have increased,
draslicaIIy, in recenl hislory due lo
urlanizalion and popuIalion grovlh.
Irequency of high inlensily rainfaIIs is aIso
increasing due lo cIinale change. Ior exanpIe,
Sri Lankan connerciaI capilaI, CoIonlo cily
experienced lvo exlrene slorn evenls (494
nn in 18 hours and 44O nn in 9 hours) vilhin
18 years (in 1992 and 2O1O). olh evenls exceed
1OO year frequency rainfaII according lo our
cIassificalion (lased on lhe frequency anaIysis
of pasl records) and such high inlensily
rainfaIIs had nol leen olserved lefore. More
lhan 1OO,OOO faniIies vere affecled ly lhe
recenl fIood in Iasl Novenler.

Lven lhough il is difficuIl lo deveIop fIood
conlroI faciIilies lo cope vilh such lig evenls,
il has lo le reaIized lhal adopling sone kind of
proleclive neasures lo nininize lhe danages
are a paranounl necessily. Sone of lhe
foIIoving aIlernalives, depending on
geographicaI and socio-econonic fealures of
lhe area, can le adopled in niligaling such
hazards.

2 A!tcrnatIvc F!nnd Cnntrn!
Mcasurcs

i. Diversion of surpIus valer fron lhe
upper calchnenl lo adjacenl lasins
(lrans-lasin diversion).

ii. Reduclion of surface runoff ly
changing lhe Iand use pallern in lhe
upper calchnenl (valershed
nanagenenl).

iii. Increase of drainage capacilies ly
enIarging (videning and/or
deepening) river channeIs vhere ever
necessary.

iv. Inlroduclion of earIy varning syslen
and lineIy evacualion of peopIe and
vaIualIes fron lhe fIood prone areas.

v. Conslruclion of ly-pass canaIs lo
diverl peak fIovs in aIlernalive palhs.

vi. Conslruclion of nuIli- purpose slorage
reservoirs

vii. Conslruclion of delenlion reservoirs
for lenporary slorage and conlroIIed
reIease of fIoodvaler.

Conlinalion of severaI aIlernalives nenlioned
alove nay le nore appropriale for a
parlicuIar case. The Iasl oplion viII le videIy
discussed in lhis paper since lhis seens a nev
approach, nosl appropriale for lhe urlan
areas of our counlry. Converling lhis lo a
nuIlipurpose reservoir oplion viII nake il

(QJ0UV3+HWWLDUDFKFKL, %6F(QJ, C. |ng.,
M|| (Sri |an|a,06F+\GURORJ\
ENGINEER
58
possilIe lo address sone olher cruciaI
prolIens such as irrigalion, valer suppIy,
pover produclion elc. SingIe purpose (fIood
delenlion onIy) reservoir is nore suilalIe for
Iov Iying areas vhere providing a polenliaI
head required for hydropover or irrigalion is
nol possilIe. Hovever, lhis can le conlined
vilh sone olher purposes such as inIand
fishing, recrealion, nalure preserving elc.

Conslruclion cosls can le nininized ly
seIecling suilalIe naluraI geographic
fornalions such as naluraI Iakes and narshy
Iands vhich can easiIy le converled lo
delenlion ponds.


3. Typcs nf F!nnd DctcntInn
RcscrvnIrs

There are lvo dislincl lypes of fIood delenlion
reservoirs caIIed 'on slrean and 'off slrean,
depending on lhe Iocalion of lhe reservoir
reIalive lo lhe slrean, as iIIuslraled in lhe
FIgurc I. In an 'on slrean reservoir, dry
vealher fIov passes lhrough lhe slorage area
vhere as in 'off slrean reservoir dry vealher
fIov ly-passes lhe slorage area.

Iurlher cIassificalion is possilIe depending on
vhelher lhe slorage area is free of valer
during dry vealher condilions (dry reservoir)
or has a pernanenl pooI (vel reservoir). An
inlernediale case (vel & dry reservoir) is aIso
possilIe vhere lhe pernanenl pooI is nuch
snaIIer lhan lhe lolaI area avaiIalIe for
slorage. The Iasl lype is nosl appropriale for
nany of lhe cases having rapid infIovs
requiring vasl areas for lenporary delenlion.

Ior an 'off slrean reservoir, al Ieasl lvo fIov
conlroI slruclures are required al lhe poinls of
infIov lo lhe reservoir and al lhe oulIel of lhe
reservoir. Those inlakes and oulIels nay eilher
le veirs or conlroI gales depending on lhe
capacilies required and lhe lopography of lhe
area.


FIgurc 1-Twn Typcs nf F!nnd DctcntInn
RcscrvnIrs


4. Hnw It FunctInns

Whalever lhe lype of lhe reservoir il has lo le
discharged lo a naluraI slrean, arlificiaI canaI
or direclIy lo sea afler relaining fIood valer for
sone specified period unliI lhe slorn ceases or
lhe fIood peak passes lhe area. In an on-slrean
reservoir valer enlers lhe reservoir, lhrough
naluraI valer vays vhiIe in lhe olher lype
valer nay enler fron lhe river lhrough a
conlroI gale, veir or a spiIIvay. OulIel nay le
a veir or conlroI gale in lolh cases.

When lhere is a conlroIIed oulIel, lhe operalor
nay vary lhe gale opening so lhal during
rising Iinl of infIov hydrograph, lhe oulfIov
viII nalch lhe infIov unliI lhe capacily of lhe
dovnslrean channeI is reached (scc FIgurc 2).
Thereafler lhe gale nay le used lo nainlain
lhe oulfIov (nol exceeding dovnslrean canaI
capacily) vhiIe excess valer is laken inlo
slorage unliI lhe infIov reaches ils peak. On
lhe recession side of lhe infIov hydrograph lhe
sane oulfIov (capacily of dovnslrean canaI)
nay le nainlained in order lo evacuale
slorage as quickIy as possilIe. The oulfIov
nay le reduced lo ils dry vealher vaIue once
lhe infIov has reduced lo ils lase fIov IeveI.


OII stream
reservoir
Temporary
detention area
Permanent
pool
River
Sea
Inlet & Outlet
canals
On stream
reservoirs
59
ENGINEER


FIgurc 2 - FunctInn nf DctcntInn BasIn

5. Thc DcsIgn CnnsIdcratInns nf
F!nnd DctcntInn BasIn

In lhe preIininary slage of design, lhe
designer has lo sludy lhe lopography, soiIs,
Iand use, fIov characlerislics, fIood
frequencies and olher reIevanl socio -
econonic faclors in order lo seIecl nosl
appropriale fIood conlroI neasure for a
parlicuIar area or river lasin. If fIood delenlion
reservoir is nosl appropriale, lhe designer
nusl go for lhe hydroIogicaI design phase
vhich invoIves generalion of infIov
hydrographs and rouling lhen lhrough
proposed reservoirs elc. so as evaIuale lhe
perfornance of lhe enlire delenlion (or
relarding) lasin. Conlour survey of delenlion
lasin is necessary in lhis slep. Once lhe line
Iag lelveen infIov and oulfIov peaks and lhe
degree of allenualion have leen delernined,
lhe engineering design phase can le
connenced. Various decisions has lo le laken
in lhis slage incIuding lhe lype of pond, lhe
choice of conlroI slruclures, sizes of inIel and
oulIel canaIs and any olher deveIopnenls
necessary vilhin lhe pooI and lenporary
delenlion area.

6. Is thIs ApprnprIatc fnr Our
Prnb!cms

Mosl of lhe recenl fIood hazards vere reporled
fron lhe coaslaI cilies such as CoIonlo, CaIIe,
and Malara silualed in lhe Wel Zone of lhe
isIand. Those areas are highIy popuIaled and
experience reIaliveIy high rainfaIIs.

Irevious fIood conlroI vorks in lhose areas
vere confined lo lhe slralegy of enlanking
and channeIizalion vilh or vilhoul punping
faciIilies for slorn valer evacualion. This
nelhod is nol nuch appropriale for a
deveIoping counlry Iike ours due lo foIIoving
reasons.

1. Irolecled areas experience heavy
rainfaII (average annuaI rainfaII is
around 3OOO nn) concenlraled in
lvo nonsoonaI periods. Therefore
lhe voIune of surpIus valer lo le
evacualed is very high. Cravily
drainage is nol possilIe since lhe
areas are al Iov eIevalions,
sonelines leIov Mean Sea LeveI.
Lvacualion such Iarge voIune of
valer ly punping is exlreneIy
coslIy.

2. Incone generaled fron lhe prolecled
areas is reIaliveIy Iov and cosl of
operalion and nainlenance is nol
juslifialIe.

3. Conslruclion of fIood lunds is
reslricled due lo high vaIue of
properlies lo le renoved. Lven lhe
exisling lunds in such popuIaled
areas have leen encroached as shovn
in FIgurc 3


FIgurc 3 - Encrnachmcnts, Kc!anI F!nnd
Bunds

Conslruclion of delenlion reservoirs seens a
suslainalIe and affordalIe soIulion vhen
conpared lo olher fIood conlroI neasures.
CeneraIIy lhe Iand required is avaiIalIe in lhe
forn of inIand Iakes and narshy Iands (Iigure
4 and 5) vhich cannol le used for any olher
econonic purpose. CIearing, dredging and
renovaI of un-aulhorized conslruclions nay
le required lo increase lhe delenlion capacilies
of exisling Iakes and adjacenl narshy Iands.
D
i
s
c
h
a
r
g
e
Time
InIlow
hydrograph
OutIlow
Hydrograph
ENGINEER
60
Larlh noving operalions are nornaIIy
expensive and dredging is even nore
expensive. Therefore preserving exisling Iov
Iands is very inporlanl. Lven lhe funclion of
alandoned paddy Iands in conlroIIing fIoods
is invaIualIe. Therefore fiIIing paddy fieIds
shouId le avoided as far as possilIe.



FIgurc 4 - Marshcs and In!and Lakcs (grccn
and b!uc patchcs) In thc CIty nf Cn!nmbn

SecondIy lhe inprovenenl and reguIar
nainlenance of drainage canaI syslen is
exlreneIy inporlanl. CanaIs shouId le
accessilIe in lolh sides lo faciIilale
nainlenance vorks ly nachinery. CanaI
reservalions shouId le denarcaled and
nainlained properIy lo avoid encroachnenls.
IIood pIains and reservalions slipuIaled for
nain rivers shouId le nainlained vilhoul any
conslruclion olslrucling lhe fIov during
fIoods.

Cnnc!usInns

Irovision of delenlion reservoirs seens nosl
appIicalIe for fIood niligalion in lhe coaslaI
cilies of our counlry. These delenlion
reservoirs can serve for sone olher purposes
such as fish lreeding, nalure parks, vaIkvays
and valer lased recrealionaI aclivilies. Lov
Iands avaiIalIe in lhe forn of narshes or
inIand Iakes can econonicaIIy le uliIized for
lhis purpose. WeII nainlained fIood relarding
lasin is a suslainalIe and environnenl
friendIy soIulion for lhe prolIen of fIooding.




FIgurc 5 - KIra!akc!c Marsh at thc cIty nf
Matara (NI!wa!a BasIn)


Rcfcrcnccs

1. HaII, M. }., Hokin, D. L., and LIIis, }. .,
Dcsign cf ||cc S|cragc Rcscrtcirs, 1993
2 WippIe, W., Duc| Purpcsc Dc|cn|icn
8asins, 1979

61
ENGINEER
ENGINEER - Vol. XXXXIV, No. 02, pp. [61-72], 2011
The Institution of Engineers, Sri Lanka

,QWURGXFWLRQ

'Traffic ca|ming is a lern vhich is frequenlIy
used in discussions in urlan lraffic poIicy and
lraffic nanagenenl slralegy discussions in sone
deveIoped counlries, over lhe pasl coupIe of
decades. More recenlIy lraffic caIning lern has
leen used lo descrile a nuch vider conlexl of
lraffic nanagenenl and reslrain in cilies vorId
vide, incIuding cilies and lovns in sone
deveIoping counlries as veII. In shorl lhe lern
|raffic ca|ming incIude, any aclion or progranne
lhal reduces slreel lraffic and sIovs dovn nolor
vehicIes vilhin residenliaI and IocaI areas lo
nake lhe neighlourhoods safer and nore
peopIe friendIy (RusseII and Iharaoh, 199O).

)LJXUH6RPH&RPPRQ7UDIILF&DOPLQJ7RROV
(Scurcc.www.americantrails.org/i/resourceimages/ptnyt. )

Iigure 1 shov sone of lhe connonIy used
lraffic caIning looIs used lo sIov dovn nolor
vehicIes vilhin residenliaI and IocaI areas lo
nake lhe neighlourhoods safer and nore
peopIe friendIy.

AIlhough nunerous definilions of lraffic
caIning are found in Iileralure, aII lhese
definilions noslIy pIay around vilh differenl
vords, lul lasicaIIy vhal lhey nean is lhe
sane. Traffic caIning is lraffic conlroI aclions
& neasures lhal offer lo nininise lhe
undesiralIe inpacl of nolor vehicIes on IocaI
hunan aclivilies. Il is inporlanl lo nenlion
lhal ly caIning lraffic lhe accessiliIily and
noliIily shouId nol le significanlIy reduce for
lhe residenls, connerciaI connunily, vorkers
or visilors lo lhe area. Traffic caIning shouId
nol le nisunderslood as Iessening of lraffic in
an area, lul il is a conlroI neasure lo caIn dovn
lraffic ly reducing lhe average speeds of lraffic,
inpose road discipIine, and inprove lhe safely
of aII road users.


Eng. (Prof.) K. S. Weerasekera, 8Sc |ng (Mcra|uua),
M|ngSc (UNSI), PnD (UNSI), ||| (Sri |an|a), C|ng,
|n|P|(S|), M|| (Aus|), CP|ng, M|HT (UK), MASC|,
Prcfcsscr in Citi| |nginccring, Dcpar|mcn| cf Citi|
|nginccring, Tnc Opcn Unitcrsi|q cf Sri |an|a.

TraffIc Ca!mIng & Its App!IcabI!Ity In 5rI Lanka

K. 5. Wccrasckcra

Abstract: This paper exanines lhe concepl of lraffic caIning, looIs and nelhods avaiIalIe for lraffic
caIning process, ils effecliveness in counlries vhich lraffic caIning slralegies are adopled, and Iooks
al ils appIicaliIily in Sri Lanka especiaIIy in CoIonlo and ils sulurls. Sludy olserves lhe origin of
lraffic caIning, hov differenl lraffic caIning poIicies are pracliced in sone counlries, looIs and
devices used for lraffic caIning, hov il couId le nodified lo suil differenl silualions, and ils
adoplaliIily in lusy IocaI lovns nainIy in CoIonlo.

This paper is supporled ly a conprehensive Iileralure survey vhich exanine and sunnarise
previous sludies conducled on differenl aspecls of effecliveness of speed conlroIIing looIs used in
lraffic caIning operalions and lhe inpacls (lolh posilive and negalive) on aII road users and nearly
residenls. AIlhough lraffic caIning nay le a noveI experience lo Sri Lankan road engineers, il has
leen pracliced in sone counlries quile exlensiveIy over a consideralIe period of line. The expecled
oulcone of lhis paper is lo nake an avareness of lraffic caIning concepl and process anong lraffic
and highvay engineers in lhe counlry and encourage lhen lo praclice lraffic caIning poIicies
vherever appIicalIe neaningfuIIy in CoIonlo and ils lusy sulurls in Sri Lanka.

Kcywnrds: Traffic CaIning, LocaI Area Traffic Managenenl, LATM


1. IntrnductInn

ENGINEER
62

2. OrIgIn and HIstnry nf TraffIc
Ca!mIng

Looking inlo lhe origin and hislory of lraffic
caIning, as per Hass-KIau (199O), lhe lraffic
caIning lern is roughIy a lransIalion of Cernan
vord YHUNHKUVEHUXKLJXQJ Il is an anaIganalion
nade up fron YHUNHKU (lraffic) and EHUXKLJXQJ
(conforl, caIn or ease of nind). According lo
rindIe (1991) lhe vord YHUNHKUVEHUXKLJXQJ firsl
appeared in Cernan lechnicaI Iileralure in nid
197Os lo descrile speed conlroI neasures lhal
vere leing appIied lo IocaI slreels. Al lhe line
lhere vas a groving concern in Lurope lo
inprove lhe IivealiIily of urlan slreels ly
reducing lhe adverse inpacls of nolor vehicIes.

Traffic caIning evoIved in Lurope fron earIy
197Os in differenl counlries under differenl
lerninoIogies. In NelherIands lhe voonerf or
'shared zone concepl vas pracliced in oId
eslalIished residenliaI areas veII lefore 196Os.
The nain oljeclive of lhe Dulch ZRRQHUI
principIe vas lo design slreels vhich nade
sone kind of co-exislence possilIe lelveen
pedeslrian aclivilies and vehicIe usage on
residenliaI slreels (Hass-KIau, 199O).

In Cernany speed Iiniling praclices such as
Tenpo 3O, 4O, 5O (Iiniling speeds in residenliaI
and olher sensilive areas) vas pracliced in Iale
7Os (SchIeicher-}esler, 1989). Sveden adopled
TRAIIKILAN 77 in 1977. Laler in 1977,
SCAIT guideIines vere lried in sone Luropean
counlries.

In lhe nean line TRRL in UK vas invoIve in
deveIoping and experinenling vilh road
hunps for conlroIIing speeds in residenliaI
roads and speed lunps for parking areas
(Hodge 1992, uIpill 1995). These experinenls
Ied lo lhe deveIopnenl of fanous Walls profiIe
in 1973 (Walls, 1973). Dovn under in AuslraIia
lhe concepls of LocaI Area Traffic Managenenl
(LATM) schenes vere deveIoped in caIning or
pacifying lraffic in IocaI and residenliaI areas
(Ashlon 1981, rindIe 1991).


3. ObjcctIvcs and Lcvc!s nf TraffIc
Ca!mIng

The oljeclives of lraffic caIning can le lasicaIIy
calegorised in lo four areas, enhance safely,
space for novenenl, poIIulion reduclion, and
aeslhelics. They can le sunnarised as foIIovs.

3.1 Enhancc 5afcty
Lnhance safely lhrough eIininaling polenliaI
accidenl hazards. Il is ulnosl inporlanl lo
conlroI/guide vehicIe novenenls lo prolecl
hunan Iife, prevenl injuries lo aII road users
and avoid any properly danage.

3.2 5harc Urban 5pacc wIth Pcnp!c
When vasl expanses of road carriagevays are
eslalIished as space Iosl lo hunan aclivily,
parlicuIarIy vhen space is nol adequaleIy
uliIised ly vehicIes, lhen lhrough concepl of co-
exislence (or shared palhs) give lack sone road
space lo lhe pedeslrians and cycIisls vhiIe
ensuring lheir safely.

3.3 Rcducc Pn!!utInn and NnIsc
(MInImIsc EnvIrnnmcnta! Impacts)
The inpacls on environnenl lhrough vehicuIar
enissions, snoke, noise and, vilralion has lo le
nininised. The inporlance of proleclion of lhe
environnenl is veII underslood aII over lhe
vorId. Hence lhrough lraffic caIning aclions,
inpacl on environnenl shouId le nininised.

3.4 AcsthctIcs and AchIcvIng Harmnny
bctwccn PcdcstrIans, VchIc!cs & RcsIdcnts

Il is generaIIy accepled lhal nolor vehicIes are
inlrusive and doninaling eIenenls, parlicuIarIy
in residenliaI environnenls. Hence il is
inporlanl lo have a safe co-exislence and
harnony lelveen pedeslrians, vehicIes &
residenls.

If ve consider a reaI road nelvork, ve have
foIIoving lhree doninanl eIenenls, (i) arleriaI
roads, (ii) IocaI roads, and (iii) coIIeclor roads as
shovn in Iigure 2.



FIgurc 2 - Rnad HIcrarchy In a Rnad Nctwnrk

(i) ArleriaI Roads (AR)
(ii) LocaI Roads (LR)
(iii) CoIIeclor Roads (CR)
63
ENGINEER

The principaI funclion of a coIIeclor road is lo
dislrilule lraffic lelveen lhe arleriaI roads and
IocaI roads. Il 'coIIecls lraffic fron a calchnenl
of IocaI roads and lhen lranching off il and
connecls up lo a IocaI crossing road or arleriaI
road.

LocaI crossing roads are lhose roads vhich fuIfiI
a need lo direclIy cross a IocaI lraffic area
lecause in one dinension al-Ieasl, lhe area is loo
Iarge lo le reasonalIy circunnavigaled ly inlra-
sulurlan lraffic.

As per rindIe (1991) lhere are lhree IeveIs of
lraffic caIning lhal couId le adopled.

LeveI 1 Traffic CaIning - Aclions lo reslrain
lraffic speed and Iessen lraffic inpacls
al lhe IocaI IeveI, vhere lraffic voIunes,
IeveIs of service and nelvork capacily
are nol an issue.

In LeveI 1 lraffic caIning (al IocaI IeveI),
fev IocaI roads vilh prolIens are
seIecled and lreal lhen.

LeveI 2 Traffic CaIning - Aclions lo reslrain
lraffic speed and Iessen lraffic inpacls
al lhe corridor (inlernediale) IeveI,
vhere lraffic voIunes, IeveIs of service
and nelvork capacily are an issue.

In LeveI 2 lraffic caIning (al
inlernediale IeveI), seIecl a residenliaI
area and lreal as a unil.

LeveI 3 Traffic CaIning - Aclions al lhe nacro-
IeveI, lo Iessen lraffic IeveIs and inpacls
cily-vide.

In LeveI 3 lraffic caIning (al Macro
IeveI), seIecl a Iarge area incIuding
arleriaI roads and lreal lhe conpIele
syslen.


4. Gcncra! InfnrmatInn

In lhe posl-var scenario il is seen lhal Sri
Lankan lraffic poIice is naking a desperale
allenpl lo discipIine IocaI lraffic, and pul inlo
righl course lhe IocaI road users, lolh nolorisls
and pedeslrians. Il is encouraging lo see lhal Sri
Lankan lraffic poIice is vorking hard lhrough
various reguIaling schenes such as educalion
canpaigns, inlensive roadside offender
deleclion exercises, and noniloring
progrannes allenpling lo lring lhe Iav and
order in highvay usage. WhiIe enforcing is
conducled il is aIso inporlanl lo lake sleps lo
reguIarise lolh nolorisls, and pedeslrians
lhrough correcl poIicies.

WhiIe a lroad concepl of lraffic caIning is
covered in lhis paper, il is inporlanl lhal ve
adopl our nalionaI slandards depending on
IocaI denands and expeclalions lo suil IocaI
condilions.

y lraffic caIning lasicaIIy vhals leing carried
oul fron lraffic engineering poinl of viev are as
foIIovs:

Manage vehicuIar speeds lo desiralIe IeveIs
Inprove safely of lolh pedeslrians and
drivers
Change of lraffic fIovs
ConlroI noise IeveIs
ConlroI environnenlaI poIIulion (snoke,
dusl, harnfuI enissions)
TraveI line changes (increase / decrease)
LocaI residenls privacy
Road geonelry changes
Connunily alliludes (residenls & drivers)
Iassenger conforl


5. Why TraffIc Ca!mIng In 5rI
Lanka?

Il can le seen lhal on lop of aII safely avareness
canpaigns sphere-headed ly Sri Lanka Traffic
IoIice vilh olher reIevanl road agencies, lhe
road falaIilies and grievous injuries in Sri
Lankan roads are on lhe rise (TalIe 1). y
Iooking al lhe lolaI accidenl nunlers indicaled
al lhe lollon rov of TalIe 1, one nay gel lhe
inpression lhal accidenls are reducing over lhe
years, lul according lo lraffic poIice, lhese
nunlers indicaled in TalIe 1, refIecl nuch
Iover figures lhan lhe acluaI nunlers. The Iov
vaIues are due lo roadside sellIenenls arriving
ly affecled parlies vilhoul inforning poIice
vilh lhe heIp of insurance conpanies. Hence
nany of lhese ninor calegory accidenls are nol
gelling recorded in poIice looks. ul lhe ground
reaIily is lhal, Sri Lankan road accidenls are on
lhe rise. In lhis regard lo sonevhal ils
veIconing nevs lhal Sri Lanka Traffic IoIice
vilh lhe Defence Minislry approvaI has laken
sleps lo inslaII 1OO roadside cIosed circuil TV
caneras (CCTV) al cruciaI Iocalions in CoIonlo
for lraffic noniloring purposes. To inpIenenl
lhis isIand vide viII le a very coslIy affair.

ENGINEER
64

Table 1 - Thc Annua! AccIdcnt 5tatIstIcs

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
IalaI 2116 2141 2O65 2176 2157
Crievous 456O 4968 471O 5O36 4963
Non grievous 13918 14376 11866 12O42 11437
Danage onIy 32864 21686 14698 132O4 11863
TolaI 53458 43171 33339 32458 3O42O

(Source. Sri Lanka Traffic Police, 2009)


y olserving high IeveI of driver indiscipIine on
IocaI roads, and aIso poIice deleclion records of
driver fauIls connonIy found anong our
drivers over Iasl fev years il can le seen lhal
najorily of poIice deleclions are reIaled lo
speeding, vioIalion of road ruIes and unruIy
lehaviour ly lhree-vheeIer drivers elc. (TalIe
2). AII lhese high figures juslify lhe inporlance
and urgency lo caIn our lraffic on roads. Hence
il shovs lhe inporlance of caIning our lraffic
for leller safely and inproved road slandards.


Table 2 - Police Detections from 2004 to 2008
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

High Speeding 113543 136846 125261 153388 151702
Un Road -
worthy
vehicles 1729 1591 2319 1735 1417
Driving under
the InIluence
oI
Alcohol/Drugs 10526 12826 11418 163083 189133
Loading
Passengers
away Irom
Bus Halts 27029 25296 25199 27181 21413
OIIences
committed by
Three-Wheeler
Drivers 300470 322383 266238 279320 255710
OIIences
related to
violation oI
Road Rules 315959 338108 324727 372224 354399
Failing to stop
at Pedestrian
Crossing 38242 30629 198199 19762 7933
Violation oI
other Road
Rules 884169 678083 715682 803745 720726
Total 1691667 1545762 1669043 18204381702433

(Source. Sri Lanka Traffic Police, 2009)


6. FIndIngs nf PrcvInus 5tudIcs

An exlensive Iileralure survey vas conducled lo
sludy on speed reducing looIs used for lraffic
caIning purposes in various counlries and lheir
concIusions are sunnarised leIov. Irevious
sludies have idenlified lveIve differenl inpacls
resuIling fron lraffic caIning looIs as indicaled
in sul-seclions 6.1 lo 6.12. Iindings of lhese
sludies viII le very heIpfuI in deveIoping
appropriale lraffic caIning schenes for differenl
silualions.


6.1 VchIc!c 5pccds

Nexl paragraph indicales lhe generaI
concIusions arrived as an accunuIalion of
sludies conducled and pulIished ly foIIoving
research pulIicalions regarding lhe inpacl on
vehicIe speeds due lo lraffic caIning devices
|Walls, 1973 (UK), Sunner and aguIey, 1978
(UK), }arvis, 1978 (Ausl), Ashlon, 1981 (Ausl),
Kassen and AI-Nassari, 1982 (Saudi Aralia),
Daff and Siggins, 1982 (Ausl), Mehla, 1984
(Aus), TayIor and Rulherford, 1986 (Aus),
Cennaoui and Snilh, 1987 (Aus), Cornan el aI.,
1989 (USA), roadlend and SaInon, 1991 (UK),
ickneII, 1993 (UK), Lines, 1993 (USA), Tan and
Ward, 1994 (Aus), MacdonaId, 1995 (UK),
Weerasekera, 2OO9 (SL)j.

Il couId le concIuded fron sludies Iisled alove
lhal speed reduclions ly physicaI speed conlroI
devices used in lraffic caIning shov lhal speeds
near lhese devices can le conlroIIed ly varying
paranelers such as lhe lype of device, lhe
profiIe of lhe device, lhe spacing in lelveen
devices, lhe lypes of vehicIes riding over lhe
devices elc. AII of lhese sludies have
conlriluled lo lhe connon concIusion lhal
physicaI speed conlroI devices are capalIe of
effecliveIy reducing lhe average speeds and
percenliIe speeds near lhen. The spacing
lelveen lhe devices vas seen as an inporlanl
crilerion. Increases in lhe spacing lelveen
devices resuIled in higher average speeds and
higher naxinun inler-device speeds. The speed
reduclion al lhe devices depended on lhe
severily of forced changes of lrajeclory of lhe
vehicIes.






65
ENGINEER

6.2 5afcty nf DrIvcrs and PcdcstrIans

Nexl paragraph indicales lhe generaI
concIusions arrived as an accunuIalion of
sludies conducled and pulIished ly foIIoving
research pulIicalions on safely of drives and
pedeslrians |Sunner el aI., 1978 (UK), Sunner
and aguIey, 1978 (UK), }arvis, 198O (Aus),
Mehla, 1984 (Aus), Cornan el aI., 1989 (USA),
Iarker, 1989 (UK), Hodge, 1992 (UK), Lvans,
1994 (UK), uIpill, 1995 (UK), Weerasekera,
1998 (Aus), Weerasekera, 1999 (SL)j

Supporled ly an exlensive Iileralure survey of
'lefore and 'afler sludies, il has cIearIy shovn
grealer percenlage reduclions in accidenls,
sonelines as high as 8O in road slrelches vilh
road hunps. ased on olservalions nade on
Iarge nunler of lraffic caIning schenes, il is
nov veII accepled lhal speed conlroI devices
conlrilule grealIy lovards inproving lhe safely
of lolh pedeslrians and drivers.


6.3 TraffIc F!nw Changcs

Nexl paragraph indicales lhe generaI
concIusions arrived as an accunuIalion of
sludies conducled and pulIished ly foIIoving
research pulIicalions on lraffic fIov changes
due lo lraffic caIning schenes |Ashlon, 1981
(Aus), McDonaId and }arvis, 1981 (Aus), Iarker,
1989 (UK), Van den DooI and Iisher, 1989 (Aus),
Chua and Iisher, 1991 (Aus), Lines, 1993 (USA),
MacdonaId, 1995 (UK)j

AII of lhe alove sludies shoved lhal, fron
'lefore and 'afler lraffic counls, lraffic voIunes
vere reduced once speed conlroI devices vere
inslaIIed. These reduclions in lraffic voIunes
vere oflen significanl, and depended on lhe
degree of speed conlroI neasures appIied. Il is
evidenl lhal vhen speed conlroI devices are
used in lraffic caIning schenes, sone lraffic is
diverled lo adjacenl roules since lhese roules
lecone conparaliveIy nore allraclive for
lraveI. Hence, vhen lraffic caIning schenes are
pIanned, il is inporlanl lo ensure lhal lhe
peripheraI roads and adjacenl najor roads have
lhe aliIily lo acconnodale lhis diverled lraffic
vilhoul congeslion.


6.4 Gcnmctry

Nexl paragraph indicales lhe generaI
concIusions arrived as an accunuIalion of
sludies conducled and pulIished ly foIIoving
research pulIicalions on lhe geonelry of lraffic
caIning looIs |Walls, 1973 (UK), WaIsh, 1975
(USA), }arvis, 1978 (Aus), Kassen and AI-
Nassari, 1982 (Saudi Aralia), Hagan, 1985
(Aus), TayIor and Rulherford, 1986 (Aus),
Kjenlrup, 1988 (Dennark), Iva and Tan, 1992
(Singapore), MacdonaId, 1995 (UK)j.

The earIiesl sludies of various geonelricaI
designs of road hunps vere conducled ly
Walls (1973), and WaIsh (1975). Walls olserved
lhal very snaII hunps are nol effeclive for
aIlering lhe drivers of aII lypes of vehicIes. Il
vas found lhal lhe grealer lhe heighl of lhe
hunp, lhe nore severe lhe effecl, shorl hunps
of grealer heighls, hovever vere nol acceplalIe
on safely grounds. There has leen Iarge nunler
of experinenls carried oul in differenl counlries
reIaling lo lhe use of speed conlroI devices vilh
varying profiIes for achieving effeclive resuIls al
Iover cosls. TayIor and Rulherford (1986)
sludied lhe faniIy of 'diagonaI sIov poinls
devices used ly nany nunicipaIilies for speed
conlroI on IocaI slreels. VehicIe speed profiIes
vere neasured


6.5 NnIsc

Nexl paragraph indicales lhe generaI
concIusions arrived as an accunuIalion of
sludies conducled and pulIished ly foIIoving
research pulIicalions on noise changes due lo
lraffic caIning looIs |Sunner and aguIey, 1978
(UK), Sunner and aguIey, 1979 (UK),
McDonaId and }arvis, 1981 (Aus), TayIor, 1983
(Aus), Devar, 1984 (Aus), Mehla, 1984 (Aus),
Snilh, 1985 (Aus), Cennaoui and Snilh, 1987
(Aus), Chua and Iisher, 1991 (Aus), Van Lvery
and HoInes, 1992 (Aus)j.

A nunler of 'lefore and 'afler sludies
indicaled lhal lhere vas an overaII reduclion in
noise IeveIs vhere lraffic caIning neasures had
leen inpIenenled, nainIy due lo lhe reduclions
in lraffic voIunes and speeds (Sunner and
aguIey, 1978, 1979). In lhese sludies il vas
found lhal, near nid-lIock hunps and raised
pIalforns, lhere vas an increase in noise IeveIs
due lo lhe rallIing of goods in heavy vehicIes,
sudden lraking of vehicIes, and lhe conslanl
acceIeralion and deceIeralion of vehicIes. Il vas
noliced lhal lraffic noise is a very Iocalion-
specific inpacl and lhal lhe resuIls can
sonelines le confusing due lo faclors such as
shorl survey duralions, sudden fIuclualions in
lraffic fIov, occasionaI Ioud vehicIes, and noises
generaled IocaIIy. The duralions of noise
ENGINEER
66

recordings shouId le increased lo ollain nore
definile concIusions.

Chua and Iisher (1991) slaled lhal a 3 d(A)
change in noise IeveI is accepled as leing
necessary for lhe popuIalion as a vhoIe lo
nolice a difference in lhe noise. Hovever, lhe
avaiIalIe dala on lraffic speed and voIune
reduclion suggesled lhal a nolicealIe difference
of 3 d(A) occurred in silualions vhich had
reduclions of voIune ly 5O, or sonevhal
Iesser reduclions coupIed vilh grealer speed
changes (Sunner and aguIey 1978, 1979,
Mehla, 1984). More sludies of noise changes
around speed conlroI devices vilh Ionger
survey duralions have leen proposed.


6.6 CnmmunIty AttItudcs

Nexl fev paragraphs in seclion 6.6 indicales lhe
generaI concIusions arrived as an accunuIalion
of sludies conducled and pulIished ly
foIIoving research pulIicalions regarding
connunily alliludes lovards lraffic caIning
schenes and looIs used for lraffic caIning |Daff
and Siggins, 1982 (Aus), Cennaoui and Snilh,
1987 (Aus), Van den DooI and Iisher, 1989
(Aus), Cornan el aI., 1989 (USA), Chua and
Iisher, 1991 (Aus)j.

Connunily alliludes lovards speed-reducing
devices have leen revieved in lhe sludies Iisled
alove. There seened lo le slrong agreenenl
vilh lhe assunplion lhal residenliaI slreels are
prinariIy for lhe residenls and secondariIy for
lraffic. The sludies alove, nosl of vhich vere
lased on pulIic opinion surveys, inlervievs and
househoId queslionnaire surveys, shov lhal lhe
najorily of lhe residenls are in favour of speed-
reducing schenes in residenliaI areas. These
surveys aIso shoved lhal lhe najorily of lhe
residenls and divers vere in favour of physicaI
speed conlroI devices such as road hunps,
raised pIalforns and sIov poinls lul lhal lhere
vas aIvays a group vho opposed lhen. The
issue of physicaI speed conlroI devices as a
speed conlroI neasure has proved lo le a very
poIarising issue, eilher peopIe Iiked lhen or
disIiked lhen.

These sludies shov lhal lhe najorily of lhe
pulIic accepled lhe nolion lhal physicaI speed
conlroI devices heIped lo reduce overaII speeds
and lraffic voIunes on lhe roads hovever, lhere
vere sonevhal differenl opinions on lhe
foIIoving issues:

Safely near lhese devices
Minor danage and increased vear and
lear lo vehicIes
Appearance of lhese devices and
changes lo slreelscapes
Iedeslrian crossing difficuIlies
TraveI line differences
Road-side parking
Lffecls on nearly properly vaIues
Access fron drivevays
Shapes and sizes of lhe devices

The connon pulIic conpIainls aloul hunps
and raised pIalforns vee reIaled lo noise
generalion near lhese devices and
passenger/driver disconforl. AII of lhese
sludies shoved a generaI acceplance of lhese
devices ly lhe najorily of lhe connunily if
properIy uliIised.


6.7 DrIvcr and Passcngcr Cnmfnrt

Nexl lvo paragraphs in seclion 6.7 indicales lhe
generaI concIusions arrived as an accunuIalion
of sludies conducled and pulIished ly
foIIoving research pulIicalions regarding
driver and passenger conforl |Walls, 1973 (UK),
Sunner and aguIey, 1978 (UK), }arvis, 198O
(Aus), Kassen and AI-Nassari, 1982 (Saudi
Aralia), Kjenlrup, 1988 (Dennark), }arvis and
Ciunnarra, 1992 (Aus)j.

Kjenlrup (1988) connenled lhal lhe verlicaI
acceIeralion lo vhich a person is suljecled in
passing over a hunp depends on (i) lhe
geonelric design of lhe hunp, (ii) lhe verlicaI
speed, (iii) lhe vehicIe suspension syslen, (iv)
lhe vehicIe lyre pressure, and (v) lhe soflness of
lhe seal, elc.

}arvis (198O) produced a series of pIols
indicaling driver/passenger disconforl versus
vehicIe crossing speed for differenl lypes of
vehicIes, and for differenl profiIes of speed
conlroI devices, vhich suiled AuslraIian
condilions. Many disconforl IeveI (of
driver/passenger) sludies have leen foIIoved
in olher counlries as veII.


6.8 Effccts nn DIffcrcnt Typcs nf VchIc!cs

Nexl lvo paragraphs in seclion 6.8 indicales lhe
generaI concIusions arrived as an accunuIalion
of sludies conducled and pulIished ly
foIIoving research pulIicalions on lhe effecls on
differenl lypes of vehicIes |Walls, 1973 (UK),
67
ENGINEER

}arvis, 198O (Aus), Kjenlrup, 1988 (Dennark),
}arvis and Ciunnarra, 1992 (Aus)j.

Walls (1973) sludied lhe effecl of road hunps
on differenl lypes of vehicIes al varying crossing
speeds, ly giving differenl disconforl ralings
for vehicIes. Il concIuded lhal vilh respecl lo
speeds, Iarger goods vehicIes vere lhe nosl
affecled for lhe najorily of lhe differenl hunp
profiIes lhal vere invesligaled. Laler, lhe on-sile
lesls carried ly TRRL (Sunner & aguIey, 1978
& 1979) shoved Iarge reduclions of heavy
vehicIes and aIso a significanl reduclion in lhe
nunler of nolor cycIes on roads vilh hunp
inslaIIalions. SiniIar resuIls vere olserved fron
a Danish sludy (Kjenlrup, 1988) vhich
neasured lhe effecl of hunps (C-hunps and T-
hunps vilh varying dinensions) on 3 differenl
lypes of vehicIes (nornaI cars, luses and Iong,
arlicuIaled vehicIes). This sludy proved lhal
cars pass over lhese devices vilh nuch nore
ease lhan Ionger vehicIes.

Iron lhe ARR research on differenl profiIes of
raised pIalforns il vas found lhal raised
pIalforns vilh ranp Ienglhs of 2 neler and
heighls of 1OO nn produced acceplalIe crossing
characlerislics for luses al speeds up lo 24
kn/h (}arvis and Ciunnarra, 1992). Il vas
concIuded lhal raised pIalforns vilh lhis profiIe
had a good laIance lelveen lhe requirenenls
for conlroI of passenger car speeds, and lhe
need for lus occupanl conforl (lolh driver and
passengers).


6.9 Travc! TImc

Nexl lvo paragraphs in seclion 6.9 indicales lhe
generaI concIusions arrived as an accunuIalion
of sludies conducled and pulIished ly
foIIoving research pulIicalions on lraveI line
|Sunner and aguIey, 1978 (UK), Sunner and
aguIey, 1979 (UK), McDonaId and }arvis, 1981
(Aus), Daff and Siggins, 1982 (Aus), Melha, 1984
(Aus)j.

AII of lhe alove sludies indicaled lhal lhere vas
a definile increase in lraveI line depending on
lhe Ienglh of road for vhich lraffic caIning vas
done and lhe degree of neasures appIied. TRRL
sludies (Sunner & aguIey, 1978 & 1979)
shoved consideralIe increase in average lraveI
lines, in sone cases as high as 9O (al a
Iocalion vilh nine Walls profiIe hunps vilhin a
slrelch of 75O nelres) vhere lhe speed conlroI
devices vere severeIy appIied. Daff and Siggins
(1982) olserved a snaIIer percenlage in average
lraveI lines 3O on a 1.7 kn road slrelch vilh
seven horizonlaI dispIacenenl sIov poinls.

Mehla (1984) noled lhal in lhe evaIualion of
sone residenliaI area lraffic caIning schenes in
AuslraIia an average lraveI line increase of
lelveen 2O and 4O seconds conpared lo
vilhoul lraffic caIning looIs. This vas due lo
lraffic diversions lo peripheraIs, lhal resuIling
fron lhe conlroI neasures appIied lo lhe
residenliaI area.


6.10 Emcrgcncy Rcspnnsc TImcs

Nexl lhree paragraphs in seclion 6.1O indicales
lhe generaI concIusions arrived as an
accunuIalion of sludies conducled and
pulIished ly foIIoving research pulIicalions on
novenenl of energency vehicIes and effecl on
lheir response lines due lo lraffic caIning
schenes |Daff and Siggins, 1982 (Aus), Cornan
el aI., 1989 (USA), Lvans, 1994 (UK), uIpill,
1995 (UK)j.

Lvans (1994) olserved lhal fron a sludy done in
UK, lhe nosl vorrying crilicisn had cone fron
anluIance and fire services, vhich had olvious
concerns aloul lhe cunuIalive effecl on lheir
response lines.

In conlrariIy Cornan el aI. (1989) in lheir
evaIualion sludy of road hunps in Onaha in
US poinled oul lhal for energency vehicIes lhe
road hunps vere nol an issue as Iong as lhey
vere pIaced on coIIeclor and najor roads. They
suggesled lhal if a road hunp is lo le inslaIIed
on such a road, poIice and fire deparlnenls
shouId le consuIled lefore proceeding.
Hovever, lhey connenled lhal lhe acluaI
increase in response line lecause of a lypicaI
road hunp is of lhe order of a fev seconds and
argued lhal il is nol Iife-lhrealening in nosl
cases.

AII lhe alove sludies connonIy concIuded lhal
lhe inslaIIalion of physicaI speed conlroI devices
increases lhe response line of energency
vehicIes, aIlhough lhere are confIicling vievs on
lhe inporlance of lhis increase.


6.11 Fuc! CnnsumptInn

Nexl lvo paragraphs in seclion 6.11 indicales
lhe generaI concIusions arrived as an
accunuIalion of sludies conducled and
pulIished ly foIIoving research pulIicalions on
ENGINEER
68

lhe effecl on fueI consunplion due lo lraffic
caIning schenes |TayIor and Anderson, 1982
(Aus), Moses, 1989 (UK/USA), Zilo and TayIor,
1996 (Aus)j.

Iron a series of fieId experinenls using an
inslrunenled car equipped vilh ARRs fueI
lraveI line dala acquisilion syslen vilh a CIS
posilioning syslen and a speed and lraveI-line
noniloring syslen, Zilo & TayIor (1996)
olserved lhal a road slrelch vilh a series of
hunps increased vehicIe fueI consunplion,
vhereas lhe inlroduclion of nini-roundalouls
decreased lhe overaII fueI consunplion. These
resuIls confirned lhe earIier cIains ly Moses
(1989) lhal road hunps and unduIalions of road
surfaces increase lhe overaII fueI consunplion
of vehicIes, sonelines ly up lo 2O.

The increases in fueI consunplion vhen driving
over verlicaI dispIacenenl devices and sIov
poinls are allriluled lo lhe conslanl changing of
gears and lraveI in Iov gear near and on lhe
devices.

6.12 AIr Pn!!utInn frnm VchIc!c Exhausts

Nexl lvo paragraphs in seclion 6.12 indicales
lhe generaI concIusions arrived as an
accunuIalion of sludies conducled and
pulIished ly foIIoving research pulIicalions on
air poIIulion fron vehicIe exhausls due lo lraffic
caIning schenes |TayIor and Anderson, 1982
(Aus), Van Lvery and HoInes, 1992 (Aus),
uIpill, 1995 (UK)j.

Van Lvery & HoInes (1992), fron a reviev of
Iileralure on lhe environnenlaI and energy
lenefils of LATM, found sulslanliaI evidence of
a delerioralion of environnenlaI condilions due
lo increases in air poIIulion as a resuIl of
increased acceIeralion and lraking ly drivers
near physicaI speed conlroI devices. They
shared lhe viev lhal lhe inpacl on air quaIily as
a resuIl of an LATM schene is reIaled lo lhe
changes in fueI consunplion. In LATM schenes
vilh nid-lIock speed conlroI devices lhis is
nornaIIy a posilive change and lhe percenlage
increase in fueI consunplion vas found lo
depend on lhe degree of lraffic caIning
neasures appIied.

TayIor & Anderson (1982), ly appIying lhe
MULATM nodeI lo sone Soulh AuslraIian
LATM schenes, cane up vilh siniIar vievs.
uIpill (1995), ly anaIyzing sone lraffic caIning
schenes in lhe UK vhich invoIved road hunps
and raised pIalforns, nade siniIar olservalions
lo Van Lvery and HoInes (1992), and slaled lhal
vehicIe exhausls increase air poIIulion as
vehicIes speed up or sIov dovn over lhe
olslacIe course.

5ummary

Seclions 2, 3 and 5 of lhis paper invesligales lhe
concepl of lraffic caIning, ils origin and hislory,
lhe oljeclives al differenl IeveIs of lraffic
caIning, and reason oul vhy ils required in Sri
Lanka. Through lhe sludies conducled in
differenl parls of lhe vorId Iisled in seclion 6.1
lo 6.12 il vas olserved, lhe hisloricaI
lackground, lhe effecls of looIs used for lraffic
caIning, lheir inpacl on differenl aspecls, and
aIso hov al differenl parls of lhe vorId speed
nanagenenl issues in residenliaI, coIIeclor, and
sul-arleriaI roules vilhoul/vilh high
pedeslrian invoIvenenls are addressed lhrough
lraffic caIning.


7. Imp!cmcntatInn nf TraffIc
Ca!mIng 5chcmcs

Afler sludying lhe inporlance of
vehicIe/pedeslrian inleraclion and lhe neasures
adopled lo inprove lhis reIalionship in differenl
counlries il vas olserved lhal lhe
inpIenenlalion of slricl speed conlroI neasures
such as road hunps and raised pIalforns is nov
leconing faniIiar lo nany nunicipaIilies lhal
are lrying lo reduce lhe speeds in residenliaI
slreels as veII as sul-arleriaI roads vilh high
lraffic fIovs. Sone aulhorilies are nov nol
hesilaling lo use lhese devices on lusy arleriaI
roads running lhrough lovn cenlres (Hopper &
Cannon 1994, Creed & Menzies 1996). Traffic
caIning looIs such as, raised lhreshoIds, raised
pIalforns, curviIinear aIignnenls and lraffic
circIes are suilalIe devices for lusy arleriaI
roads.

Where lhe convenlionaI speed reducing
neasures vilh sIighl nodificalions are used in
roads vilh high lraffic vilh a high degree of
vehicIe/pedeslrian inleraclion il is inporlanl lo
have a lhorough underslanding of lhe
lehaviour of lhese devices and lheir inpacl on
fundanenlaI characlerislics of lraffic. This
Iileralure search has leen direcled lovards
achieving a conpIele underslanding of lhe
exisling knovIedge of lhe perfornance of
connonIy-used physicaI speed conlroI devices.
The presenl knovIedge aloul lhe perfornance
of lhese looIs has leen assessed.

69
ENGINEER
Iron lhe Iileralure sludy il vas noled lhal lhere
are sone connonIy used lraffic caIning looIs
vhich are exlensiveIy used aII over lhe vorId
for lraffic caIning operalions. They are Iisled
leIov:

Lnlry ThreshoIds
Speed Hunps
Offsel Carriagevay
Roundaloul/Traffic CircIe
Raised ThreshoId
Raised IIalforns
CurviIinear AIignnenl
One/Tvo Lane SIov Ioinls
Dianond SIov Ioinls
Inlerseclion Trealnenls
Curl Lxlensions
DiagonaI Diversions
Chicane
AngIed SIov Ioinls
Necking
T-Diversion
RunlIe Slrip
Median IsIand
Wonlal Crossing
Shared Zones
Appropriale Road Signs
LIeclronic Infornalion
CIose Circuil Caneras/Lnforcenenl
Appropriale Landscaping
Differenl Surface Trealnenls
Road CIosures & Diversions


Sone of lhe references indicaled in lhis sludy
offer conprehensive delaiIs of lhe lraffic
caIning looIs indicaled alove, vilh inporlanl
dinensions of lhis differenl lraffic caIning looIs,
and aIso suggesling lhe suilalIe Iocalions for
lheir effeclive inslaIIalions.

Iigure 2 indicales an exanpIe of a sinpIe
lypicaI lraffic caIning schene lhal couId le
adopled in a residenliaI area ly using sone of
lhe alove nenlioned lraffic caIning looIs.
SiniIar lype of lraffic caIning schenes
(IocaI/sile specific) couId le designed ly lraffic
engineers vilh lhe agreenenl of aII reIevanl
slake hoIders.






FIgurc 2 - TypIca! TraffIc Ca!mIng 5chcmc


8. App!IcabI!Ity In 5rI Lanka

Through lhis sludy il vas allenpled lo
denonslrale successfuI appIicaliIily of lraffic
caIning for a sanpIe of CoIonlo residenliaI
roads ly sludying a nelvork of roads around
HaveIock Tovn and Thinlirigasyaya in
CoIonlo 5.

Iigure 3 indicales lhe Iocalions of lraffic caIning
looIs lhal are proposed, and leIov indicales lhe
Iisl of looIs lhal couId le inslaIIed lo inpIenenl
lhe proposed CoIonlo lraffic caIning zone.

A - Roundaloul/Traffic CircIe
- Chicane
C - Roundaloul/Traffic CircIe
D/L - Raised IIalforns
I - Lnlry ThreshoId
C - Roundaloul/Traffic CircIe
H/I - Raised IIalforns
} - Raised ThreshoId
K - Roundaloul/Traffic CircIe
L - Traffic SignaIs
M - Roundaloul/Traffic CircIe
N - Traffic SignaIs
O - Speed Hunps
ENGINEER
70




FIgurc 3 - Prnpnscd TraffIc Ca!mIng 5chcmc


9. Cnnc!usInns

Il vas olserved fron sile invesligalions lhal lhe
proposed Traffic caIning schene al HaveIock
Tovn and Thinlirigasyaya in CoIonlo 5 couId
le inpIenenled vilh ease, since road vidlhs
are adequale for proposed lraffic caIning looIs.
ul lhis nay nol lhe silualion everyvhere.

When lraffic caIning schenes are lo le
inpIenenled under Sri Lankan conlexl
foIIoving are sone of lhe difficuIlies lhal couId
le anlicipaled.

1. Since lhe IocaI road users are nol
accusloned lo lraffic caIning schenes a
process of educalion nay le necessary.

2. AvaiIalIe carriagevay vidlhs of our roads
nay le nol sufficienl for sone of lhe lraffic
caIning looI lo le inslaIIed al sone
Iocalions. Therefore sone accepled looIs
used eIsevhere nay nol le suilalIe for
IocaI condilions.

3. Research and furlher sludies nay le
required in such cases. Research on space
uliIised, cosl of slruclures and road user
responses couId le conducled lo suil IocaI
condilions.

4. UnIike in sone silualions vhere IocaI area
lraffic caIning schenes have leen
successfuIIy inpIenenled in sone
deveIoped counlries, in Sri Lankan conlesl
since lhe avaiIalIe road vidlhs are narrov,
soIulions lhrough inlroducing curviIinear
aIignnenl or carriagevay narroving viII
nol le an appropriale soIulion.

5. The high cosls invoIved in sone
inslaIIalions nay creale difficuIlies lo lhe
reIevanl IocaI road agencies.

6. If heavy lraffic diversions occur on lo IocaI
or residenliaI roads residenls nay agilale.

7. Road aulhorilies nay have lo face
denands lroughl lhrough pressure groups
vilh vesled inleresls & poIilicaI
inlerferences lhal can lake pIace.

Il is inporlanl lo renenler lhal lhere is no
ideaI soIulion or lype pIan for any lraffic
caIning schene, lul every schene is differenl
fron one anolher and lhey are sile specific and
aIso shouId le acceplalIe lo lhe slake hoIders
vho are lhe finaI leneficiaries.

Rcfcrcnccs

1. Ashlon, N. R., 'Achieving Lover Speeds in
ResidenliaI Slreels, )LUVW 1DWLRQDO &RQIHUHQFH RQ
/RFDO *RYHUQPHQW (QJLQHHULQJ AdeIaide, Augusl
24-27, 1981.

2. ickneII, D., 'Traffic CaIning, 3URFHHGLQJV RI WKH
,QVWLWXWLRQ RI &LYLO (QJLQHHUV VoI. 98, Issue 1,
March 1993.

3. rindIe, R. L., 'Traffic CaIning in AuslraIia: A
Definilion and Connenlary, -RXUQDO RI WKH
$XVWUDOLDQ 5RDG 5HVHDUFK %RDUG, VoI. 21, No. O2,
}une 1991, pp. 37-55.

4. roadlend, K. and SaInon, A. M., 'An
Lxperinenl vilh Road Hunps, -RXUQDO RI
,QVWLWXWLRQ RI +LJKZD\V DQG 7UDQVSRUWDWLRQ VoI.
38, No. 11, Novenler 1991.

5. uIpill, M., 'Traffic CaIning - Have ve Civen
everyone lhe Hunp or Is il jusl a Load of
Chicanery`, -RXUQDORIWKH,QVWLWXWLRQRI+LJKZD\V
DQG 7UDQVSRUWDWLRQ VoI. 42, No. 12, Decenler
1995.

6. Chua, C. S. and Iisher, A. }., 'Ierfornance
Measurenenls of LocaI Area Traffic
Managenenl: A Case Sludy, -RXUQDO RI WKH
$XVWUDOLDQ 5RDG 5HVHDUFK %RDUG VoI. 21, No. 2,
}une 1991.
A
8
C
D L
I
G
n
I
I
k
L
M
N
C
71
ENGINEER

7. Creed, C. D. & Menzies, ., 'Traffic CaIning on
Trunk Roads in Lasl Canlridgeshire, ]curna| cf
|nc |ns|i|u|icn cf Hignuaqs an Transpcr|a|icn,
Lasl MidIands SpeciaI Issue, Seplenler 1996.

8. Daff, M. R. and Siggins, I. D. K., 'On Road TriaIs
of Sone Nev Types of SIov Ioinls, Prccccings
cf 11
|n
Aus|ra|ian Rca Rcscarcn 8car Ccnfcrcncc,
VoI. 11, Il. 4., 1982.

9. Devar, W., 'The Lasl RoseviIIe Lxperinenl:
Seplenler 1983 - March 1984, Prccccings cf |nc
3
r
A|TPM |crum, Sydney, 1984.

1O. Lvans, D., 'Traffic CaIning: The Iirsl Iive Years
and lhe Oxfordshire Lxperience, Prccccings cf
|nc |ns|i|u|icn cf Citi| |nginccrs - Municipa|
|nginccr, VoI. 1O3, Issue 1, March 1994.

11. Iva, T. I. and Tan, L. S., 'Ceonelric
Characlerizalion of Road Hunps for Speed-
ConlroI Design, ]curna| cf Transpcr|a|icn
|nginccring, VoI. 118, Nc. 4, ]u|q-Augus| 1992.

12. Cennaoui, I. R. and Snilh, I. A., 'Lffecliveness
of LATM Devices, 4
|n
Na|icna| |cca| Gctcrnmcn|
|nginccring Ccnfcrcncc, Ierlh, 17-21 Augusl
1987.

13. Cornan, M. N., Moussavi, M. and McCoy, I. T.,
'LvaIualion of Speed Hunp Irogran in lhe Cily
of Onaha, |T| ]curna|, |ns|i|u|c cf Transpcr|a|icn
|nginccrs, VoI. 59, No. 6, }une 1989.

14. Hagan, W. . 'IhysicaI Design CuideIines for
Use in ResidenliaI Slreel Managenenl, Tnir
Na|icna| |cca| Gctcrnmcn| |nginccring Ccnfcrcncc,
Mc||curnc, 26-29, Augusl 1985.

15. Hass-KIau, C, 'Tnc Pccs|rian Ci|q Traffic,
eIhavan Iress, London, 199O.

16. Hodge, A. R., 'A Reviev of lhe 2O niIe/h Speed
Zones: 1991, Traffic |nginccring an Ccn|rc|, VoI.
33, No. 1O, Ocloler 1992.

17. Hopper, K. and Cannon, R., 'Traffic CaIning
Herlfordshires Tovn Cenlres, Tnc ]curna| cf |nc
|ns|i|u|icn cf Hignuaqs an Transpcr|a|icn, VoI.
41, No. 1O, Ocloler 1994.

18. }arvis, }. R., 'A Survey of Traffic Speed ConlroI
Devices (Speed Hunps) found in and around
MeIlourne, Aus|ra|ian Rca Rcscarcn 8car,
|n|crna| Rcpcr|, A|R 284-1, 1978.

19. }arvis, }. R., 'The Off-road Tesling of Road
Hunps for Use Under AuslraIian Condilions,
Prccccings cf |nc 10
|n
Aus|ra|ian Rca Rcscarcn
8car Ccnfcrcncc, VoI. 1O, Il. 4., 198O.

2O. }arvis, }. R. and Ciunnarra, C., 'Hunps for Use
on us Roules, Rca an Transpcr| Rcscarcn, VoI.
1, No. 4, Decenler 1992.

21. Kassen, L. and AI-Nassar, Y., 'Dynanic
Consideralions of Speed ConlroI Hunps,
Transpcr| Rcscarcn, VoI. 16, No. 4, Augusl 1982.

22. Kjenlrup, K., 'Spcc Rcucing Mcasurcs,
Prccccings cf |nc Aus|ra|ian Rca Rcscarcn 8car,
VoI. Ils 1-2, 1988.

23. Lines, C. }., 'Road Hunps for lhe ConlroI of
VehicIe Speeds, Traffic |nginccring c Ccn|rc|,
}anuary 1993.

24. MacdonaId, C., 'Quanlifying VehicuIar user
ehaviour, Papcr prcscn|c a| |nc 7
|n
Icr|
Ccnfcrcncc cn Transpcr| Rcscarcn (ICTR),
Sydney, 1995.

25. McDonaId, I. L. and }arvis, }. R, 'The use of
Road Hunps on ResidenliaI Slreels in lhe Shire
of Corio ARR8 |n|crna|icna| Rcpcr|, A|R 335-2,
1981.

26. Mehla, A. |cca| Arca Traffic Managcmcn|. |csscns
|c a|c, Traffic Aulhorily of NSW, Novenler
1984.

27. Moses, I. }., 'LocaI Area Traffic Managenenl in
Lurope and Norlh Anerica, 5
|n
Na|icna| |cca|
Gctcrnmcn| |nginccring Ccnfcrcncc, Sydney,
24-29, Seplenler 1989.

28. Iarker, R. A, 'Road Hunps, Do They ReaIIy
Represenl Cood VaIue for Money`, Prccccings
cf |urcpcan Transpcr| an P|anning, 17
|n
Summcr
Annua| Mcc|ing, 11-15 Seplenler, ITRC
Lducalion and Research Services Lld., 1989.

29. RusseII, }. and Iharaoh, T., 'Speed Managenenl
and lhe RoIe of Traffic CaIning in Road Safely,
Rcscarcn Papcr Nc. 35, Dcpar|mcn| cf Tcun an
Ccun|rq P|anning, Heriol-Wall Universily,
Ldinlurgh, 199O.

3O. SchIeicher-}esler, I., 'Tenpo 3O in Tovns -
ResuIls of a Cernan Lxperinenl, Prccccings cf
|urcpcan Transpcr| an P|anning, 17
|n
Summcr
Annua| Mcc|ing, 11-15 Seplenler, ITRC
Lducalion and Research Services Lld, 1989.

31. Snilh, L. A., Traffic Ncisc an |ATM,
AuslraIian AcouslicaI Sociely - 1985
Conference, 1985.

32. Sunner, R., and aguIey, C., 'Speed ConlroI
Hunps in Norvich and Haringey, TRR|
Supp|cmcn|arq Rcpcr| SR 423, Transporl
Research Laloralory, Crovlhorne, 1978.

33. Sunner, R., urlon, }. and aguIey, C., 'Speed
ConlroI Hunps in Cuddesdon Way, CovIey,
Oxford, TRR| Supp|cmcn|arq Rcpcr| SR 350,
Transporl Research Laloralory, Crovlhorne,
1978.


ENGINEER
72

34. Sunner, R. and aguIey, C., 'Speed ConlroI
Hunps in Kensinglon and CIasgov, TRR|
Supp|cmcn|arq Rcpcr| SR 456, Transporl
Research Laloralory, Crovlhorne, 1979.

35. Tan, H. W. and Ward, ., 'VehicIes lhrough 9O
O

ends, Prccccings cf |nc Aus|ra|ian Rca
Rcscarcn 8car, VoI. 17, Il. 5., 1994.

36. TayIor, M. A. I., 'Design Aids for LocaI Area
Traffic Managenenl, 2
n
Na|icna| Ccnfcrcncc cn
|cca| Gctcrnmcn| |nginccring, rislane, 19-22
Seplenler 1983.

37. TayIor, M. A. I. and Anderson, M., 'ModeIing
IoIIulion and Lnergy Use in Urlan Road
Nelvorks, Prccccings cf |nc Aus|ra|ian Rca
Rcscarcn 8car, VoI. 13, Ils. 7-9, 1982.

38. TayIor, M. A. I. and Rulherford, L. M. 'Speed
IrofiIes al SIov Ioinls on ResidenliaI Slreels,
Prccccings cf |nc Aus|ra|ian Rca Rcscarcn 8car,
VoI. 13, Ils 7-9, 1986.

39. Van Den DooI, D. I. and Iisher, A. }., 'LATM
Design Oplinisalion Can We IIease Lveryone`,
5
|n
Na|icna| |cca| Gctcrnmcn| |nginccring
Ccnfcrcncc, Sydney, 24-29, Seplenler 1989.

4O. Van Lvery, . and HoInes, M., 'LocaI Area
Traffic Managenenl: Lffecls on lhe
Lnvironnenl, Lngineering and lhe
Lnvironnenl, |cca| Gctcrnmcn| |nginccring
Ccnfcrcncc, AdeIaide, 18-19 March, 1992,
Deparlnenl of Transporl, AdeIaide, 1992.

41. WaIsh, L. ., 'A S|uq cf Spcc 8umps,
Transporlalion Division, Depl. of IulIic Works,
Cily of San }ose, CaIifornia, 1975.

42. Walls, C. R. 'Road Hunps for lhe ConlroI of
VehicIe Speeds, Transpcr| an Rca Rcscarcn
|a|cra|crq 597, TRRL, UK, 1973

43. Weerasekera, K. S., 'Negalive Lffecls of Mid-
lIock Speed ConlroI Devices and lheir
Inporlance in lhe OveraII Inpacl of Traffic
CaIning on lhe Lnvironnenl, Transpcr|a|icn
Rcscarcn an |n|crna|icna| ]curna|, Iarl D:
Transporl and Lnvironnenl, VoI. 3D, No. 1,
pp.41-5O, LIsevier Science Lld, USA, 1998.

44. Weerasekera, K. S., 'Sone Disadvanlages of
SnaII Roundalouls or Traffic Rolaries
Prccccings cf |nc |n|crna|icna| Ccnfcrcncc cn
|ntircnmcn|a| Cna||cngcs fcr |nc Ncu Mi||cnnium,
Universily of }ania MiIia IsIania, Nev DeIhi,
India, 25-29, Novenler 1999.

45. Weerasekera, K. S., 'Achieving Iover speeds in
lhe CoIonlo RegionaI Cenlre, OUSL inlernaI
roads, Prccccings cf |nc Annua| Acacmic
Scssicns 2009 cf |nc Opcn Unitcrsi|q cf Sri |an|a,
15
lh
& 16
lh
Ocloler 2OO9.

46. Zilo, R. and TayIor, M. A. I. 'Speed IrofiIes and
VehicIe IueI Consunplion al LATM Devices,
Prccccings cf Rcas 96, Ccnfcrcncc, Il. 7, 1996.

47. uuu.amcrican|rai|s.crg/i/rcscurccimagcs/p|nq|


73
ENGINEER
ENGINEER - Vol. XXXXIV, No. 02, pp. [73-81], 2011
The Institution of Engineers, Sri Lanka
AdjudIcatInn In CnnstructInn Cnntracts
A. RanasInghc and J.C. Knra!c

Abstract: Adjudicalion is a forn of aIlernale dispule resoIulion nelhod used videIy in lhe
conslruclion induslry. This process is carried oul ly an independenl person seIecled ly lhe parlies in
a conlracl.

The Adjudicalor has lo carry oul a fairIy delaiIed sludy of lhe dispule referred lo hin and such vork
incIudes invesligalion, idenlificalion of lhe dispule, IegaI and conlracluaI issues. The parlies lo lhe
dispule are free lo nake lheir ovn presenlalions in lhe forn of docunenlary and verlaI evidence,
pholographs, reporls elc. The duralion of adjudicalion is Iiniled lo lhe nunler of days in lhe conlracl
agreenenl lhey have enlered inlo. The Adjudicalor aIso nighl have lo carry oul sile visils, neelings
elc. lo ollain furlher cIarificalion vilh respecl lo lhe dispuled nallers.

Il is aIso equaIIy inporlanl lhal lhe principIes of naluraI juslice have lo le foIIoved ly lhe
Adjudicalor. CeneraIIy, in adjudicalion, no IegaI represenlalions are nade ly lhe parlies and lhe
decision is nade ly lhe Adjudicalor noslIy fron lhe facluaI issues raised ly lhe parlies. The decision
of lhe Adjudicalor has lo le inpIenenled forlhvilh and lhe dissalisfied parly is free lo chaIIenge lhe
decision of lhe Adjudicalor in anolher lrilunaI depending on lhe agreed lerns.

Kcywnrds: Adjudicalion, Arlilralion, Condilions of Conlracl, IIDIC, ICTAD, NeulraI, ias,
Represenlalion.

1. IntrnductInn

Adjudicalion is an aIlernale dispule resoIulion
process vherein dispulanls refer a dispule lo a
neulraI and inparliaI lhird parly idenlified as
Adjudicalor, ly nuluaI agreenenl, lo decide on
lhe nallers in dispule and decIare an avard, i.e.
decision, vilhin a predelernined line frane or
such exlended line as agreed lelveen lhe
parlies, on inquiry of dispuled facls and Iav on
an inquisiloriaI nanner.

Mosl connerciaI dispules can le referred lo
adjudicalion.

In lhe case of conslruclion dispules in Sri Lanka
lhal are nol resoIved ly negolialion, Lngineers
decision or olher neans, nay inevilalIy reach
lhe slage of adjudicalion prior lo arlilralion or
Iiligalion as lhe case nay le as provided in lhe
conlracl.

Adjudicalion has lecone an exlreneIy popuIar
concepl in conslruclion dispule resoIulion. A
dispule nay le - 'adjudicaled on/adjudicaled
upon/adjudicaled lelveen A & . In so far as
dispule resoIulion is concerned. Adjudicalion
enconpasses anolher forn of aIlernalive
dispule resoIulion process.


2. Cnnf!Icts, DIsputcs & A!tcrnatc
DIsputc Rcsn!utInn

Il is vorlhvhiIe lo consider vhal is neanl ly
'AIlernalive Dispule ResoIulion (ADR). ADR
can le defined as lhose procedures or
nelhodoIogies of resoIving confIicls lhal are
aIlernalive lo Iiligalion and lhe Iike. ADR
enconpasses a nyriad of confIicl resoIulion
approaches ranging fron negolialion lo
arlilralion vhich incIudes faciIilalion and
nedialion as veII.|
1
j ADR is aIso defined as lhe
dispule resoIulion process vhich encourages or
faciIilales lhe dispulanls lo reach a soIulion lo
lheir dispules having appoinled lheir ovn
judges. Iurlhernore ADR aIso incIudes
conciIialion, nedialion and 'nini-lriaIs.|
2
j
ADR is groving inlo a variely of appIicalions
on lusiness conlracls incIuding lul nol Iiniled
lo civiI engineering and enpIoynenl.



(QJ$5DQDVLQJKH8Sc |ng (Hcns), M|ng, MTccn,
PGD, C|ng, ||ngP|, A|S|ruc||, ||| (Sri |an|a), M||
(Aus|), M|C|, A||crncq-a|-|au
Prcscn||q ucr|ing as a Ccnsu||an|, Ajuica|cr an
Ar|i|ra|cr. Visi|ing |cc|urcr a| Unitcrsi|q cf Mcra|uua,
Unitcrsi|q cf Pcracniqa, |C|P Ar|i|ra|icn Ccn|rc.
-&.RUDOH, 8Sc., MSc., |CMA, ACA,
Ccnsu||an| in Ccn|rac| Managcmcn| an Aminis|ra|icn,
Cnar|crc Acccun|an|, Cnar|crc Managcmcn| Acccun|an|,
Visi|ing |cc|urcr cn Ccnf|ic| Managcmcn|, Uta Ic||assa
Unitcrsi|q
ENGINEER
74

In lhe Sri Lankan conlexl ADR is naking ils

nark in lhe lusiness of finance, conslruclion,
shipping and olher lrades olher lhan
enpIoynenl dispules. In lhe fieId of
conslruclion invarialIy negolialions lake pIace
al aInosl every slage fron lhe lender nolice up
lo lhe Iasl dale of lhe defecl IialiIily period.

The nosl inporlanl forns of ADR are
adjudicalion and arlilralion. olh lhese dispule
resoIulion nelhodoIogies noslIy connand
lheir inporlance ly vay of conlracluaI cIauses
enlodied in lhe respeclive conlracls even
lhough lhere are exceplions lo lhe ruIe.

The diclionary neaning of adjudicalion is
'pronouncing judgnenl or naking an officiaI
decision aloul vho is righl in a disagreenenl
lelveen lvo groups or lvo organisalions.|
3
j. Il
is nolevorlhy lo exanine lhe vord 'confIicl
and hov a confIicl lecones a dispule vilh
reference lo AIlernalive Dispule ResoIulion.
The diclionary neaning of confIicl is, A
silualion in vhich peopIe, a group or counlries
are invoIved in a serious disagreenenl or
argunenl.|
4
j 'ConfIicl is aIso defined ly
various aulhors in various nanners and a fev
of such definilions are reproduced leIov:

x A process lhal legins vhen one parly
perceives lhal anolher parly has negaliveIy
affecled, or is aloul lo negaliveIy affecls
sonelhing lhal lhe firsl parly cares aloul.|
5
j

x ConfIicl exisls vhen lvo or nore parlies
disagree aloul sonelhing. These parlies are
inlerdependenl, neaning lhal lhe resoIulion
of lhe confIicl lo nuluaI salisfaclion cannol
occur vilhoul sone nuluaI efforl.|
6
j

x A dispule is lhe resuIl of an unsellIed
confIicl vhere lhe arguing parlies are unalIe
lo sellIe lheir differences or reach a
conpronise. Il is an argunenl or a quarreI.
The dispule exisls lecause lhe polenliaI
differences have leen reaIized and lhe
parlies have leen unalIe lo resoIve lhen.|
7
j

A civiI engineering conlracl parlicuIarIy one of
any nagnilude, vhich did nol give rise lo sone
dispule, is nol lo lhe discredil of eilher parly lo
lhe conlracl. Il is sinpIy lhe nalure of lhe leasl.
Whal is lo lheir discredil is if lhey faiI lo resoIve
lhose dispules as quickIy, econonicaIIy and
sensilIy as possilIe.|
8
j


$GMXGLFDWLRQLQ&RQVWUXFWLRQ

Adjudicalion iniliaIIy exisled onIy in a Iiniled

nunler of Condilions of Conlracls. Nev CiviI
Lngineering conlracls as veII as }CT (}oinl
Conlracls TrilunaI) conlracls vhere lhe
Condilions of Conlracl use lhe adjudicalion
process for lhe very firsl line. Laler, lhe 1999
Ldilion of IIDIC Condilions of Conlracl
inlroduced adjudicalion aIlhough in earIier
edilions of IIDIC dispule resoIulion vas
reslricled lo arlilralion. Arlilralion has leen
lhere in nosl of lhe conlracl docunenls, al Ieasl
for lhree decades aIlhough lhe Arlilralion Acl
vas enforced as Iale as lhe 1996 even in
counlries Iike lhe UK.|
9
j

The ICTAD Condilions of Conlracl inlroduced
Adjudicalion in ils SD (Slandard idding
Docunenl) versions. The idea of having
Adjudicalion in lhe Condilions of Conlracl is
lhal vhiIe lhe parlies reserve lheir righl lo refer
lhe naller lo Arlilralion, lhey aIso have lhe
freedon of referring any dispule lo
Adjudicalion in order lo ollain a quick soIulion
vhiIe lhe conlracl is in progress.|
1O
j

There is a viev in lhe conslruclion induslry lhal
as lhe Lngineer in a conlracl is appoinled ly lhe
LnpIoyer he has lo le olIiged and Iooks afler
lhe inleresls of lhe LnpIoyer. y referring lo lhe
1999 Ldilion of IIDIC Condilions of Conlracl,
one couId see lhal lhe Lngineer is defined as a
person appoinled ly lhe LnpIoyer lo acl as lhe
Lngineer for lhe purposes of lhe conlracl and
naned in lhe Appendix lo Tender, or olher
person appoinled fron line lo line ly lhe
LnpIoyer and nolified lo lhe Conlraclor.
AIlhough lhe Lngineer shouId acl inparliaIIy,
lhere is a leIief lhal lhe Lngineer is nol an
independenl person. As a resuIl of lhis leIief,
nosl of lhe conlracling parlies have considered
lhal il couId le nuch advanlageous lo have an
independenl person lo resoIve prolalIe
dispules in lhe conlracl and as a resuIl
Adjudicalion has leen inlroduced in nosl of
lhe nodern Condilions of Conlracl lhe vorId
over.

Therefore, lhe spiril of resoIving dispules ly
adjudicalion is, vhen lvo parlies enler inlo a
conlracl vhere lhey have conlracluaI
olIigalions and if lhey cannol agree on hov lhe
conlracl is lo le inlerpreled, lo refer lhe naller
lo an independenl person. The Adjudicalor,
presuned lo le an inparliaI person having
knovIedge aloul lhe conlracl and lhe suljecl
75
ENGINEER

naller, gives a quick vorking decision on lhe

issues lhal have arisen in lhe conlracl. This viII
definileIy enalIe lhe conlracl lo conlinue
vilhoul any inlerruplion and lhe disagreeing
parly lo lhe Adjudicalors decision couId resorl
lo arlilralion or Iiligalion al a fulure dale.

4. 5tatutnry AdjudIcatInn and
Cnntractua! AdjudIcatInn

Adjudicalion legins vhen lhere is a dispule in a
conslruclion conlracl depending on lhe
appIicalIe dispule resoIulion nechanisn
and/or lhe IegisIalion of lhe counlry.

Conslruclion dispules governed ly IegisIalion
such as lhe Housing Cranl Conslruclion and
Regeneralion Acl 1996 of U.K., or siniIar slalule
in a Slale providing for adjudicalion of dispules
ly conpuIsion, creales lhe provision for an
ADR process caIIed 5tatutnry AdjudIcatInn.

In counlries such as Sri Lanka vhere lhere is no
slalule governing adjudicalion, lhe adjudicalion
process is provided for in lhe condilions of
conlracl, giving rise lo an ADR process caIIed
Cnntractua! AdjudIcatInn.

In lhe Sri Lankan conlexl lhere is no slalule
governing adjudicalion as slaled alove. Hence,
al presenl in lhe Sri Lankan conlexl one vouId
nol encounler slalulory adjudicalions as veII as
conpIicalions arising oul of lolh parlies opling
lo adjudicale under differenl adjudicalions on
lhe sane naller giving rise lo silualions vhere
lhere couId le lvo adjudicalions on lhe sane
naller sinuIlaneousIy. Mosl conslruclion
conlracls incIude provision for any cIain or any
olher issue or prolIen lo le nolified lo lhe
Lngineer and lhe olher parly vhen lhe prolIen
firsl arises. This vouId encourage lhe parlies lo
negoliale and finaIIy sellIe in accordance vilh
cerlain slaled procedures upon agreeing lo such
procedure.

The adjudicalion process can le vieved as
consisling of 6 conponenls:

1. efore lhe Adjudicalion
2. Nolice of Adjudicalion
3. SeIeclion and appoinlnenl of lhe
Adjudicalor
4. ReferraI of lhe dispule lo lhe
Adjudicalor
5. Conducl of lhe Adjudicalion
6. The Adjudicalors decision

5. Bcfnrc thc AdjudIcatInn

A prerequisile for adjudicalion is a dispule.
Sone conlracls define lhe vord 'dispule and
prescrile lhe procedure lo le foIIoved vhereas
olhers do nol define lhe dispule procedure and
lhe firsl indicalion lhal a dispule has arisen
couId le vhen one parly lo lhe conlracl issues a
nolice of inlenlion lo refer lhe dispule lo
adjudicalion.

}ohn Tinpson & rian TollerdiII |1999j slale in
lheir fanous look $GMXGLFDWLRQ IRU $UFKLWHFWV
DQG(QJLQHHUVas foIIovs:

The facl lhal an issue can le decIared lo le a
dispule and referred lo Adjudicalion does nol
necessariIy nean lhal adjudicalion is lhe lesl
vay forvard. The person vho is considering
lhe referraI nusl le salisfied lhal innediale
adjudicalion is lhe lesl course of aclion and is
in his or her ovn lesl inleresls. This requires
consideralion of lhe sequence of queslions
vhich are as foIIovs:

x Whal is lhe issue vhich ve are lrying lo
resoIve`
x Have I nade ny vievs cIear lo lhe olher
side` Do lhey reaIise lhal lhe iniliaI prolIen
has lecone a dispule and I inlend lo
invoIve an independenl dispule resoIver`
x WouId furlher invesligalion or lesls heIp lo
cIarify lhe cause of lhe prolIen and resoIve
lhe dispule` If so, shouId lhe invesligalion
or lesls lo le carried oul lefore I refer lhe
naller lo adjudicalion`
x WiII an inparliaI decision, vilhin a Iiniled
line period, le heIpfuI lo lhe projecl as a
vhoIe`
x Is adjudicalion appropriale for lhis
parlicuIar prolIen, or is lhere a leller vay
forvard` ShouId I lry furlher negolialion,
nedialion or conciIialion`
x WouId il le leller lo refer lhe prolIen
direcl lo Arlilralion` Is innediale
Arlilralion pernilled ly lhe Conlracl`
x Is lhere any procedure vhich nusl le
foIIoved lefore lhe prolIen can le referred
lo Adjudicalion`

Adjudicalion shouId nol le resorled lo vilhoul
proper consideralion of ils consequences.
Adjudicalion is, in principIe, a procedure vhich
Ieads lo an inparliaI decision vilhin lhe given
line period. The decision nusl le inpIenenled
lul inpIenenlalion nay le Ialer reversed ly
arlilralion or Iiligalion. Sone issues and
ENGINEER
76

dispules in conslruclion nay nol le lesl

resoIved ly adjudicalion.

The foIIoving are sone of lhe exanpIes vhich
are nol suilalIe for adjudicalion, lhough nol
exhauslive:

x Dispules vhich conprise severaI issues.
These nay need lo le considered as
separale dispules vilh separale
adjudicalions or as requiring a series of
decisions over an exlended period.
x Dispules invoIving conpIex IegaI issues.
x Dispules vhich require a decision, lhe
consequences of vhich cannol le reversed,
such as a naller of lerninalion, aIIeged
corruplion or aIIegalions againsl a
professionaI person.
x Mallers such as design or quaIily, vhich
affecl lhe forn of lhe conpIeled projecl and
for vhich lhe Conlracl slales lhal one of lhe
Iarlies is responsilIe for lhe issue of
decisions or inslruclions. Dispules
concerning lhe IialiIily for addilionaI cosls
as a consequence of such a decision or
inslruclion are nore IikeIy lo le suilalIe.
x Mallers on vhich lhe decision is vilhin lhe
province of sone olher person or aulhorily,
such as VAT, laxalion issues, heaIlh and
safely, or any aIIegalion vilh crininaI
inpIicalions nusl le referred lo lhe proper
aulhorily.

6. NntIcc nf AdjudIcatInn

Ior an adjudicalion lo connence, lhe person
vho decides lo refer a dispule nusl inforn lhe
olher parly of his inlenlion. This is lerned
'Nolice of Adjudicalion fron 'Referring Iarly
lo lhe 'Olher Iarly vho is aIso knovn as lhe
'Responding Iarly or 'Receiving Iarly. The
nolice shouId aIvays le in vriling and shaII
conpIy vilh any procedure slipuIaled in lhe
conlracl if any. Nolice shouId incIude sufficienl
infornalion lo salisfy lhis purpose, nainIy -

x IarlicuIars of dispule lo le referred lo
adjudicalion.
x Appraise noninaling lody/polenliaI
Adjudicalor lasic infornalion.

Al lhis poinl lhe Adjudicalor viII le seIecled, if
nol aIready naned in lhe conlracl, and lhe
naller viII le adjudicaled in lerns of nolice of
adjudicalion and lhe conlracl.

Il is perlinenl lo nole lhal neilher parly viII le
pernilled lo inlroduce addilionaI issues al lhe
hearing. If eilher parly vishes lo have sone
olher naller, addilionaI cIain or a counler
cIain for consideralion, il shouId le referred ly
a separale nolice of adjudicalion unIess lolh
parlies and lhe Adjudicalor agree lo exlend lhe
scope of lhe pending adjudicalion. This is aIso a
silualion vhere parly aulonony governs.
SinuIlaneousIy, if any parly vishes lo raise any
proceduraI oljeclion il nusl le raised
innedialeIy, olhervise il is considered lhal lhe
righl lo oljecl had leen vaived. The
Adjudicalor has lhe jurisdiclion lo lake up any
oljeclion incIuding lhal of lhe appoinlnenl of
lhe adjudicalor. Sone conlracls encourage lhe
appoinlnenl of an adjudicalor as earIy as lhe
lender slage. If lhe Adjudicalor had leen
appoinled al lhe leginning, he is avaiIalIe lo
resoIve any dispule since lhe inceplion. In
sone Conlracls lhe LnpIoyer nanes lhe
Adjudicalor in lhe Tender Docunenl ilseIf.
Hovever if lhe Conlraclor is nol conforlalIe
vilh such an appoinlnenl he couId oljecl lo
lhis uniIaleraI appoinlnenl.

7. 5c!cctInn and AppnIntmcnt nf thc
AdjudIcatnr

The Adjudicalor nusl le seIecled and
appoinled in order for lhe process lo
connence. Irrespeclive of vhelher lhe
Adjudicalor is appoinled al lhe slarl of lhe
projecl or afler lhe dispule has arisen il is of
prinary inporlance lo appoinl a suilalIe
person. Il is exlreneIy inporlanl lhal lhe
person appoinled as an Adjudicalor nusl le
knovIedgealIe and have experience in lhe lype
of conslruclion projecl lhal he is going lo
adjudicale. He shouId aIso le alIe lo
undersland lhe issue lhal couId arise in a
conlracl of lhe aforesaid nalure. Il is aIso of
prinary inporlance lhal lhe Adjudicalor has
lasic lraining as an Adjudicalor, knovIedge in
Condilions of Conlracl logelher vilh lhe
confidence in naking a decision. Aparl fron
lhis lhe Adjudicalor shouId nol have any
inleresls in lhe Irojecl. The inporlanl faclors
lhal have lo le Iooked inlo vhen seIecling an
Adjudicalor are sunnarised leIov:

x Il is necessary lo check lhal lhe appoinled
Adjudicalor is sliII avaiIalIe vhen lhe
dispule acluaIIy arises. There nay have
leen changes in his heaIlh or
circunslances since lhe appoinlnenl.
Adjudicalion requires inlensive aclivily
77
ENGINEER

during a shorl period and he nay have

olher connilnenls vhich vouId prevenl
hin fron aIIocaling sufficienl line lo lhe
adjudicalion.
x A possilIe confIicl of inleresl nay have
arisen vhich vas nol knovn vhen he vas
appoinled.
x A parlicuIar dispule nay require
speciaIised knovIedge vhich is nol
possessed ly an Adjudicalor.
x If praclicing Adjudicalors are naned in a
Iarge nunler of conlracls, or appoinled
lul nol used, il lecones inpossilIe for
lhen lo pIan lheir avaiIaliIily for olher
appoinlnenls.

Irocedure for lhe acluaI appoinlnenl can vary
and nay incIude appIying lo an appoinling or
noninaling lody nade in lhe conlracl, chosen
ly agreenenl or chosen uniIaleraIIy ly lhe
referring parly. The procedure shouId le
sludied ly lolh parlies and lhe Adjudicalor in
his ovn inleresl. There are nany advanlages in
appoinling an Adjudicalor al lhe inceplion of
lhe Irojecl as il gives sufficienl line for lhe
parlies and lhe Adjudicalor lo discuss lerns
and fees.

5HIHUUDO RI WKH 'LVSXWH WR WKH

$GMXGLFDWRU

The nechanics of referraI and response vary in
differenl adjudicalion procedures lul are
generaIIy lased on lhe foIIoving:

x The Adjudicalor has leen appoinled and
has a copy of lhe Nolice of Adjudicalion.
x The referring Iarly sends lhe Adjudicalor
his 'Slalenenl of Case vilh a copy lo lhe
olher Iarly.
x The responding Iarly sends lhe
Adjudicalor his response, vilh a copy lo
lhe referring Iarly.

The referring parly viII usuaIIy lake advanlage
of lhe opporlunily lo provide delaiIed
expIanalion of lhe case usuaIIy knovn as
Slalenenl of CIain. A veII argued
presenlalion, IegaI or conlracluaI argunenls
lacked ly aulhorilalive references viII have a
persuasive effecl on lhe Adjudicalor. The
referring parly aIso has an advanlage of lining
lhe adjudicalion process.

Il is a nisnoner lo leIieve lhal lhe grealer lhe
nunler of pages lhe nore persuasive is lhe
Slalenenl of CIain.
Il nusl le lorne in nind lhal lhe Slalenenl of
CIain shouId le cIear, concise and IogicaI. As
lhe adjudicalion viII le laking pIace vilhin a
reslricled line frane, cIarily of lhe
connunicalion is essenliaI. The Slalenenl of
CIain shouId nol le reslricled rigidIy lo one
sided argunenl. There couId have leen an
exchange of correspondence, discussions,
requesl for furlher infornalion and
invesligalions and such conpIele
connunicalion shouId le presenled lo lhe
Adjudicalor. Il is lo lhe lesl inleresl of lhe
referring parly lhal lhe Adjudicalor achieves a
cIear underslanding of lhe dispule and lhe
IogicaI sequences of evenls vilhin lhe Ieasl
possilIe line during lhe adjudicalion period
vhich invarialIy is slipuIaled. In a najor
dispule, lhe Slalenenl of CIain nay incIude -

x A lrief sunnary of lhe dispule and lhe
prolIen vhich Ied lo lhe dispule.
x Lvidence in lhe forn of docunenls,
pholographs, vilness slalenenls and/or
experl opinion lo eslalIish lhe facluaI lasis
of lhe cIain.
x LegaI and conlracluaI argunenls on vhich
lhe cIain is lased vilh lhe aulhorilies,
vhen avaiIalIe.

}ohn Tinpson & rian TollerdiII |1999j slale in
lheir fanous look $GMXGLFDWLRQ IRU $UFKLWHFWV
DQG(QJLQHHUVas foIIovs:

If lhe referring Iarly is anxious lo prove ils
case, il viII, vhiIe preparing ils Slalenenl of
CIain:

x Make sure of ils IegaI and conlracluaI
posilion lefore enlarking on lhe process
x Avoid anliguily so as nol lo Ieave any
roon for doull
x Check and doulIe check aII facluaI nallers
x Avoid exaggeralion and specuIalive
aIIegalions
x Look al every poinl fron lhe opposile
poinl of viev and salisfy lhal lhere are no
veaknesses in lhe argunenls or evidence.
x Take speciaIisl advice vherever necessary.
x Make sure lhal lhe evidence convincingIy
supporls any aIIegalions or refulalions.
x Have regard lo lhe facl lhal il is a difficuIl
lask lo sel dovn unanliguousIy and
exaclIy vhal happened and hov and vhy
lhe case is juslified.|
11
j

ENGINEER
78

&RQGXFWRI$GMXGLFDWLRQ

Il is cuslonary lhal lhe conducl of adjudicalion
is suljecl lo a line frane. In a case vhere
adjudicalion is required lo le concIuded vilhin
28 days a lypicaI progranne is appended
leIov:


InnedialeIy afler, lhe Adjudicalor vouId
sludy lhe Slalenenl of CIain and prepare lhe
provisionaI linelalIe for lhe Adjudicalion. A
lypicaI progranne is shovn alove in Iigure 1.

The linelalIe viII shov hov he proposes lo
conpIele his vork vilhin lhe line period
vhich is pernilled ly lhe conlracl procedure,
lased on his assunplions as lo lhe aclion vhich
viII le necessary. Il viII aIso lake inlo accounl
any requesls fron lhe parlies, logelher vilh lhe
requirenenls of his ovn diary. If lhe conlracl
procedure does nol aIIov specificaIIy for a
response fron lhe responding parly lhen lhe
Adjudicalor nay incIude a suilalIe provision.

The Adjudicalor viII revise lhe iniliaI linelalIe
as lhe adjudicalion proceeds and furlher
infornalion lecones avaiIalIe. The linelalIe
viII incIude a period for lhe Adjudicalor lo
assess lhe infornalion vhich he has received, lo
Arrive al his decision and lo prepare his vrillen
decision.

10.Thc AdjudIcatnr's DccIsInn

The ain of adjudicalion is for lhe parlies lo
receive an inparliaI decision on lheir dispule
vilhin lhe slipuIaled line. The vrillen
decision vhich is sonelines knovn as lhe
Delerninalion of lhe Adjudicalor is lhe producl
of lhe Adjudicalors vork vhich lhe parlies
receive in exchange for a fee.

The Adjudicalors decision is nol an arlilraI
avard and viII nornaIIy le shorler lhan an
avard on a conparalIe dispule. There is no
slandard fornal or generaIIy agreed Iisl of
conlenls for a Decision. The conlracls are
vrillen conlracls as required ly lhe Iav so lhal
lhe Adjudicalors decision viII le a vrillen
decision.

There are saIienl fealures in lhe process such as
lhe response of lhe line period of Adjudicalion,
exislence of NaluraI juslice, adjudicalion
neelings, sile visils, ascerlainnenl of facls and

Claimant refers and sends
statement of claim





Receives claim: confirms and
considers statement is advice needed?
Drafts programme



Day 1





ssues directions and sets
programme all by fax



Day 2


Further info/docs from
claimant

Day 4

Respondent's statement or
documents

Day 8



Any tests


Day 9



nspection/meeting




D
a
y
s

9
-
1
1






Hearing





Further info






Days 12-21 reserved for further inquiries if necessary
And any advice from specialist consultants.
Days
12-21






Days 22-28 reserved for drafting and delivery decision
(with reasons if required under procedure)
Days
22-28


)LJXUH$GMXGLFDWLRQ'RFXPHQW)ORZ7\SLFDO3URJUDPPH



79
ENGINEER
Lav perlaining lo lhe adjudicalion as veII as
ollaining of speciaIisls advice ly lhe
Adjudicalor.

11.Thc Rcspnnsc

When lhe referring parly has senl a Slalenenl
of CIain lo lhe adjudicalor, lhe olher parly viII
vanl lo respond. The response nay need lo le
sulnilled vilhin lhe slipuIaled line period
eilher as per lhe conlracl or on lhe direclion of
lhe Adjudicalor. Once lhe Adjudicalor receives
lhe response he can assess lolh parlies poinls
of viev. When an issue has cone lo lhe poinl of
nolice of adjudicalion, lhe parlicuIar dispule
vouId have leen discussed, negolialed over a
consideralIe period of line and invesligaled
over lhe sane period and a cerlain poinl of
response nighl have leen deveIoped. The
responding parly viII knov aII aloul lhe iniliaI
prolIen, have decided lo rejecl lhe cIain and
during lhis process appropriale invesligalions
vouId have leen conducled and lhe lasis of
lhe rejeclion is readiIy avaiIalIe vilh lhen. If
lhe referring parly has crealed an anlush
silualion lhen lhe responding parly viII le
faced vilh a difficuIl or even inpossilIe lask.
The Response lo a delaiIed Slalenenl of CIain
nay incIude:

x A lrief sunnary of lhe dispule and lhe
prolIen vhich Ied lo lhe dispule,
expIaining lhe counler poinl of viev and
reasons for rejecling lhe cIain
x LegaI and conlracluaI counler argunenls
vilh aulhorilies
x Lvidence in lhe forn of docunenls,
pholographs, vilnesses and/ or experl
opinion lo supporl any counler argunenls
and aIIegalions

In such a silualion lhe ruIes lhal have lo le
foIIoved ly lhe Respondenl are lo:

x Read carefuIIy any cIain slalenenl
x DeaI vilh lhe naller lhoroughIy
x Ask for cIarificalion of any anliguily
x Insisl lhal any aIIegalion is supporled ly
evidence, incIuding delaiIs of vhen and
vhere any aIIeged evenls are said lo have
laken pIace
x Make sure lhal il has deaIl vilh every
poinl nade or inpIied
x Ioinl oul every facluaI error and coIIale
evidence vhich viII assisl vilh lhe
Adjudicalors underslanding of lhe case
x Consider any conlracluaI or IegaI poinl
and nake sure lhal everylhing vhich can
le relulled is relulled
x Adnil lhose lhings vhich are correcl lul
nake il cIear exaclIy vhich poinls are
conlesled
x Make sure lhe record is conpIele
x If lhe CIainanl has given onIy haIf lhe
slory, adnil lhal vhich is lrue lul expIain
fuIIy lhe nissing parl of lhe piclure vhich
nay pul a differenl conpIexion on lhe
vhoIe affair.|
12
j

12.Thc AdjudIcatInn tImc pcrInd

The purpose of adjudicalion is a fasl decision.
The line period vhich is avaiIalIe for lhe
adjudicalion process depends on a conlracl and
is aIvays reslricled and cannol le uniIaleraIIy
exlended ly lhe Adjudicalor. The Adjudicalor
is required lo assess aII eslalIished reIevanl
facls and Iav, reach a good decision on
differenl nallers. This viII depend on lhe
delaiIs of dispule and lhe cooperalion of lhe
parlies. In lerns of lhe IIDIC Condilions of
Conlracl lhe Adjudicalor has leen given 84
days lo resoIve a dispule and lo give a decision
vhereas in lhe ICTAD SD (Slandard idding
Docunenl) lhe duralion has leen shorlened lo
28 days or such olher period agreed ly lhe
parlies. The vhoIe idea of reducing lhe nunler
of days is lo faciIilale a quick decision during
lhe progress of conslruclion. Hovever, lhis
does nol, under any circunslances nean lhal
lhe Adjudicalor has lo consider onIy a porlion
of lhe facls lhal he couId grasp and give a hasly
decision. Il shouId le enphasised lhal lhe
Adjudicalor has a grealer responsiliIily lo give
a proper decision ly carefuI consideralion of aII
lhe facls avaiIalIe, since lhe decision of lhe
Adjudicalor has lo le given effecl forlhvilh ly
lhe parlies. This has leen slaled in CIause 2O.4
of lhe IIDIC Condilion of Conlracl. Iaragraph
4 of CIause 2O.4 slales lhal WKH GHFLVLRQ VKDOO EH
ELQGLQJ RQ ERWK SDUWLHV ZKR VKDOO SURPSWO\ JLYH
HIIHFW WR LW XQOHVV DQG XQWLO LV VKDOO EH UHYLVHG LQ DQ
DPLFDEOH VHWWOHPHQW RU DQ DUELWUDO DZDUG.
SiniIarIy, CIause 19.3 Irocedure for
Adjudicalion in ICTAD SD, Major Conlracls
(ICTAD/SD/O2) slales lhal, 7KHGHFLVLRQRIWKH
$GMXGLFDWRUVKDOOEHGHHPHGILQDODQGELQGLQJRQWKH
ENGINEER
80
SDUWLHV LI QHLWKHU SDUW\ UHIHUV WKH GLVSXWH WR
DUELWUDWLRQ

Il is perlinenl lo nole lhal lhe line given lo lhe
Adjudicalor is very Iiniled and lherefore il is
lhe responsiliIily of lhe parlies nol lo refer
dispules of a very conpIex nalure in ones
reference. Iarlies have lo le very carefuI nol lo
aIIov a dispule lo accunuIale inlo a very
conpIex nalure as lhe Adjudicalor viII nol le
alIe lo decide vilhin a very Iiniled line.

13.AdjudIcatnr McctIngs, 5Itc VIsIts,
AsccrtaInmcnt nf Fact and Law and
5pccIa!Ists AdvIcc

The Adjudicalor nay decide lo hoId a neeling
vilh lhe parlies and give an opporlunily lo
expIain lheir ovn case in person and sulnil
oraI evidence. The neeling viII faciIilale:

x To resoIve any queries on jurisdiclion, lhe
inlerprelalion of lhe Nolice of
Adjudicalion or olher preIininary nallers.
x To cIarify any poinls in lhe Slalenenl of
CIain or response
x To visil lhe sile and lo inspecl any
parlicuIar parl of lhe Works
x To arrange for lesls or opening up of lhe
vork and inspecl lhe resuIls
x To hear oraI evidence
x To discuss queries and resoIve any
prolIens vhich can le sorled oul quickIy
ly discussion lhan ly correspondence.

Sile visils are essenliaI fealures in nosl dispule
adjudicalions lecause any dispule viII invoIve
quaIily of vorknanship or sonelhing
happening in lhe conslruclion sile and hence
lhe Adjudicalor nay olserve lhe prolIen
hinseIf. The sile nay le under lhe conlroI of
one parly yel lhe Adjudicalor nay ollain
necessary pernission fron lhe olher parly as
veII lhus avoiding lhe silualion in vhich one
parly lakes advanlage of lhe sile visil ly lrying
lo infIuence lhe Adjudicalor vilh nev
argunenls and facls lhal are aIien lo lhe olher
parly for vhich lhe opposing parly can le
presenl if so desired. The Adjudicalor is under
no olIigalion lo ascerlain aII lhe facls and lhe
Iav and il vouId nol le possilIe for hin lo do
so vilhin lhe reslricled line. Il nay nol le
vilhin lhe pernissilIe line for delaiIed forensic
invesligalions in lo lhe prolIen, for exanpIe, lo
lake sanpIes and conducl lesls al lines nay
require nore lhan 28 days. Hovever, lhe
Adjudicalor can nake his ovn inilialive lo
nake inquires, lesls and seek experl opinion if
he considers lhose viII heIp hin reach a good
decision.

A naluraI consequence of pover lo lake
inilialion in ascerlaining facls and lhe Iav
exlend lhe pover lo consuIl or ollain speciaIisl
advice. The lype of speciaIisl, lechnicaI or IegaI,
viII depend on lhe suljecl of lhe dispule and
lhe experlise of lhe Adjudicalor. The expenses
of lhese sile visils, invesligalions, experl advice
and opinions are lo le lorne ly lhe parlies.

14.AdjudIcatInn and Natura! JustIcc

Adjudicalion is a process vherely parly
aulonony is recognized and is nol an end in
ilseIf. In a sense Adjudicalors lhe decision
shaII le linding unliI lhe dispule is finaIIy
delernined ly Iiligalion, arlilralion or
sellIenenl.

The vord 'nalure IileraIIy neans lhe innale
lendency or quaIily of lhings or oljecls and lhe
vord 'jusl neans uprighl, fair or proper. The
expression 'naluraI juslice vouId lherefore
nean lhe innale quaIily of leing fair.

NaluraI juslice, vhich is anolher nane for
connon sense juslice, is ' lhe naluraI sense of
vhal is righl and vrong and is lhe nane of
lhose principIes vhich conslilule lhe nininun
requirenenl of juslice and vilhoul adherence
lo vhich, juslice vouId le a lravesly. The
purpose of foIIoving lhe principIes of naluraI
juslice is prevenlion of niscarriage of juslice
and hence lhe olservance lhereof is lhe
pragnalic requirenenl of fair pIay in aclion. In
lhe fanous case of %DQJODGHVK 6WHDPHU $JHQWV
$VVRFLDWLRQ Y %DQJODGHVK Hon. }udge Narnan }
said ... Iirsl, I lhink lhal lhe person accused
shouId knov lhe nalure of lhe accusalion nade,
secondIy, lhal he shouId le given an
opporlunily lo slale his case, and lherely, of
course, lhal lhe lrilunaI shouId acl in good
failh. I do nol lhink lhal lhere reaIIy is
anylhing nore|
13
j.

The adjudicalion procedure provides parlies
lhe nolice of adjudicalion neelings, copies of
slalenenl of case, copies of response, lines of
sile visils nade knovn lo parlies, opporlunily
of forvarding lheir ovn case, opporlunily of
81
ENGINEER
leing heard, leing presenl and le represenled,
aII of vhich are ingredienls of naluraI juslice
enlaiIed in lhe process as lhe parlies cooperale
for a decision vilhin a very shorl period of
line. The Adjudicalor acls inparliaIIy,
independenlIy and free of aII lias. This is
anolher forn of NaluraI }uslice so lhal he couId
uphoId juslice on lhe naller in dispule. In a
sense lhe adjudicalion process, vhen conducled
properIy, provides naluraI juslice for lhe
dispulanls.

15.Cnnc!usInn

The Adjudicalor is in charge of lhe adjudicalion
and has a conlracl vilh lhe parlies under vhich
he has an olIigalion lo reach a decision on lhe
dispule vilhin a fixed line frane. In order lo
achieve lhe desired resuIl, parlies shouId
endeavour lo provide lhe Adjudicalor aII
necessary infornalion, avaiIalIe reporls, lesls
of invesligalion, assislance and cooperalion. Il
is a nandalory requirenenl lhal aII reIevanl
docunenls le copied lo lolh sides, oraI
infornalion lo le confirned vilh docunenlary
evidence. The Adjudicalor shouId aIso vork
vilhin lhe lerns of reference, ruIes and lhe
procedure under vhich his appoinlnenl has
leen nade. If a parly considers a parlicuIar
decision is unreasonalIe or oulside lhe
aulhorily of lhe Adjudicalor, he couId nake his
fornaI oljeclion and lhe Adjudicalor shaII deaI
vilh lhe oljeclion in a fair and reasonalIe
nanner. If eilher parly faiIs lo conpIy vilh lhe
direclion of lhe Adjudicalor, lhe Adjudicalor
nay conlinue in lhe lesl vay possilIe and any
such faiIure viII le delrinenlaI lo lhe parly
vho faiIs lo conpIy. If an Adjudicalor receives
or discovers infornalion afler lhe slipuIaled
cIosing dale il is vilhin his jurisdiclion lo use
such infornalion invarialIy vilh an agreed
exlension. Once lhe Adjudicalor has reached
and deIivered his decision he has conpIeled his
lask. If eilher parly is nol salisfied vilh lhe
decision such parly nay proceed in lerns of lhe
Iav lo arlilralion or Iiligalion, lhus once again
enjoying anolher forn of NaluraI }uslice i.e. lhe
righl of appeaIing.

The adjudicalion process is a nev process
vhich has leen inlroduced lo lhe conslruclion
induslry. When conparing vilh lhe cosl of
arlilralion, lhe cosl of adjudicalion is very
nuch Iess. Il aIso shouId le enphasised lhal a
speedier decision couId le ollained ly parlies
referring lheir dispules lo adjudicalion.
CeneraIIy in adjudicalion no IegaI
represenlalion is nade ly eilher parly.
Therefore lhere is very IillIe IegaI oljeclion
laken ly lhe parlies. MoslIy il vouId le
decided ly lhe facls presenled ly lhe parlies.
The aulhor aIso leIieves lhal lhis proposaI has
nade a revoIulionary change in resoIving
conslruclion dispules and lhe professionaIs
vho are invoIved in lhe conslruclion induslry
have lo le lrained sufficienlIy lo handIe
adjudicalion so lhal aII parlies concerned couId
save a sulslanliaI line and noney in resoIving
conslruclion dispules. The co-operalion of aII
parlies lo lhe conlracl is a nusl lo ensure a
successfuI fulure for conslruclion adjudicalion.

Rcfcrcnccs

1. Marick, I., Maslers el aI, &RPSOHWH *XLGH WR
&RQIOLFW5HVROXWLRQ 2
nd
Ldilion, (Sveel & MaxeII),
2OO2, Iage 1O

2. }ohn Tinpson and rian TollerdiII, $GMXGLFDWLRQ
IRU $UFKLWHFWV DQG (QJLQHHUV Thonas TeIford,
1999, Iage 12, 168, 252

3. Hornly AS eleI, Oxford Advance Diclionary,
Oxford Universily Iress, 7
lh
Ldilion, page 319

4. ilid

5. Slephen I. Rollins, 2UJDQL]DWLRQDO %HKDYLRXU
LIevenlh Ldilion, IrenhaII.Con/rolinlinsd),
2OO2, Iage 96

6. Ilid (1)

7. Weddikkara, Chilra, 7KH ,PSDFW RI 3URIHVVLRQDO
&XOWXUH RQ 'LVSXWH 5HVROXWLRQ LQ 7KH %XLOGLQJ
,QGXVWULHV RI $XVWUDOLD DQG 6UL /DQND Slanden,
1987, Iage 158.

8. Ceoffrey Havker, }ohn, Uff, &KDUOHV 7LPPV
$UELWUDWLRQ3UDFWLFH 2
nd
Ldilion, Thonas TeIford,
1986, Iage 128.

9. hllp://vvv.fidic.org

1O. ICTAD, 6WDQGDUG %LGGLQJ 'RFXPHQW
3URFXUHPHQW RI :RUNV Iirsl Ldilion, ICTAD,
2OO2, Iage 42.

11. Ilid (2)

12. Ilid(2)

13. Tapash Can Choudhury, 3HQXPEUD RI 1DWXUDO
-XVWLFH Second Ldilion, Laslern Lav House,
2OO1, Iage 1,5,9, 265.