Hdjek PeLr

FavelPuc1tr6k

Metamathematics of First*Order Arithmetic

Springer-Verlag
Yorlc h{er,v Berlin Heidelberg LonclonParisTokyo l(ong Barcelonzt FIon,9 Buclapest

PetrFlirjek In Ma th e ma ti ca l sti tL r te Ak ca cl e mo[' y Scieuces C ze ch o sl o va

&.. ,/,tttlLt l)

| 1 5 6 7 P l a g u eI , C z e c l r o s l o v a l < i a Currcnl ttclclrc,;s: anclInforniationScietrce Instituteof CornpLrtet' of Sciertces C z e c h o s l o v aA k caclemy ',u vd,Zi 2 Pocl ocldlenslcou PlagLre B, Czechoslovakia 182.01 Pavel PLrclldk InstitLrte Mathernatical of Sciences C z e c h o s l o v a Acaclemy k litnd 25 11561Prague l . C z e c h o s l o v a k i a

for wasnssurned by the Associatiou for thisseries responsibility In t987,eclitorial Fefernrantr, are: S. eclitorial boalcl of the Symbolic Logic. The currentmernbers M. Magidor,Y. N. Moschovalcis A. J. Maclntyre, (nranaging eclitor), Lerman M.

( I 991): Classification SLrbject Mtrtherlatics 11U09I , lUl0 68Q15. C ,3 D 1 5 , 0 3 F 3 0C , 3FII-5

NewYolk BellinFleidelber g - Ver lag IS B N 3 -5 4 0 -5 0 6 3 2 -SpLinger 2 BeLlin Heiclelberg NewYork Springer-Verlag ISBN 0-387-50632-2

D tatit. L i b r a l y o f C o t t g r c s sC a t a l o g i n g - i r l - P t r b l i c a t i o r l{rijek. Petr. a [ i t h n i e t i c / P e t [ F l i ' r j e l t ,P a v c l P u r l l r ' t k . V l e t a u r a t l r e m a t i c so f f i r . s t - o r c l e r n u r a t h c n r a t i c u l o g i c ) l r t c l u t l e sb i b l i o g r l l t h i c a l t e l t t ' e t t c c si t t t t l i n c l c x . p . c n t . - ( P e r . s p e c t i v e is - ISBN 0-387-50(rl2-2 ISBN 3-540--s0632-2 . trvel,1952- . II. Titlc. Ill. Selies. l . r \ r ' i t h n r e t i c - F o t t n c l a t i o n Is. . P r r d l r i l t P QA24[i.FI2-] 1 9 9 - 1 - 5l 3 ' . 0 l - t l c 2 0 92-213[i-5 CIP , v h e ( h e lt l l e r v h o l c o t p a t t o l ' t h c n r a t c r i a l i s r o p y r i g h t . A l l r i g h t s a r e L e s e t v e r lr T h i s r v o r . ki s s l b j e c t t c ' c i t a t i o t r' b t ' o a c l c a s t p r i r t ti n g , r ' c L src o f i l l u s t r a t i o r t sr. ' c c l ,p e ci l ' i c a l y t h c r i g h t s o I t r a u sl a ti o n , r ' e c o n c er . r r e rs r f this nn i u i c l o f i l u r s o r i n a n y o t h c l w a y . i u t c ls t o r a g e i t t c l a t l tb i l n k s . D L r p l i c i r t i o ro i 1 g , r e p r . o < l t r t t i oo Litrv ol' p l b l i a i t i n ' , 1o f p u l t s t l r c r e c l fi s p c l m i t t c t l o n l y u n c l c l t h c p l o v i s i o r l s o f t h e G e l n t a n C o p y l i g h t o b t a i n e c lf r . o n t b e p t e , t r b c rq , i q O - ; , i r r i t s c u r l e r r t v e l s i o n , a n d p e r u t i s s i o n f o l t t s e r n t t s t a l l v i t y s b e t r t t l e tt l t e C e t t n r t n C o P y r i g h l L a l v Spiinger-VerlLrgV . i o l i r r i o n s a l e l i u b l e f u r p l o s e c L r t i o ru t993 @ S p l i n g e r ' - V c ' r l l gB e r l i n I - l c i d e I L r e r g P r i n l c ( l i n t l r c U r r i t c t l S t i l t u so l r \ t t l c l i c r t D a t a c o n v c r s i o n: E D V - B c l r t t t r n g l v l a t t c s 'L I ci d c l b e L g ,f i R G prtpet' otracitl-hee 4l/1140-5 4 i 2 I 0- PLinted

Dett'icated to otl"rwiues, Marie and Vera

Prefuce rc
t

ille b eT?,e,S

, l

( \

l?erspecbiires in Mabhernatica,l l,ogic

(Edil,ecl by tlre "l)-group for fuIat.hematicalLogic" of the Heicleli:erger Akacl.emieder Wissenschaften)

On Perspecbives.Iufath,ematical logic &?"ouse from a concern with the nature ancL the limits of rationctl orm,athe'maticalthough,t,and fro'm a desire to syste,rnatise the modes of tts expression. The pioneerinq inuestigations were diuerse and largely crut,ono'mous. As time 'passed,and more ltarticularly in the last two decades, interconnections bet'weendifferent lines of research,and links with oth,er b'rartchesof mathe'maticsproliJeratetl,.The su,bject is now both rich and uaried. It is the ai'm of the series to prouicLe, lne,re, ct.s it ma'ps of guides to this 'not uim at encyclopaeclic complet terrain. We sh,aLl coaer&ge:nor clo we wislt, to ltrescribe, l'ike Eu"clid, a def,nitiue uersion of the elements of the subject. We are not com'mittetl to cLny particular philoso'plr,ical prograrnrTle. Neuerthelesswe haue triecl by critical discttssionto ensure tl-t,at each,bool';rep'resents a coh,erent Iine of tlt,ou,ght;and that, by deuelo'pingcertain thernes, it will be of greater (rsse'mblage interest than a 'n'Lere o/ resulbs and techniclues. The books in the series diffe'r i'n leuel: sorne are int'roductor"y,son'Le ltighLy speciaLisecl. They also cli.fferin scope:son'Le offer a wide aiew oJ an arect,others present a s'ingle li'ne of th,ou,ght. Each book i.s, ut its ow'n leuel, reasonably self-contained. ALtltough no book depertdson a'nother as prere{lltisite, we haae encorL'r&ged authors to fit their books with, oth,er planned uolumes, sameti'm,es cleliberately seeking col)erage oJ the sa'ftiemalerial from tli,fferentpoinis oJ'aieu. lVe haue t'riecl to attain 0, reasonaltle degree of tni;formtty oJ nota,tion a'ntl arrangernent. floweuer', the booksin the series ure written by indiuirlttaLauthors, not by tlze group. Plans Jor books cn'etLiscussed antl argued abou,t at length. Luter, e'ncoLLrage'ment is giuen ancl reuisions su,ggested. BuL it is th,e attthors 'pro'ues ushodo th.e worlc; if, as ue hope, the series of ucLlucs, the crerlit uill be t,heirs. IJisbory of |,tref)-Gror-Lp. series ofmono.During 1968 the idea of an integrat,ed graphs on mathentcrt'icaL logic uas fi,rst'mooted. Variotts discussionsletl to u nt.eeti'ng crt Oberuolfuch,in the spring of 1969. Here Llr,e lorunclingmembers oJ the group (R.O.GancLy,ttr, Leu'y,Ci,II. It/tiiLler, D.S.,1cott) cLiscussecL Ci.,1crcks, p'roject in earnest ancl tlecidecl Lh,e F.I'(. ,Sclun'tidt zuith,'ii. Pro.l'essor to go ah"eatl ancLProfessor fluns Iferntes g(tDerLS unrl suytport.Lntet'flans encourage'nr,ent

VIII

Prefaceto thc Ser:ies

with ull uas fl.ttitl. IIou antbitiottsshoukl we Ilermes joined the group. To begi'n 'tt IIow long woukl talte? Plans for anortrselues? we ,turiti th,ebool';s be?,Sltotilrl und,scrapperl' Grnclualltl there ernerged tho'rlessbooks werepro'moted, saaagetL tlt the cncl of an ittJinite rliscussionue lou'n'rl'olt'r norne' ctfrxtrr tntrJcLr,'teiho-cl. ottr centre in fIeidelberg' we ag'reedto ancl that of the series. we estublisherl generully together ruitlt auth'oTs, consttltantsttntl ctssisttnts, meet ttozcea ?Jectr on tlte one hand the oJ colluboration: i.n oberwotfach. we soon founcl th,euaLue to th'e ouer ull plans; on the perTnanen""of tltefounclirrggrorrl,gaue cohe'rence lceptthe ltroject al'iueand flexible' other hancLthe stimtilus of new contributors coulclmodify tlt'e ctuthors' icleas Aboueall, we fotmrl how inten.siue tlisct.tssion 'plan for a better book which ttnrl otrr owrz. Oftett tlre battle encledtuith a cletailetl to urite ancl wltich wottlclinrleedcontribnte a perspectiae' the autlzorwusl;:een SePtember19"/5 Oberwolfach, on' . In starting oILr enterprise we essentially were relyi'ng Acknowleclgements of Professor Alartin Barner of the and, ttnd,erstancting tlze,personit confid,ence PeteTsof ,SpringerMaihematisches Forschu,ngsinstittttOberwolfach,Dr. I{laus Through the verlag anct Dipt.-Ing, Peischuck of the stiJtung volkswugenwerlc' grant (1970-1973) as an initial a genero'ns we rece'iuecl stiJtung voLkswagenwerk possible' ,irlrh macle our existenceas u working groLl'p t rip 'Since (Nlathematischlg7/1 the fleiclelbergerAkaclemie tler lVi,ssenschcLften our enterprise inlo its generul llaiurwissenscltaftliche lilaise) has incor'poratecl by tlt'e late Professor scientif,c progrurn. The initiu:tiue for this ste'puas tali:en Professor w' Doerr' of the Acacle'my, F.I(. Schmid,t, and the former Presid,ent our research project, Through ull th,e yrirr, th,e Acaclemy has str,'pported the I'ogic Biblioqraphy, especiuttyour meetings and. tlt.econtinttous worl'; on generous waA. We could always rely on th'eir readi'nessto i,n an outstanclir-tgly p r o u i d eh e l p w h e r e u e ri t ' w a s n e e d e d ' and I{' by Drs' u' Felg,ne'r wasTtrouid"erJ i'n many uaTiotrsrespects tlssista'nce but not (till 1975) ori Dru. D. Scimitlt anrl IL Zei'tler (till 1979): lo.tt Gloecle is essential i'n rtnt'ning least,our inclefatigablesecretary Etfriectelhrig was and ou'r enterPrise. We thunk aLl those concernetl. I 982 S epLernber tl eidelberg,

R.O. GanclY A. Le'uy G. Sucks

fI. Ilerrnes G.II. lVliiLler D .S. Sc ott

Au {,hors' Preface

r\fier having finished this book on tl-r.e meLarna.themabics of first orcler.arith1,ve :metic, consider the foiio',,vingaspects of ib imporbant: first, r,vepay much abtention to subsystems (fragments) of the usual axiomatic system of first order arith.metic (callecl Peano arithrnetic), inclucling wealc sr-rbsystems, i.e. so-called bounded arithmetic and relaLed theories. Seconcl,before cliscussing proper metatnathematical cluestions (such as incompleLeness)we pay consiclerable attenbion to positive results, i.e. we try bo develop nir,tr-rrally imporrant parLs of :maLhematics (notably, some parts of set theory, logic ancl combinatorics) in suitable fragm.enLs. Third, we investigate two nobions of relative sbrength of theories: inber:pretability and partial conservabivity. Fotirth, r,ve offer a sysLemabic presentation of relations of bouncleclarithmetic to ploblerns of computabional complexi Ly. The need for a monograph on mebamathemaLicsof first orcler aribhmebic harsbeen feli for a long time; at present, besides our boolc, at least two books on this topic are to be published, one r,vritten by R. I(aye ancl one vzritten by C. Smoryriski. lVe have been in contacts wibh both aubhors ancl are h"ppy that the overlaps are reasonably snrall so that the books r,vil| cornple.ment each oiher. This book consists of a section of preliminaries ancl of three parts: A Positive restLlts on fragrnenbs, B - IncompleLeness,C - Bouncl.edarithmetic. Preliminaries and parts A, B rvere written by P. FI., part C b;y p. p. We have bried to lceep a1l par:ts compleLely compatible. The leader is assumeclto be familiar' .',vi|;h funclamentals of math.ematical logic' inclucling the complel,eness theorern ancl Herbranci's theorem; we survey the Lhings assumed to be kno.',vn in bhe Preliminaries. in order to fi.x nol,abion and terminology. tlcl'tn,owleclge'ments. Our first Lhanicsgo to the members of the O-groLlp fbr the possibility of publishing the book in bhe series Perspecbi.res in mar.thernaLical logic and especially to Professor Gelt F{. lviiiller, who iniribecl P. H. bo wribe a monograph with the present titLe, ag:reed.;viLhhis ',visir i;o wlibe the boolc jointly.,viLir P. P. ancl contirluously ofl'ereclevefy possible hel1r. We

.Authors' Preface

we have been deeply influenced by Professor Jeff are happy to recognize th.a,L famotrs independence resr-tltsof Paris, I(icby ancl FIarPar:is. Soon after: bh.e abouLtLhe research ringLon, Jeff Paris repeteilly visil,eclPrague ancl gave Lallcs many l,imes ancl of his lVlanchesiergr:oup. Since l;h.en,he has colTreto .Pi:agr,re we always learn much lrorn h.irn. On- various occasions r,vernet other maLhemaLicians r^rorhingin this fletcl (Aclamowicz, Buss, Clote, Dimil.r:acopoulos, iVlontagna, Il.essayre, Si-mp],incl.str:orn, Itefelrnan., [(aye, I(ossalc, I(ot]a,r'slci, son, Smoryrislci, Solovay, Talceuti, V/illtie, Woocls and o|;hers) and many of with them anc[ prep'-irrts of their bhem visiLed Czechoslovalcia.DiscuLssions papers have been an invaluable source of informaLion for us. We ha;ve profand ibecl e,stremely muLchfrom our colleagues J. I(rajfcelc ancl V. Svejclzr,r obher .nrembersof otrr Plague seminar. The h,{athernaLicalInsi;iturte of the Czechoslovak Acaclemy of Scienceshas been a good woriting place. Several people have read parts of the manuscript and. suggested important improvem.ents.Our tiranks especially to Peter Clote, William Elclriclge,Richard Kaye, Jr:raj Flromkovic and Jiii Sgall fbr iheir help. Mrs. K. Trojanov6 and VIrs- D. Berkov6 helped us considerably with typing; and D. Harmanec provided valuable technical help witl: the prepa,rabionof the bibliography on a cornputer' Last but not ieasb, our families have got used bo sacrifice for our scienhific work. They deserve our most, corclial ihanks. November l-990

Petr Fldjek Pauel Pudld,h

Tableof Contents

Introduction Preliminaries
(") Some Logic

1 5
R

(b) The Languageof Arithmetic, the Standard Model (") Beginning Arithmetization of lVletamathematics PART A CHnprnR I Arithmetic as Number Theory, Set Theory and Logic Introduction 1. Basic DevelopmenLs; Partial tuth Definitions (a) Properties of Addition and ivlultiplication, Divisibility and Primes (b) Coding Finite Setsand Sequences; the Theory IEs(exp) (") Provably RecursiveFunctions; the Theory IE1 (d) Arithmetizaiion of Metamathematics:Partial Truth Definitions 2. Fragrnentsof First-Orcler Arithmetic
(a) Induction and Collection

1t
L L

20

27 27 28 2B 37 44 50
o1

61
o/

(b) Further Principles and Facts About Fragments (.) Finite Axiornatizability; Partial Truth Definitions for Relati vized Arithmetical Formr-rlas (d) Relativized Hierarchy in Fragments
(") Axiomabic Systems of r-\rithmetic .ribh NIo Funcbion Syrnbols 3. Fragments and Recursion Theory (a) Limib Theorem
(D) LOlv IJaSIS tneorem ( c ) T nf i n i t e ^zL \ , v Subsebs \",/
/1 \ T n . mr

77 81 B6
Rq RO o 1 LtL

95
o7

(d) Matiyasevid's Theorem in /I1 4. Elements of Logic in Fragments

(") Arithmetizing Provabiliiy

9B 9B

XII

Table of Contents

(b) r\rithmeLizing NloclelTheory (") Applicationsto A.ribhm.etic

102 105 111 111 t_1.1 115

l l $

Cunprnn[I
t"ragmenbs and Combinar,boi:ics T'heorems and FL:agmenl,s 1. Rar.rrsey's

of ResulLs (a) Sjl,atement /1 \ n o / ''n nrr 1..99 )) 1 ..77 , ,1 ior r.5, 1 [nJ r:roors
/ \ (c)
c)

' l T l P / r 1 q n/ \ r.1 .'v .v) 1 I-roors (or r..L) .LR

lns{,ancesof Lhe Paris-Har-rington Principle ancl Consistency Statements of Resull,s (a) InLroducbionand Si,abement (b) Sorne Combinaborics C o n " Q E A + h@i) ) - > ( Pff) u ( for u > 1) (.) Proof o,f. (d) Strong Indiscernibles (*) Final Considerations Hierarch.y and a-large Sets 3. Schr.vichtenberg-Wainer

12L T2,'I 1.22 124 125 '129

r32
.L J.f

(u) Ordinals in IE1

Induction and Fragments (b) Trzr,nsfinibe (.) a-large Seis in ,IX1 ( d) Sch,,vichtenberg-Wainer Hierarchy

138 139 140

PART B Cuaptan III

Self-Reference 1. Preliminalies TTLT 748

(a) Interpretability and Partial Conservaiivity Theories;' Lr.ential (b) Theories Containing Arithmeticl Seq PA ancl ACAo (") Numerations and Binumerations and Godel's Theorems,Reflexive Theories 2. Self-Reference
(a) E;ristence of Fixecl Points Theorem and Related Topics (b) Godel's Firsb Incomplebeness (.) Godel's SeconclIncompleteness Theorem

r4B 150
l

IOD

F Y

158 158 160

IOJ

(d) Pure Extensions of.PA (") lnterpretabiliby in Pure Extensions of.PA

3. Dc6nable Culs (a) Definable Cuts and Their Properties Theorem (b) A Strong Form of Godel's SecondIncompleteness (.) Herbrarrd Pro'vabiiity ancl I{erbranclConsistencY (d) Cuis and Interprebaiions + " Paltial ConservaLiviLy ancl lnterpretabilil,y (u) Some Prominent E;camPJ.es

168 169 .L7I

r'72
1 'aD t-tJ

1',79 186

r.89
190

Table of Contents

XIII

(b) Genelal Theor:ems on ParLial Conservativity; Some lt'ixecl-Poinl,T]reorems

(.) Applications,lVlainlyto Inierprebability CirlprnR IV l/Iodels of Fragmenl,s of Arithrnetic 1. Some BasicConstruc tions (a) Preliminaries (b) DefinablelJltrapower of the Sban.clard Moclel (") On Submoclels and CLrts (d) Models for the l-lierarchy (") Elementary End Extensions (f) A ConservationResult 2. Cuis in lvlodelsof AriLhmetic with a Top (a) Arithmetic with a Top and lts Models (b) Cuts
(.) Extendable, Resbra in.able and Rarnsev Cuts (ct) Satistaction in F'inite Structures with an Application to X4odels o'.f. I Dt 3 . Provably Recursive Functions ancl the Method of Indicators (a) Provably Recursive Functions, Envelopes (b) Indicators and Paris Secluences (.) Paris Sequencesof the First Kind (c1) Paris SeqtLences of the Second Kind (") Furiher Conseclnences 4. Formalizing Model Theory (a) Some Results on Satisfaction and Consistency
/ i \ ^

195 206 273

2I4

2'Ir,L 216 2'IB 220 227 230 232 232 234 236 24L 245 245
2zLT 250 2Sz

(b) A Conservabion Resu\t in I E1 (") Appendix: Another ConservationResult

257 258 259 260 263

PART C Cnep:rnn'V BoundedArithmetic

1. A Survey of Weak Fragmentsof Arithmetic (a) Fragmentsof Arithrnetic 2. A Brief Introduction to Complexity T'heory (a) Time and SpaceComplexity Classes (b) NondeterministicComputations
(") (d) (") (f) (g) Degrees and /VP-completeness Oracle CornptLtations The Linear Time Hierarchy and the Polynornial Hierarchy hlepomnja5cij's Theorem The Diagonal lvlethocl for Separaiing Complexity Classes

267 268 268 276

27',r
279 280 282 283 285 2BB

XIV

Table of Contents

3. Bxponentiation, Coding Sequences and Formalization of Syntax in I.Xg (a) lntroclLrction

/.l-r) S lq ' J vc uu
vJ/

n d L Un rrL i l J v LS ll o r r l l s n g s g

(") The Exponentia.tion Relation (d) Developing IEo -f Qt Binaly Expansron (") Th.e i\tLmber: of Ones in ar, (f) Coding Secluences (g) SynLactica.l Concepbs (h) For:rnalizations Based on Context-Free Grzlmmars zl. Witnessing FuircLions

294 294 295 299 303 304 309 372

t1t: J-Ld

(a) Introduction
(b) Fragments of Bounded Arithmetic

324 324 320 330 337 350 360 360

JOI

(.) Definability of Turing Machine Compulations in Frasmentsof BouncledArithmetic nctions (d) WitnessingFr"r (.) On the Finite Axiomatizability of Bounded Arithmeiic 5. Inberpretabilityand Consistency (a) Iniroduction (b) Truth Definitions for Bounded Formulae (") An Interpretation of /fe in Q (d) Cut-Elirnination anclFlerbrand's Theorem Arithmetic Botr.nded in (") The I/1 Theorems of .lXs I Enp Theorems (f) Incompleteness
tt o'\ \t),/

366 377 380 386 393 397 409 455

4bv

On the Lirnibecl Use of Exponentiation

Bibliograph.ical Remarks and Further Reading

Bibliography Index of Terms

Index of Symbols

Inl,roc[uc bion

People have been- in.teresteclin naLtral numbers since fo:rever'.The zr.ncienL mabhematicians hner,va,nd used the plinciple of d,escen.le inf,nie, which is a :form of mathem.atical incluction. The principle is as follows: if you 'want to show bhat n.o number has the propei:ty g, it suffices to show bh.at for each number rt having the property ? there is a srnailer number m 1n havir:g tlre prolterty cp.(If Lhere were a number havin.g V we cor-ridencllessly fincl smaller ancl smaller nr-rm.bers lr.aving g, wh.ich is absr-u:cl.) The Greeks used the principle for a, proof of incommenslrrability of segments. The princil:le 'was rediscovered in moclern tim.es by P. FermaL (1601.-1665). T'he principle of rnabhe:nabical i::clticl,ion itseif (if 0 has the prope rLy gs ancl fbr each ntu:nl:er n having p also n+I h.as,p then all numbers have cp)seems to have been first used by B. Pascal (1623-1662) in a proof concerning his triangle. A. general formulation appears in. a worli of J. Bernor-i.1.li (1.654,-1705).(Our soti.rceis

7S-B 11.) fMeschlcowski .tn 1861Grassrnan publishedhis Leltrb'uch, tJerAri'thmeti&; in our terms,
he clefinesintegers as an ordeled integriLy do.ma,inin which each non-empLy set of positive elemenbshas a least element. In IBBzIF:r:ege's book Gruncllaqen cler Arithmeti,k was published. lVe can say bhaLFrege's natural numbers are classes;each such class consists of all sel,sof a certain fixecl finite cardinality. (Frege spealcsof concepts, not of classes.)The famous Dedeliind's.,vot:k Was sind unrl uas sollen die Zah.lenappea.r:s in 1888. Ded.elcind'snatur:a,lnumbe.rs are defined as a set .A/ together wiLh an elernent 1 g lV a one-on.ernapping / of l/ into itself such thaL I is not i:r bhe range of / an.c[]V is the srnaLlestset conbzr,in.ing 1and closed under'/. Declekincland Frege agreeclthat ar,ribhmetic is a parL of logic, but difi'ereclin l,h.eiropinions on whaL logic is. ifhey both trsed the sal.nemain device: a one-oi:r.e mapping and closedness rrnder th.al: mapping. Decleltind l,rasnot interesteil in fincling a fornLal decluctive systern lbr: naLr.Lral numbers; bhis 'was th.e main aim of Peano's in''zesLrgation o[ nal,ural lrumbers (.4rrthmetices principiu noun me.tlt,oda enposrlfa, 1BB9). Pezr,no's axiom sysbern (balcen over h'onr Decl.ekincl,'who hacl ib lrorn Gcassman) is, in our ter.-minology, second olcler: ib clearls rviLhmrrnbers zr,nc[sel,s of nurnber.s.lrlowaclays

hrt,rodttction

axiom.zrticarithmetic Peano ariLhmebic; this to ca,ll l,he .fi.rst-oriler: it is ursr-ral termilology was probably introduced by'I'arski (personal commtLnication bv G.H. lvlutler). \r/hibeh.eadand Russell publishecl their Principia mutlt'ematica a formalization oI ar:ithmetic. in 1908; bhe booh also inclr-r.cles iibliclt'en -Mlethoden his programme as follo.Ns; "LLnsere Ililbert for:mr,rlatect zu, erhennen (t,o show unrl, sontlersals uiders2truclt'sfrei, d,erMathemati,k sa"m,t thaL oLrr usual rnebhoclsof mathemaLics are free from contradictions in their have been shown whole). [Hilberi-Bernays 34, Zw Einleitung]. This shor,rlcl by finitary methocis forming a proper parL of aribhmebic fibid. , p' 42L Godel's farnous incompleteness restdts fGodel 31] showed Hilbert's program in iLs original forrnulaLion bo be unrealistic (even if Hilbert clenies bhis in his Einleit,ung); but iL has remainecl an important source of inspiraLion for proof theor/ see [.[(i:eisel68]. Related.,vorlc from the thirties by'Iarslci (undefinability of truth in arithmetic), Church (undecidability of arithmetic) and Roru". (eliminabion of tl:e assumption of co-consistency)is well known' In moclern texts these results are proved using the well-k1lown cliagonalization (or self-reference) lemma, which is already impl-icit in Godel's proof' This 1"*-o first appeared explicitly in fCarnap 34],, but, surprisingly, iL was neglectecl by many authors for a long time. Feferman's paper [Feferman 60] is a funclamental paper for moclern study of arithmetization of metamathemabics. But it is also necessary to rnention Vblume II of Hilbert-Bernays's monograph [Hilbert-Bernays 39], containing a detailed exposition of arithmebization including the arithmelized completeness theorem. Early results follolving Fefermal's Arithmebization were obtained by Montague, Shepherdson un.l others. In Lhe sixties, Feferman ancl Montague worked on a monograph clevoteclto the arithmetization of metarnathematics, but unfortunately the book has never been finished. fsmorydslci B1-fifty] is alzery readable survey of the development of self-reference. Non-stanclard. modeis of arith.rnetic were first constructed by Slcolem the method of definable ultrapower. [Slcolem34]; ir: present terms, he used in .1g52Ryll-Nardzewslci provecl that Peano arithmetic PA (first order!) is not finitely axiomatizable. Specker ancl lvlcDor,vellshowed in 1959 that each (counbable) moclel of PA has an elementary end-extension. Rabin 161]showecl thaL PA is nob axiornatizable by any axiom system of bounded cluantifier cornplexity. Further importaut resull,s were obtainecl by Friedman, Gaifman ancl Paris in ihe early seventies.fsmoryrislci 82] is a very reaclable treatise of development of moclel theory of arithmetic (up to the eally eighties)' he r\ result of fr-rnclamentalimportance was obtained by Paris in 19'/'/: which is founcl an arithmetical statement with a clear combinaborial meaning tr.ue burbunprovable in- PA; moreover) he was able to show the ttnprovability proof usecl by moclel-ilieoretical means, r,vithout any use of self-reference.llis Kirby' a new methocL,callecl the meihocl of inclicators, developeclby Paris ancl of Paris's statemenb; his refbrrnuan elegant reforrnr-rlal,ion Harrington fouLncl sets labion is a sbrength.eningof the finite Ramsey's bheorem on homogeneoLrs

Intr.'oducl;ion

7'71. This was follor,vecl by rrrany papers l:y'various aul,hor.s, f.Par:is-Flarrington among them lVlcAloon, I(otlar.slci,Mr,rrawski. Later Paris ancl his stuclents (I(ir:by, Clobe, I(aye, Dimitrocopr-r1.os and others) turned Lo Lhe sbudy of .flragments of Pr\. We sh.trllrely sr-rbstantially on their worlc. The first fbur chapters of the book ileal rnainly wiih fragrnents conLzuining at leasl, in.duction foi: X1-formulas. .Abpresenbleb us onJ.ysay LhaL in sttch iheories we may lreely construct recursive firnctions using pi:irnitive recursion. T'he.fit'l;h, chapter deals',,nribh bouncled ar:ibhmetic. Parilch seems to have been the firsL to sbudy boundecl arithmetic [Parikh]. He suggesteclinvestigaLin.ginduction for bouncled forrnulas since they ale easily cleciclable(e.g. in linear space). This was developeclsignifican{,1y by Paris, Wilkie ancl Paris's sLtrdents.The relation to complexity theory has been J<no,,vn from the beginning of the investigabioa of bounded arithmetic. Br-rss'sdissertation, which later appeared as a booJr lBuss 86, Bounded ar.]) was a fr-rrther important impulse. BtLss contributed both in finding new connecbionswith com.plexity theory and i.n applying proof-theoretical methods. There are various later resultsl the reader will fincl such resulbs here.
J; :l :f

The aim of our sttLdy of the metarnathemabics of fir'st-order arithmetic is to give the reacler a cleeperunderstanding of the role of the axiom schema of induction ancl of the phenomenon of incomplebeness.In. Parb A, we develop important parts of mathematics and logic in various fragments of first o.rcler ariihmetic. T'he main means are by coding of finite sets, arithmel,ization of logical syntax and semanl,icsand through a version of Konig's lemma callecl the Lolv basis theorem. Part B is devotecl bo incompleteness. Our main cluestion reads: lvhat more call we say abouL systems of arithmetic bhan that they zr,re all incomplete? .which There are at least four clirections in the answer may be lookecl fbr: (1) For each formula p unprovable ancl :non-refutable in an aribh.rnetic ? '$/e may ask, how conseruati,ueit is over T, i.e. fbr which formulas 1., the provability o{ tlt in (7 * cp) implies the provabilit'y of tp in 7. (2) We may further ask if (7 -F cp) is interpretable in T, i.e. .rhether th.e nobions of 7 may be reilefined in 7 in such a way that for the new notions all axioms of (7 -l- p) are provable in T. (3) Given 'f' we may look for nat'u.ralsentencestrue but unprovable in 7' (fbr example, various cornbinalorial prin.ciples). (4) lvloleover, u/e may investigat e models of '1-' ancl looli at how th.ey visualize our syntactic nobions and feattLles. Bor-rnclecl z'r,riLhmetic is studied in Part C. Various resu-lbsof Part A are stlength.eneclby' shor,vingLhat constructions done in stronger I'r'agments are possible in some sysbemsof bor-rnclecl arit.hmeLiczr,nil how. fbr bouLncled ariih-. r:retic ,,veask, besidescluesbions (1)-(4), also the fbllowing:

Introcluction

com.plex(5) Whai; is the r:elationshipbetween provability in lragments an.ct ity of cornpubation? One of bhernost imporbant goals (presently inaccessible) is to sho.,vinclependenceo[ som.eopen problems of complexiLy theorv .[r'om some f.ragm.e:lts. Details on l,he strrrcture of Ll:e booh are apparenl; I:.'om ihe ta,ble of contenIs.