9

Satisfaction
T l i c t r t r t h i s r a r el y p u r e , a n c l n e v e r s i r n p l e . OscarWilclc Tlte Irrytortuncaof Beirtg Eartte.sl

lier ei s th zi tno onc wantedto haveto wr ite: the mater ial T h i s i s th e ch a p te r later yet for clescribe clearly, it is very necessary technical ancldifficult to but cannotcloso any longer . rvo rk.I h a ve p u t i t o ff as lor r gas possible, the R o u g h l y,w h a t i s g o i ngon her e is this: by the Chur ch- Tur ingthesis g Nr defineci by set .S ) s I , a n dN f 0 ( ( u ) r , . , ( r ) , , ) } . S : { ( { t ( V ) , a ) 1 0 ( v , , ,,.V , , * ' i : ri fy this) and so by Cor ollar y3.4 ther e is a ) , for m ul a is r.e . (e xe rci seve y) canbe consicler ed asr epr ese nti ng y) re p re se n ti ng S in N. Sat;,( x, Sa tr,(x, '),-complete' formulii a of Zssutisfnc:tion. lt is 2,-truth,ol, aswe shallsay, for to decicling problefflczlnbe redr.rced that any r.e. decision in the sense only on the ne N depending wh a tye N i s S a t;,(n ,y)tr ue ( for somefixecl do her e is to clefi ne we hzr ve to W . hat de ci si o n p ro b l e mb e i n gconsicler ed) properties ctn.dshow it ltusall the expectecL the formtrlaSat;,(x,y) precisely, in nrbitrary models oJ PA. The important property that we must clteck to I, for m ulasi n definition of tr uth ( r estr icted i n d u ctive l i o l cl s i s T a rsl <i 's follow fr om this that th e n i i tu rzrl w a y). It r,vill
I ' A I Vu ( c p ( ( r r 1).( a ) 1 , ' ,- , v , , - ' ) 1 , r , ) ) , ( n ) , , ) < - S a t : , ( I c p ( v., ,

. . .V,,- r ) . fo r e a ch.I, fo rrn u l zr E (v ,,, and ll,,-complete ln a similttr way, we will also clefineZ,,-complete for eachr z> 1. The bulk of the wor k , a nclSAtp,,( x,y) fo rmu l a s S a tl -,,(x,y) that, by Notice . the A,( PA) for m ulaSat.r ,,( x,y) h o r,ve veir, s i n cl e scri bing 3.7) ther e is no of tr uth ( Exer cise th e o re mo n the unclefinability T zrrski 's (thtrs: we for all 9rr-f.orntttlas satisfaction y) cleltning ./o-formula Sat(;r, This pr obler nwill be taken up in Chapter15, ca n 't g e t a n y sa ti sfa c tion!) a new binar y r ela ti or l of aclcling conseqllences r w h e re r,veco n si cl e the S a t ( x , y )t o t h e l a n g u a g e . H i sto ri ca l l y,th e motivatioltfor this wor l< t) n ) ,,- ancl II,,- compl ete

t04

Sequences

105

formulaswas in showingthat the formulaclasses ),, ancl11,, cloincleecl forrn a h i e r a r c h y - t h a t i s , f o r e a c h / t > - r t h e r e a r e f o r m u l a s0 ( x ) e 2 , , n o t e q u iva l e n tto a n y r1 ,,fo rmula, ancl e@) er r ,, not equivalent to any ^r ,, f o r mu l a .H o w e ve l ', th e co n s eclLr ences tor the mclclel theor yoi PA go ver y m u c h d e e p e r,a s w e sh a l lseein the r estof this bool< .

9.I

SEQUENCES

W e n o w g e t cl o w nto th e nitty- gr ittyof definingSatr .,( x,y) r n pA, anc l showingthat it has all the requiredpropertiesthere. ThrougltoutSectiorts 9.I, 9.2, 9.3 we v,ill work in.PA (or some fixeclmodel of pA). This sectionis devotedto expanding our repertoireof functionsusecl to h a n d l eco d e sfo r se q u e n ce s. we assum e we ar e givena A,,for mula( x) ,:z w i t h th e fo l l o w i n gse n te n ces Y x, ya l y (x) r : z Y *, y (r).,<"

Vxay (li).:x Yx , y , z a w ( Y i < z ( ( w ) , : ( y ) , )A ( w ) , : x ) all provablein P,zl.(Obviously we could take (x)" : z to be the formula of C h a p te r5 , b u t th e e xa ctch oiceof for mula is unim por tant.) W e shalluse this to clevelopthe means to handle codes for sequences where we simultaneor.rsly keep track of the length of the sequence. For reasons e x p l a i n e d i n C h a p te r 4 , p.51, it will be impor tant that all the new functionswe defineare provablyrecursive.

L-r-----.-

i D e r - rN rrro1 N I - ye (x),:y len(x) : z <-> (),> l e n (x) Az :0) v ( y < len( x)A ( r ) ,* r : z) [x],, T h u s a n y n u m b e rc o d e sa s e q u e n c e [ r ] , , ,[ " ] , , . . . , 1 * ) , _ , w h e r e l l e n ( x ) : ( x ) , , a n d ( x ) ; * , : [ x ] , f o r e a c hi < / . N o t i c e t h a t V x S l y ( l e n ( . r ) : y ) a n d V x , y S l z f x l , = z a r eb o t h p r o v a b l e i n P A , s o l e n ( x )a n d [ x ] " a r e b o t h p r o v a b l yre cu rsi ve fu n cti o ns, gr aph. sincethey both have A1, I t i s cl e a rfro m th i s cl e fi n ition and the pr oper ties of ( x) , listedabovethat f o r e a c hn e N a n d . r , , x,t , . . . , x , , - ,t h e r ei s a l e a s t t h es e q u e f l c e . E 1 1 , z coding x r , . , X , , - 'i n t h i sw a y ,w i t h l e n ( z ) : i z . T h u s w e c a n m a k et h e f o l l o w i n g c l e f r n i ti o n .

106
-.-----I

Satisfactiort

z:0) l D ep o xi .F o r a l l n e N ( i n c l u d i nrg --r *-N _ - - -r n -- + : ---

l * u* , ,,

: z / \ A , . , ( [ t ] , : x , )A ., x,-rf: r-t len(z) * nY W ,.,,[w],* xi) . Y w 1 z( len( w)

' fh L rs eachof which i s a far nilyof functions, f*u ,*,,. . . ) x,,-rf=z clefines abovepr ovi c l es i n P A. In the casen:0, the definition pro va b l yre cu rsi ve of length0. us w i th th e n o ta ti o n[] for the leastcodefor the sequence operutionoby In a similar way we define the concctntenation

t.t. i D e p r N r n o Nn . jy x z e z i s l e a ss
i

(lzl,: l,l')A + len(y)AVi< len(x) len(z): len(x) V 7< len( y)( [z]r ""r .l*i: Iy],) . thatz: xl I codesthe sequence Th e i d e a i s, o f co u rse , Iy ,y ] ' , . . . , [ ] ] r " u r r r - r - ], ,, , I [r]r, . , [x],.nr..1 [r]u, y is a of lengthlen(z) : len(x)+ len(y), and againit is easyto checkthat x f-l functionin PA. provablyrecursive x to length y, x I y, of a sequence We will also require the restriction definedby

F+

;q

that such w: x ly* w is least

: y AYi< len(w) ([r],: [x]'), len(w)

so th a t, i f x co cl e s 1 y< len( x) , then x f y is the [t],,,[t]r , . . . r [x]r ""r *l-and l e a st co d e fo r th e sequence [x],,, [t],,. .' , ["]r - 1 of length y' Noti c e h o w e ve rth a t i f y>l e n (x) , then ( sincewe defined[t],:0 for i > len( x ) ) f o r t h es e q u e n c[e t ode x f y i st h el e a sc r, ' .'', 0 of x ] , ,[,t ] , , . . . , [ l ] r " n r ' r -0 O . n c e a g a i ni t i s e a s yt o as necessary oc ult ' w i t h z e r o s , length.V,'padcle in- PA. ch e ckth a t,r I y i s p ro vablyr ecLr r sive is ihat otlr lytzl\which is the least code for the T h e n e xt cl e fi n i i i o n sequence [ r ] , i [, t ] r : . . r l * 1 , - t , Y[,x ] - * r , i f z<l e n (x), o r th e l e astcodefor
,r ' ,, 0 , 1 l[ " ] , ,[,r ] r r. . . , [ i r ] r " n r ,o
, [x]1.n1.*yr

Secluence.s

101

i f z > l e n (x) (w h e reth i s l a st seclLr encc has lengthz) . Thus xlylzl is the r e s u l t o f re p l a ci n g th e zth entr y o[ the secluence coclecl by r , [x]., with y - p a dd i n g th e se q u e n ce o ut with zer osi[ necessar y. M ctr efonlally: : x[yl z]<>ry is leastsuchthat r.y ; D e r r N rr;o N .i l e n (w ): me r x( len ( r ) , t + 1)A V i < l e n (w ){ , t :

z-lwl:y)A}.

l ( i + z - - - ' l w l ,[:r ] , )j

O n c e a g a i nxl yl zl i s a p ro vztbly r ecur sive functionin PA. i s t h a to f t h e ' p a r t - o f ' r e l a t i o n o f t h i ss e c t i o n x,e n l . T h e l a s td e f i n i t i o n 'contiguor.rs that forms a block' of the x ep ! is to hold if x codesa sequence y . T h u s : by s e q u e n cc eo c l e d [ 1 , 3 , 2 , i ] = r [ 9 , B ,I , 3 , 2 , 7 , 1 I ] . H o w e v e r , s i n c ea g i ve nse q u e n ce ma y havem or e than one cocle, ther eis an annoying t e c h ni caco l n si cl e ra ti o na t mr - r st th is be made.and the full definition

D E p r N r-rro N .cp y ,Y n f i < l e n( y)- len( x)[Vi < len( x)( [t]i: [y]' - ;) lA le n (y)> l e n (x) ([rl,+ [t],)) V z < x ( l e n ( z ) +l e n ( x ) V f l < l e n ( x ) T h e te ch n i ca re l stri cti o n n e ededis in the last line of this definition:we i n s i s tth a t xg p / ca n o n l y b e tr ue if x is the leastcodefor the sequence it codes.The reasonfor this restrictionis to rnakethe next lemma holct.

L e p r p re n >I,Z ,,( PA) and n,,( PA) ar eclosed 9 .1 : F o r e a ch under ' par t- of' q u a n ti fi ca ti o n
and

Proof. If 0(x,y, z) is-I,, andn> 7 thenY x(x c.,., !-->0(x,y, z)) is equivalent in PA to theformula l l u : l e n ( y ) A V ij,< l l i * j < l - - - > 3 x { l e n ( x:) j A V k < i ( [ r ] * : [ - v ] ' * , , ) AVa<.r(len(a + ) j V A k < j ( [ u ] r * l y l , , r ) ) A 6 ( x ,y , z ) ] ) l 7. l. whichin turn is ecluivalent by Proposition in PA to zrI,, formula The case for lL, formulas is similar.

108 9.1 Exercises |or Section

Satisfaction

f u n c t i o nF ( r , y ) s t r c l tt h a t t h e f o l l o w i t i gz r r e 9 . 1 D e f i l e a p r o v a b l yr e c u r s i v e in PA: orovable
(a)

)[al'<x)-Y L rx , , y [ l e n ( a< ) yAVi < len(a( : len(a) ([ul,: ['],))l n Vl< len(a) , ) (len(u) 3u < F(-ry <x) )[ z l , ) y n V l < l e n ( z( V x ,y , z f z : F ( x , y ) + ( l e n ( z < * len(z)y 3i < len(z) (lt), + ['1, )) ) ]' A Vry< z(len(u')

(b)

g.2 Definea provably functionG(,r)suchthat the followingis prcvable recursive in PA: V x ( G ( x )q o x A V Y q p x ( Y< G ( x ) ) ) of lr, where g.3 .(a) Define {.r},,:the yth digit of the base u representation osf ( . r ) ,d e * : Q , , u ) : ( u + u ) ( t t + u + 1 ) 1 2 * u . S h o wt h a t t h i s h a st h e p r o p e r t i e PA') in scribedon p. 105.(Hint: use (x),,to define{.r}' e, n ( x ) , l e n ( x ) , x e p l , e t c . a s i n S e c t i o n g . l b u t u s i n g { . r i . , i n p l a c e ( b ) D e f i n e [ ; r ]l r '(.r)n, anclstrowthat the followingusefulproperty,Yx, y(xepl--->x<y) is now of in PA. orovable

9,2 SYNTAX and to make various We are now ready to clefineour Godel-numbering, (suchas: what a formula is; what a term is; what a A,' definitions syntactic to eachsymbols of the formula is, etc.)insidePA. The firststepis to iissign (s).This can be done,for 9o a uniquenaturalnumberru first-orderlanguage (x, y) : example, in tlie way indicatecl in Table 1, where (, + y) (i + y + l )l Z * y is our usualpair ingfunction.( Note that ( 13, i> > 13 get a unique number!) ior eachl, so that eaih symbolot 9o doesincleed ror The idea now is to dehne the Goclel-number of a string of symbols to b e the leastnatur al number x codingthe sequ enc e .i ,,*1 o :S 1 yS 1 ,9 2 -' . . . r ( s , , - 1 ) .M o r e p r e c i s e l y v ( s r r )z ,( s r ) , is the $o-formula DerrNrrroN. Gl/(x)('x is a Gddel-number') Vl < len(;r)(["], < 12V ai < xfxl,: ( 13' ,) A V w ( x(l en( w)* len( x) V 3i < len( x)l*1,* [' ]' ) ' GN( x ) i s S i n cel e n (x){x a n cl[r],=x for all x, i, it is easyto checkthat o, e q u i va l e niio o A 6 fo i mulain PA. Mor eoverany str ingof - yo- sym bol s ,

Syntux nt of nzrturzrl TableI r\ssignrne nrrmbers to syrnbols o'i51,1 .r n a t u r a l r t t t r t t b c r t ,r ( s ) -7.',1-synrtrol,

I09

0 I
-r

0 I
L

3
tl ?

-5
o

-l f

V
( )

B 9 10 ll T2 ( 1 3 ,i )

rr o l e N . F o r e x a m p l e t, + l i s l 2 l , ' 0 : l r i s h a s a u n i q u eG o d e l - n u m b e r3(r is tvit is ts hen [ 9 , 1 1 ] ,a n d i l x , y a r e G o d e l - n u m b e r [(13,1)]; [0,5,1]; n , etc. are the xn n y . ( H e r e [ r , , , .. , x u - t f , so is their concatenzttio r e c ursi vefu n cti o n sd e fi n e d in the pr evious section.) In par ticular if zr :t(lnrnt1.rnynr)r. the Goclel-numbe GN(x)AGN(y), we canfc-rrm by wr iting consider ably W e sh a l lsi mp l i fyth e n o ta ti onin this lastexam ple n r ) r , r(1 fl * fl r-p r n y t ( , - F y),fo r for other cofflwith similarabbr eviations t( r +/) t a ( pr ovably r ecur sive) clefines so m o n l y u se clco n stru cti o tts, r I ar e usedin two x, y. ( Thus,the symbols f u n cti o nw i th tw o a rg u me ntS clifferent ways: firstly as a function senclinga string s11" , s,- | of t.s,,' ' s,- r r N, anclseconclly to th e i r u n i q u eGodel- nutnber 9 o - symb o l s functionsinto P,A,sLrch new provablyrecursive for introclucing zrs a clevice I ( .r + y)t.) as in the cttseoI to confusion paragraph coulcllezicl in the lzrst The notzrtion if that sar ts- serv su e x p r e ssi o n s cha s r(x-v,)r , so lve m nke the couventiotr I(-v: ui)r), suchas to fr-rnctiotrs are fixeclsymbolsof 9o(i.e. not arguments whereasall stbsu'iptsto v (such as i in the case above) nnd uLl other by intr otlucacl tol' unctior ts L t)L u )w ,i j,, k ,. . .) ar ear gtunents u a r ia h l e(*,y, s r ( x:v,) t zrconvenicn t bccomcs . o w i th thisconvention, t h ef - . .1n o ta ti o n S notittionfor the functic'',n
t(t n.t n r-r n'(13,l)t n r;t x, ir-+

1t0
an(l not the function

Satisfactiort
r - I n V-nr)1. J, ViD r(l n-rn

t , l , * , ' , ( , ) w h e r ep o s s i b l e A l s o : i n s i d et h e l " ' l s i g n s ,w e i n t e r p r e0 a.t fixed -9lo-symbols , so I(x + y)l denotes the function x, J e t(nyor4rnynr)l applied zF+r(tnznr)l t o x , y , a n c ln o t t h e f u n c t i o n to z: x + Y. applied to' N o t e a l s o t h a t , i f o : . t o J r " ' s , , - 1 i S a S t r i n go f f i x e d 9 a - s y m b o l s function( with no of o and the constant b o th th e Go cl el- num ber de n o te s of r "' r to w h o seva l u e is the num ber r or e N. Thus the r ' r se a rg u me n ts) of the Gddel- numbe r i ng as an extension ca n b e r egar ded fu n cti o n s cl e n o te ter ms in the obvio us and constant f u n cti o ni f w e i d e n ti fy0- ar y functions wa y. out of the way we can now show how to define With thesepreliminaries 'x of an 9o-tertn'. an 9o-formulaterm(x) denoting is the Godel-number denotesthe 9o-formula termseq(s) DEr'trutrtoN:
[s]': tOt V r1t V [s],:

: rvir)V Vi < len(s){ fi < s([s], aj , k < i ( [s]' : t( [t]i+ [s]*) t) V Aj,k <i([s],: t([t]i' [s]o)t) ttt)' term(x) denotesthe 9o-formulafs termseq(tn i s a Ar ( PA) for mula,and ter m ( x) is - I' ( PA) . W e shal l T h u s te rmse q (s) properties showthat term(x) is actuallyA'(P,zt),and hasvariousexpected of PA. in a l l mo d e l s One way by which we could show that term(x) is Ar(PA) is to find a function/(x) suchthat provablyrecursive n ttt) ) , P A IV x(ter m ( x) - +3s < /( x) ter mseq( s to the Ir, formula for then term(x) would be equivalent n t"t))' Y t(t: f(x)--+3s < / termseq(" this approach.) An alternative is to define s (Exerciseg.4 discusses term(x) to be the lto-f'ormula cletermines A Vi < len(s)([t], s p"r) A termseq(s) n'yt)* 3l < len(s)y: [s]')' xAtermseq(s Vy(yG,,

Syntax

ul

of collecticln a m aximal T h u s ,i f 's cl e te rmi n ete s rm(x) 'is tr ue, thens codes s u b s e q u e rrce o fs x, e a cho f w hichis a ter m. ( Note thatx itselfneednot be a to pr ove in PA that VxSs ( s t e r r n .)T h e i cl e ai s th a t i t shouldbe possible off any.l n r eacl c l c t c l rn i n ete s rn t(;)), a l td th at the pr oper ty' ter m( x) ' czr be f o r some x : [ s ] , whetheror not term(x), by examining determining te s r m ( x ) ' i sL ( P A ) b y L e m m a9 . 1 l < l e n ( . r ) .N o t i c et o o t h a t ' s c l e t e r m i n e by y cox. We aim to provethat term(x) sincethe quantifierVy is bor-rnded se r m ( x ) + 3 l c t e n ( s ) x : [ s ] , ) , w h i c h i s i s e q u i v a l e nt o V s ( sd e t e r m i n et ler nm a. n ( P A ). T o cl o th i s w e n e e da technical of ter ms) . PA pr oves the following L Eu vn ().2 (U n i q u e re a clability s e n t e n ce s: ( a ) V x ,y ( t e r m ( x A ) t e r m ( xn y ) * l e n ( y ): 0 ) nr)- len(y):0) ( b ) V x ,y ( t e r m ( x ) A t e r m ( y ( c ) V x ,l , r , s ( t e r m ( x ) A t e r m ( y ) A t e r m ( r ) A t e r m ( s ) ii r(xxy)lc oI(r'r,'s)l , where'F,,t,'are e i t h e r* o r . , t h e n : e i th e rl ( x*y) rco r r( x' r Y)qo l s or OfX:rAy:SA'r:,r').

Proof. (a) We use inductionon z in < z A l e n ( y ) < z A t e r m ( x ) A t e r m ( xn y ) - l e n ( y ): g ; . V x ,y ( l e n ( x ) tr ue for z:0) and th a t th i s i s tru e fo r somegivenz ( it is obviously Su p p o se If s L r p p o sr ee r m ( x ) A t e r m ( x n y ) w i t h l e n ( x ) a n d l e n ( y ) b o t h { z * 1 . n y ) : r v r r r 0 r , t l 1 , the 1 (since l ol e n ( x f o r s o m e 7a , n cs or l e n ( x ) : 1 t h e nJ : of those vi ar e or 0, 1, with fir st sym bol te r ms of o n l y Go cl e l -n u mb e rs r ( r ' r s ) r a n dx n y : l e n ( x )) 1 s o . r : l e n g t h1 ) , h e n c el e n ( y ): 0 . O t h e r w i s e , ( p , r 'q ).w h e rer, s, p . q a reall ter m sand i' ,' F' ar e* or ' . if len( r )< len( p) , len(w):0 by the t h e np : r ) w f o r s o m eh / w i t h l e n ( r ) ,l e n ( w ) { 2 , h e n c e S . i m i l a r l yi,f l e n ( p ) < l e n ( r ) t h e n r : p n w f o r s o m e i n d L r c t i oh ny p o t h e s i s . r y , z t n c l e n ( w ) : 0 . T h t r s l e n ( p ) : l e n ( r ' ) a n d h e n c ep - - r ' T h i s i n t t t r n asg a i n hypothesi qd : s o 4 f o r s o m eu . B y t h e i n d u c t i o n implies:r<:,F/an l e n ( y ) : 0 , a sr e q u i r e d . l :xoy, thtrs s : p a n cx len(a):0, hence ( b ) i s p ro ve di n th e sa meway as ( a) .

I 12

Suti.sf'uc'tiorr

(c) F i rst fi x tcrn rsr, J ancl' r ,' : * or .. W e pr ov( lby incluction on z th at : I ( 1' t".i) r <r zAu .' ) I t, o vs,' V r.t, u , r.u (ter nr ( r .' ) /\lcn( - ' ( l e n ( r l:) l c r t ( r u:) 1 ; t z l c n ( r )- r 2 V lcn(u) +,2 len(r,u)>len( i )) ) for all z, hence | u Gpr V r ,l V u (te rm(u )A u c,, t( r ' r "s) l- + Gp,tV { ,: t( r ' r "s) ( O ) i s o b v i o u s lt t i s t r u e f o r z > l consi r l er yr u e f o r z : 0 , 1 , s o a s s u m i nig 1h . e nu : t ( x , r y ) l l A l r n u f r w : r ( r ' r " 5 )T L t ,u , w w i t ht e r m ( r ) A l e n ( u ) : z * f o r s o m et e r m sx , y a n d , r . :* o r ' , a n c l e n ( x ) ,l e n ( y ) < 2 . S i n c e
l -yn t)t A t t ( t n x n r : t rn w: 11 r(r'r,',5')!,

(0)

a p p l i e c lt o l t c t t hx , _ yg i v e s the incluctive assumpticln n r ( r ) > l e n Q ' )+2 (1) len(r n ) 2 o r ( 2 ) l e n ( r ) t * ) > l e n ( . r+ n / n r ) 1 n n)2len(s) * 2 ancl or (3) len(r,r.t n ' n r :r.r n r ( r >)l e n ( r ) + 2 . ( a len for sotne l )t:s c a n n o t e q u a l l e n ( r ) * 2 , f o r i f i t c l i cx len(r.lnt(r) Flowever, S.i n r i l a r l yl e n ( t ) 1 o w ) * / , h e n c ex : s b y ( a ) a b o v e , w h i c h i s i r n p c t s s i b l e > len(,r) * 2. Thus ( l) and (2) above imply len(r,r) len(r) * 2 ancllen(w)> W e w i l l s h o w t h a t i n c a s e ( 3 ) w e l l l L l s tl 2 1 y s' r ' : ' t . ' , len(s)*2 respectively. x : i ' a n c l y : s w i t h l e n ( a ) : l e n ( w ) : 0 , B t t t , i n c a s e( 3 ) , w e t n t t s th a v e

n,y len(r,r r n r ) rn * ) : l e n ( s ) + 2

a n c l l e n ( un r ( rn r f l r ' r . r:) l e n ( r )+ 2

It followsthen that ' r ,: ' t,'anc l l e n (an ,n r ) > len( r ( r*,' s) t) . o th e rw i se si n ce r : x a n ds : y b y ( a ) a b o v e h , ence t1n x : r , s : y n t , f o r s o m e/ 1 ,/ , , h e n c e u : t ( r ' t , ' . r ) 1 , h e n c e l e n ( a ) : l e n ( w ) : 0 , a s r e c l u i r e d ,c o m p l e t i n gt h e ! pro o f. ter m( x) ) . 9 .3 . P A l V xa :; ( s cieter mines L e N {vrn on y that Pro o f. F i x x. We sh o w by incluctioll cleter r nines ter m( .Y V y < l en( x) 3s( s I y) ) , 's otl the seqLl enc c ter r n( x) 'only cleper tcls si wh i chsr-rffi ce sn ce c leter m ines cocle x ( so .l' cleter tni tr es co cl e clb y x, a n cl n ot on thc par ticLr lar nr l ty - r I len( ,r :) x ar r cl ter r tr ( r ) ,eventhotr gh te rrn (.r f i e n (x))rs cl cter mir r es beclifferent!).

Syntux

I 13

te I t i s c l e a rf r o m t h e d e f i r r i t i o n s r m ( x| 0 ) . F o r t h e th sa t . i : [ ] c l e t e r m i n e i n c l r " r c t is otn e ps u p p o s e te s r m ( x I y ) , y < l e n ( , r ) ,x f ( - y + 1 ) : r clcterrnine n r 0 r , r l r , ' u , t for sorne then sn ( * | y ) [ r , 1 .I f [ a ] i s or 7, [ r . r lc l e a r l y te cfetentrine sr m ( x f ( y - r 1 ) ) a sn o t c r m o c t , x | ( y t l ) c a nh a v cl e n g t h > 2 l , I o r v , . I f [ a ] : r ; 1 , t l t e ns u p p o s e a n c l a s ts y r n b o0 x I y : t t r ( l n [ t ] , nt * ' n [ s ] , ' fhen : n t( [.r ],r ,[s],) t cleter r nine s a n cl i , j < len( ,r ) . ,r ' r w h e re ,r.: * o r ) o l c l s ,a n c l t h e m a x i r n a l i t y t e r n r ( x| ( y + 1 ) ) , s i n c e c l e a r l yt e r m s e c l ( s 'h ancl the maximality p r o pe rty o f .s' fo l l o w s from unique r eaclability, r ) r for m, or if a is p r o pe rtyo f s. F i n a l l yi f Ir.r]: ar td.rf y is not of the above ( y + a s c a n e a s i l yb e l)), te s rm(x | e l s e ,t h e n s i t s e l fc l e t e r m i n e anything n checlccd. th e following: 9 .4 . P A p ro ve s L e v r rvrn ter m( x) ter m ( x)Ar cleter m ines d e te rmines V x, .i , r(.r >V i < l cn ( s) 37 < len( t)[s]': [r ]i) . ol1y that ter m ( x) .W e show by indLr ction P r o of. L e t .r, r d e te rmi n e Y i < yaj < len(t) [s],: [,f];

('f)

f o r a l l y<l e n (s). (-l ') i s trivial for y:9. Suppose( ' l' ) holds for some n y < len(s);since[s]_, to showthat termseq(/ so x, it suffices [[t], ]), for then : : pr oper tyof r . If [t],, r 0l, r 1l, or tv^, I 7 , b y th e mzr ximality [ . r ] u [r],fo r so me for r and if not, [s]r : t( ls].u,' r [t].u,) is obvious, f o r so me/c,te rmse q (rn [[s ]' ,]) here h y p o t h e s its s o m el t , l z { y a n d , r . : * o r . . B u t t h e n b y t h e i n d u c t i o n : that [t]r, : [1],, and [t].,, [r],, so once again exists 7s, i, < len(ir) sr-rch n n t e r m se q (f [[r],,]),o t re q u ir ecl. pr oper tie s to pr ovethe r equir ecl l e mm as together W e ca n n o w p u t th e se o f t h c f o r m u l ut e r m ( . r ) . to a I/1 [or tnula,lienceit is in P,z{ 9 .-5 .te rm(x)is eclr - r ivalent Pr r o p o srrro N L I P A ). Mo re o ve rP A p roves: e) ( t : r 0 r y r : r l r V 3 7 < r ( r : r v , t ) Vrfterm(r r(r V l r , s c p / ( t e r m ( r ) A t e r m ( . r ) A ( r : + s ) ry t : t ( r ' r ) l ) ) ) ] to the [, for r nula Pr o o f'.We cl a i m te rrn (x)i s equivalcnt ( [s],: x) ) ' ter r n( x) ) - -3i + < len( s) cl e te rm ines V s((.r

(:f)

174

SutisJ'action

(:f) h o l d s. T h en by Lem m a 9.2 ther e is some s deter m in i ng Strp p o se t erm(" r). B y (1 ,) ther e is I < len( s) with [s]i: x ancl henc e t errn se q ((,r if ter m( x) holclsw e f i )n [x]), so ter m( x) holcls.Conver sely, wa n t to sh o w th e re e xi s tssonles cleter mining with the pr oper ty ter nr ( .r ) ] i < l e n ( s ) ( [ s ] , : x ) , f o r t h e n a l l s u c hs h a v et h i s p r o p e r t yb y L e m m a9 . 3 . Our assumption t, e r m ( x ) ,g i v e su s s o m er w i t h l e n ( t ) > 1 A [ 1 ] r . , , r , :r j r A t e rmse q (r). B u t th e n b y incluction on y up to len( it) in <y i ( [ r ] ,e , , x - - > Sstermsecl(s)A< Vlie n ( , s ) ( l , r ] , c n x ) A V 37<len(s)[r],:[r]i) t he rei s s sa ti sfyi n g A V , < len( s) ( [s], ( [r ],: r ) . te rmse q (s) c, x) A 37< len( s) ly e r m ( x ) ,i . e . ,t h a t . l i s ' r n a x i m a l 'T . h i s i s p r o v e cb W e c l a i ms d e t e r m i n ets y i ncl u cti o n o n u p to l e n( s)in n V u V i cy( ( ter m seq( s [,,])A u c,, [t],)

-- fi < i(a: [r],))

(o)

to t he si n ce[s]i:x for some/. W e leavethe full details Th u ss i s ma xi ma l , why the induction stepfor ( o) wor ksis beca us e to ch e ck;th e re a son reader rf u co [s],with u*frsl;, then a so [s]r: [([s]r'r[s]1. )] for some i, l(< i and 'r: + , , r u - , , [ s [ , b y L e m m a9 . ' l ( b ) . o r h e n c " v t e c [ s ]o 'mo re o ve r' of ter r n( x) . n p a rt followsdir ectlyfr or n the clefinition The irt notions to defineothersyntactic N e xt, w e sh a l lu seth e sam eappr oach P,4, suchasthe Godel-nr"rmber of aformula, a Z,,formulu,or a fI,,fornzula. formula. ) the for m ula DE p rxrrro Nfo : rmse q (sis A ) term(u) 3u, u<s(term(aA r ( u : t( u < u ) t ) ) : : ([s], u)rV [s], : r ( [s]iV[t]^) t) V 3 /, k < i ( [s]; < V l l e n (s) ' ( [t],A [t]^) ' ) V fi , k < l( [s]1: Vli <i([s]':tr[r];t) r vv^[.t]/r ) r 3v1[s],r V [s]': V 3 i < i3k < s( [s],: n l.s'fot'mseq(.t form(.r)is the formr-tla [t])

'gyntrtx s rletermirtas' .[orm(x)is the formulir

Vi < len(,i)( [s],q nx) A fo rmseq(s) ). r l , : r r ) . / \ Y u ( u c , , x A f o r r n s e c l ( sn [ r ] ) - - - ' 3 i < l e n ( , r l

I 1-5

o fr e T h e i c l e ai s t l i a t f o r r r r ( x )s h o u l c lh o l c l. j u s tw h e n x i s t h e G c i c l e l - n r - r r n b i n a a f'ormula.The following propertiesof these fonnulas are provecl or term(x). s i r n i l a r w a y t o t h e i r z r n a l o g u efs reaclability . A p r o v e st h e f t l l l o w i r r g : 9.6 (UrriqLre o f f o r m L r l a s )P Lp-vrprn n y ) ' : (a) Vx, y(form(,r)Aforrn(x len(y) 0); n A y ( f o r m ( t ) f o r m ( y t ) len(y): 0); V;r,
/

( b ) V x , r , s l ( f o r m ( r ) nf o r m ( r ) A f o r r n ( s ) ) - 't' : AotV )1\ (where x =,,r(r'r's)r Iif ' :t . I t h e nx c , ,r V x c p s v . r Q + , s ))t f

(c) Vx, y, r, .r((lorm(x)Aform(y)Aform(r)Aform(s))--> lt r) th e r e ' i , , , r (x',,1 ) r(/.'i,,s (w u,l,l e A o r V ) l \ J)

l-t:rAy:sA:rr-:i:/ L E vH a n 9 .7 . P A p ro ve s: (a) VxSs(.r cleterrnines form(.r));

fonn( x) ) ( b ) Vx, .i , r((scl e te rmi n e for s m ( x) Ar deter m ines -+ V i < l en( s) 37 : [r ],) ) < len( t)( [s], A n d h e n ce PA proves i s A 1 ( P A ) .M o r e o v e r , 9.8. forrn(x) PnoposrrroN <+[3 r, s(te rm(t) Ater r n( .rA ) ( x : t( r : s) r Vx : t( r < .t) t) ) Vx { fo rm(x; ) f o r m ( z ) A ( x : t ( y A z ) 1 Vx : r ( y V z ) r ) ) V I l y , z ( f o r m ( yA tlyt Y 3 y ( f o r m ( y ) A( x : Vlk<x(x: rSVr)irVx:rVv^Yt)))]1 I.

for in Chapter15.lvlor ein- r pclr tant 9 ,8w i l l b e very ir npor tant P ro p o si ti o n of form.-,(x)anclform1,,,(x). this chapterare the clefinitions

il6

Sutisfuctiort

DE r.rN rrro N fo . rmse Ql ,,(is s)the formr-tla I atL,r.'s(term(u)Aterrn(u)

A([s],:'(t : u)'Vlsl,:t(a<r)')) I '([t]iV li, /c< l(f,sli:'([,t]iV )t) [,tl,. )tV [,r],: V [t]^ , \ I v/ <-ren('tJ r-t[s],,) 1 V l, < i([r],: I 3 v 1 ( ( v or <) A [ s ] , ) r ) [s],: I Vrl < ilk,u <s(term(r)A rVvl(l(v^ < u)y [s],)r) { s ( t e r m ( r )A [ s ] : < , I Vll iak,a n formr,,(x) are is the formula:ls formseq6,,(s form6,,(x) [x]). formr,(x)ancl
both alternative names for the formula form6,,(x). is the formula For each n e N formseq:-,,, ,(,1)

vi<lcn(,r ) l ! " ' T : ! [ s ] , ):Arfv^[s],-,1))J i:0)V -..] (i > o Aak< r([s],

|.
and formseQr,,, , is the formula

Vi < len(.r)[ ( f o r m ; ; , ( [ s ] ' ) A i : :0 V r vvl[s];- , ) ) ] | ( l > 0A fk < s( [s], n Finally, forms,, , ,(s [xl) ancl Vs , ,(x) and form rr,,.,(x) erre f s formseqr-,, fl formseqp,, ,,(r [x]) respectively. ar e Lt( PA) , 9 .9 . F o r each ne N, for m;,,( x)anclfor mr ,,,( x) PR o p o srrro w the followingsentences: a n d mo re o ve rP A p ro ves -- form (-r)) Vx( fo rm5,,(") V fonn,-r,,(x)
Vx(form;,,(")- formly,, , ,(x) Aformrr,, ,(x)) I 3vrxl Vx, k(forln:,,(x) - fo rnrl-,,( )) Vx, /c(form n,,(r)- fornl',,( rVvrxl ) ) . Exercisesfor Section 9.2 s. 1 . 9 . 2 , C ( . v )i n E x e r c i s e9 F(x,1t) ancl unctions r e c u r s i vf e 9 . 4 U s i n gt h e p r o v a b l y shorv that
P A t Y t f t e r n r ( r ) - ' 3 , r [ t e l r n s e c l ( . r ) A [ . s 1 , . , , , , , - r : / A s < F ( G ( lt e ) 'n ( t ) ) l ] ' r e l a t i o n f r e e ( t ,l ) ( r l e a n i n g ' v , i s f r e e i n r ' ) a n d 9 . 5 D e f i 1 e t h e p r o v a b l yr e c u r s i v e he tcrtl s , , i ) ( : ' t l " r e r e s u l to n s t t b s t i t t t t i n tg f u n c t i o ns u b s t ( r s t h e p r o v a b l yr e c u r s i v e

SYntttx

I l1

cl lt e t - n r s i ,l 7 l c r m s r , . t , i t t la l ./c,alt f o l r r r i nt ' ) i n t ' t l , s u c h t l i a t P z l l ) r o v c s t h a t , f o r a /, Ir, 0. or forrnulus i r t ' t ' ( r v ,,t i 1 . - 1 : 1 -lfrca1111t, -lfree(r1r, i) i)n ) .,t f r e e ( t t , i ) y l ' r e e ( u , i ) ( w h e r e i ' i s * , ' , f r e e ( t ( t t ' r ' t ) )i 1 f r e e ( t l r r t ,l ) < + f r e e ( r i i, ) ; -' lti: f r c c ( t O v 1 r r ri , ancl k A f r e e ( r r ,i ) ( w h e r c Q : 3 o r V ) (, A or V)

s u h s t ( ' u,r,':, . ." " {r 1

[.r s t t b s t ( t cs r ,, i ) : c '

']-1::

^ ot nerwtse

(c: 0 or 1)

s, l))l , , i ) : r ( s u b s t ( r l.,s ,i ) ' r ' 5 1 [ s 1 ( u s u b s t ( r ( a , r u )t 1

(r,-+,.,:,<,n,oIV)
rr , ,r ) l s u b : ; t ( t1 r r l , . ti,) : r - l s r . r b s t (s s t r b s t ( rr ' i ) r s r r b s t ( r o v , , rs r, r t, ) : { :rOvirrr :"^ I (O: V or 3). also that P,4 ploves: Sl-row (t,,t, i) )) V,s,t, i( terrn(t) A terrn(s)--+ternt(strtrst ,' t ) ) ) t , i ( f o r r n ( r ) A t c r n r ( . s ) - f o r m ( s u b s t ( tr V.s, ancl V , r ,t , l ( - l f r e e ( t ,l ) - ' n t : s u b s t ( / , . ti' ) ) . tf 0s , , 9 1 , . . . , 0 k o t - l l x .A s y s t e n o i s to 1 ' f o r t n t t l a a n g n - e n r p t ly 9.(r Ascrlttenlis f seqLlence:; 1, in which prooJ'sarc nonenlpty nattrrtrldctlrtction for PA is clefinecl fi is each that such fr, . . . , f1 of seqtlents for some formula cpof 9a either o for some nonlogical axiom o t'tfPA- ot I,,cp 'ecluulity txilnt.s' or one of the (a) (t: t) (b) (t:.r), (.s: t) : r'),(t : r') ( c ) 1 ( l= . s ) , l ( , s for soutc tcnns I, s, r' of lln if k* i tltherwise

118

Satisfactiott

for someatomicformulacpcrt.!l7n ot rp,-1cp ttf clr:cltrction rttles f lr'o m f , , ,1 , , ( j , k < i ) b y o n e o f t h e f o l l o w i n g or f, is'clerivec 9/,1-formtrlas; o[ possibly entpty Secltlelrces (in theserulesf , A denotc atttd ,t any terrrtof !/'1ru any variatrlc; 0, tlt, cp9;,r-formulars; f A r o r r l A ,

h e s e q u e nA t ') f ) ( o r f , , f 1 ) c l e c l u ct e t h es e q u e n t ( s means'from : ttce.s I infere (tr) structttru

f,cp,0,L L l,0, cp, f,cp,cp f l, rl, f ,q

(b) i.nference.s for A:

l,E l,4t f,=lE f,-l'V,

f , qAp (c) inl'erence.s for V:

f ,f (pA p)

f ,l(EAr7r)

l,lt l, E l,cp\/tlt f,EVtP (d) inference for -1:

f ,-1cp l,-1tP f,-1(EYtP)

t,,p
I-,1-lcp

(e) inferences for A und V: l,E l,-lE

l,Y ucp f ,-lauE

(provicled u does not occtlr free in atnyformula in f) ancl

f,cp(s)

f,__lE(s)

f,3uq(u) f,=lVuE(u)
(f) cur rule l,rp f,-lq

Semunlic.s

I 19

Aprooff,,f.,...,f/isuproofo/thefl6-fornrula0iffflisjustthesequentwith t. o n ee l e m e n 0 this notion insicle formula proForrnalize P,21, obtaininga provablyrecursive 'p with Gtjclel-number x'. and a ), of(p, x) for is a proof in PA of the 14-forrnula provable("r ) r ' . vi s p r o v a b l e forrntrla fo i n P r l ' . l n t e r p l e t i n g( 0 - r l ) a s ( 1 0 y t p ) , in Exercise 3.8. is a provability for PA, asdelinecl verifythat provatrte(.v) 1;reclicate

9.3 SEMANTICS we tur n to syntax, H a v i n gsh o w n(w e h o p e )th a t PA canaclecluately hanclle ver sion of s e m a n ti cs. T h e g o a l i s to g ive, insiclePA, some r estr ictecl ' f i i r s ki 's ter ms. d e fi n i ti o n o f tru th . T he fir ststepis to showhow to evaltr ute D e p r u rrro r.r. va l se qy ( , .t, t) i s the for r nuler A l e n (r): len( s) A te rmse q (s)

: r0rA [4r: 0)V ([s], ([s],:rlrA[r],:1)V Vi < len(s) 3 7 < s ( [ s ] ; r . v r r A U l ,I:y ] i ) V : t([r];+ [r]^)t A Ir],: Iit]i + [t]o 3j , lc<i ([s], )V a j , k < i ( [ s ] ': ' ( [ . t ] ,. l t l ' ) t A [ r ] ' : [ r ] i ' [ r ] * )
v e r l ( .y r,): z i s th e fo rrn u l a 3 s ,r v a l s e c l ( s yn , [r],rn [r])y(_lterm(x)Az:0). of a T h e i d e a i s th a t va l (x,y):z holclswhen x is the Godel- num ber term, and z is the value of that term when the variablev,, is given value v,, i s g i v e nv a l u e[ y ] ' , . . . a n c ls o o n . R e c a l lt h a t w e d e f i n e d ["y],, [y],:0 function. w l r e ni >l e n (y), so w e w o u l cl val( x,y) to be a well- clefinecl expect in PA, thatis recursivf eu n c t i o n P n o p o s r r r o9 N. 1 0 , v a l ( x , y )i s a p r o v a b l y y): z i s I,( PA) ancl t h e f o rmu l ava l (,r, , ) : z. PrllYx, yalz val(xy M o r e ove r,P A p ro ve s: V Y ( v a l ( r, 0 r ) : 0 A v a l ( I l t , Y ): I ) Y

V y ,i ( v a l ( r v ,y r) ,: I y ] , ) , )) , )+ val(yz V x ,y , z ( v a l ( r (+ xy ) t . z ) : v a l ( x z , ) ' val(y V x ,y , z ( v a l ( r ('xy ) ' , z ) : v a l ( x z , z)).

120

Sutis.faction

ancle i l s o P rcto.f C l e a rl yva l (x,y ) : z is ) ' ( PA) , sinceter m( ;r )is A,( P,zl) , ( x) + ( val( x,y) : z t- + z : 0) ) . P A ,|V x, y . z( - ltetm for ) so r l e .i Then ter m seq( ,r ) w e a re g i vex, y with ter r n( .rholcling. S L rp p o se we t.nltst s how y) exists > I a n d [.r]1.,,1,r w i th l e rr(s) , : x. - To showthat val( .v, val(x, r , / ) , f o r t h e nc l e a r l y r with valsecl(y t h a t t h e r ee x i s t s /): [/]r.,'r,r-r. l e n ( , r i)n w L t p t o o n i n d u c t i o n b y v a l s e ql ( W e p r o v e3 r r ,s,t) , I w, r)). 3 r ( l e n ( r:) w A v a l s e q ( ys

len(r):w thztt w e I n a yt a k er : [ ] ) . S u p p o s e F o r w : 0 t h i si s t r i v i a l( s i n c e v a l s e q ( y ,fsw , r ) h o l c l s f o r s o m e r . v c l e n ( , s ) . T h e n [ s ] , , , i s e i t h e r r 0 r , r l t , t v , (r,: * o r ' ) for somek < s and som ei, j1r t,. But then pu tti ng o r I([s],'r,[s],,), ye havelen(t'): t ' : t n [ 0 ] , r n I l ] , r n [ [ y ] o ] , o r r n [ [ 4 , , , [ r ] ir]e s p e c t i v e lw nt e pi s l o t h e i n d i r c t i os l alseq(y,t l e n ( r ) *1 : w i I a n c v l ( w + t ) , t ' ) , a n cs p ro ve d ,a n d h e n ce P A \ V x , y A z ( v a | ( xy, ) : z ) . s, lrand s', f'satisfy property,Suppose For tlre more difficult turiclttenes.r
r: [s]1",,1 ,rx - Avalseq(y,s, t)

and :)J A v a l s e q ( y ,s ' , t ' ) . [ s '] r " , , 1 r ,, (using n eb y s h o w i n g W e n e e ctlo s h o wt h a t [ r ] , " " , , y - , : [ 1 ' ] , . , , r r , 1 - ri' s Td ho is for all suchw < len( r ) o n w u p to len( r ) )thzr t i n cl u cti o n j< len(r') ( [ s ] , : [ s ' ] i - [ i r ] , :[ / ' ] i ) Yi < w Y th i s to fo r th e n , a p p l yi n g j:len(/)- l-len(s)- 1 ancl /:len(s')- l:lcn(r')- I

(0)

Sernuntics we have : lt' [111.,,1,r -, lr ",' (r 'r)

121

: [.t']r" ,,(.,,)s i l t c e[ s]r" ,,(,,r-, r :r. ( e ) i s o b vi o u sfo r rv:0 . S uppose that it is tr ue for some w < len( r )and t h a t t h e re e xi sts < l e n (t') w i th q( s) holds, [r ], : 7 [,r ],":[.r ' ]i.Sinceter m se r 0 r , r 1 t , r v , , l , o r r ( [ s ] , , r , [ . t ] , , , ) t ( , * : + o r . ) f o r s o m es /c se ,, am n1 cw l . o< m l r l l , t ' , / 0 ,o 1r r ( [ s ' 1 , , ' r , ' [ s ] f ,o , ,r) ls o m ek ' < s ' , s o m e/ ' , Similarly, [s']i:r01, m ' l j a n d ' r ' : * o r . . A s [ t ] , : [ s ' ] ,t h e s e various cases m u s tc o i n c i c l e b,y r 0 ro r t h e u n i q u er e a c l a b i l i t oyf t e r m s ,i . e . , e i t h e r[ s ] , , , : [s']i: [s]*: [r'],: r 1 1o r t v * t : r v * , to r r ( [ s ] , i , [ , r ] , , , ) , : [ , t ] , , ,[:s ' ] i : [r],,,: [r']i:,([s']7,,r,'[s'],,,),. I n t h e fi rst tw o o f th e se caseswe have [r ],:ft' fi:O or [it],,,:ft' f,:l r e s p e cti ve l y, a n cl i n th e th i rd of these caseswe have k:lc' so that if [ r ] , " : f t ' f i : I y ] 1 .F i n a l l y , : [s], : [s']i : ([s']r,','[s'],,, ([s],r,[s],,,) )

then Lemma9.2 (unique readability) implies that [s]y:[s'],,, [r]",: [r'],,, and 'r.:',.',hence by the induction (O),lt)r:lt'1,,, [t)_:lt'),, hypothesis andso

: [4,". : ft'),,,r,' [r],,, [r],,, ft'1,,: lt'f,

establishing the incluiiion step,and hencepr ovingthe pr oposition.

A s a co ro l l a ryto P ro p o sition 9.10, notice that for any 9o-term t(v,t, Vr , . , V r) (w i th o n l y th e free- var iables shown) ,if n : l t ( v 1 r , V r , . , v l ) l then
P A l Y a 1 1 , a t ,. . , u k , b Y z ( z : t ( a r ,. . . , a r , )

e z : val(n,lnn . ,. . , a t , l nb ) ) . This is provecl b y i n d u cti o n o n the nur nber of * s and . s in r(v,,, usingthe fact th a t, si n cete rn r ( x)is A1( Pzl) , N Fte rr n( r n) APA Fter m( r iz) foreachmeN.

(,'.) , Vt),

I22

Satisfuction

for the' , tr uth definitio n' to defineSat6,,( x,y) We a re a t l a sti n a p osition A o fo rmu l a s. is the fclr m ula D e p tu trto N .sa tse q ^ ,,( t,l) A formseqo,,(t) , , , < r [ [ 4 ,: ( i , Z , w ) A i < l e n ( s ) A w < 1 A V / < l e n ( r ) a i2 A A) t e r m ( / ) A [ s ] ,: t ( a : r t ' ) 1 {att, u'< s(term(rz (w : I <-> val(u,z) : val(u', z))) -' [ t ] ' ( t ' { r r ') rA f3u,a' <s(term(")Aterm(a')A ( w : I < + v a l ( a ,z ) < v a l ( u ', z ) ) ) r([s];A )'A [s]o V 3/, /c< i ([s];: , 2 4 1 ( [ r ]:, , ( i , z , w , ) A [ r ] , r: ( k . z , w r l a l t ,l z l 1 3 w 1w A(w: l<+wr:1Awz:1))) r([s],V )t A [r]o V fi, k < i ([s],: :, ( i , z , ] Y r ) A [ t ] , ,: ( k , z , w ' ) a l r , I z 11 3 w , ,w z { 1 ( [ r ] , A(w: l<>wt: I'Vwr:1))) r rr [s]r A V li < l([s],: < 1 ( [ 4 ,:, ( i , z , w r ) A ( w : 1 <>w t : 0 ) ) ) al1<law1 A [t], : rllvr((vr < &)A [t];)t A V 3i < iak, u< s(term(a) : ( i, zlr l k], ' ' ) ) A < 1( [4,, t, z) 111< lAw1 V r< val( r A (w : I< - >1r < val( r , ) a\< /( [r ],, : ( i, zlr l kl' 1) ) ) ) A [t], : rVvo(-.l(v r< u)V [s];)tA V 3i < iAk, tt< s(term(rz) V r < v a l ( u , z ) a l , < l A w 1 < 1 ( [ r ] ,:, ( i , z l r I k ] , ' ' ) ) A (w : 1.- ilr lval(u, )AI,</([t],, : (i, zlrl kl, 1))))]] y) is the formula Sat6,,(x, ' 1) ) ]' 0 l*) ( [r ],: ( len( s) y, s , t) n ]/< len( r ) 3 s, r[sa tsegao( for a as a cocle /), / is considered ExplaNarlou. In the formula satseqo,,(t, o f tri p l e s( i,z,w) wher e l<len( s) is an index to the sequenc e se q u e n ce o r 1 ( ' t r u e ' ) ,o f t h e c o d e db y s , u n d r i s a ' t r u t h v a l u e ' ,r r : 0 ( ' f a l s e ' ) by [z]s,Itl,," ' ' The v ar i otts j sl , w h e nV r, Vr,. . . ar einter pr etecl fo rmu l a

Semuntics

I23

d i s j u ncts i n si cl e th e fo rmu l ai n cur ly br acl<ets cor r espond to the differ ent w a y so f b u i l d i n gu p A 1 fo , rmulas,.
I

S i n ce va l (u ,z), te rm(u ) a nd for mseqo,,(ar in ,1) e all pr ovablyr ecur sive P A t v e se e th a t sa tse q o ,,(s, r) is L( PA) , and henceSat6,,( x,y) is ) ,( PA) . T h e b ul k o f th e w o rk fo l l o w i ng is involvecl in showing Sato,,( y) x, is actually L ( P A ) . F o r th i s w e n e e dth e D e n r Nrrro N 's, . r d e te rmi n e Sato,,( s y) ' denotes x, the for mula s a tse q o ,,(,r, /) A 3 / < l e n (r)3i < len( s) fw < 1( [sl,: xA [r ],: ( i, y, w) ) . O u r stra te g yfo r sh o w i n gSato,,( y) x, to be A ,( PA) is the sam eas for term(,v)above:we will show that PA proves3s, f (.r,/ determines Sato,,(x, y)) for eachx, -y s.t. formo,,(x), and that, for any two pairss, t and s', t' c l e t e r mi n i n g y), th e sequences S a t6 ,,(x, t, t' ' agr ee' on the tr uth of each s u b f o r mu l a o f x.

Lprrrvtn 9.11. PA provesthe sentence y) ) ) . V x, y(fo rmo ,,(x)-3s, / ( s,/ deter mines Sato,,( x,

Proof. Let x, y be arbitrary such that form6,,(x) holds, and let s satisfy r by f o r m s eq q ,(s) w i th [s]r" n r,l -1 :x. W e would like to build up a suitable c o n c an te n a ti o n u,si n ga n i n ductionon the length of s, but for the cases w h e r efo rmu l a sa re b u i l t u si ngbounded quantifier s we will needa second i n d u c ti o na rg u me n t. Let 0(i) be the formula ^ + 1) , 4Alen( r ) > 0/\ V m<l V y3 t{sa tseQa,,( | (s < 1 ( [ r ]:, ( * , y , r ) ) ] . 3/< len(r)3w W e w il l sh o w0 (i ) h o l d sfo r a ll l<len( s) by inductionon l. that 0( i) holds.Ther e ar e L e t i <l e n (s), a n d i f t>0 assum e inductively ca se s to co n si d e r. s e v e r al : r ( u : r ' ) t w i t h t e r m ( i r ) A t e r m ( a 't (1) If [s], )h e nt : l ( i , y , w > l s a t i s f i e s w : l i f v a l ( l r , y ) : v a l ( u ' , y ) ,a n dw : 0 o t h e r s a t s e q o , l,((ls + 1 ) ,/ ) , w h e r e inside{ } in 0( i) . The caseof w i s e , an d h e n cer sa ti sfi e the s subfor mula t ( a < L t')'i stre a te d when and these ar e the only possibilities si mi lar ly, [s],: i: 0.

124

Sati'sJ'uctiott
w' satisfy

( (2 ) If [s];: r([.r],A ) r for some7' /c i lct [s]e i ,+ s a t s e c 1 6f, ( ,( i ' 1 ) ,r ) A [ r ] , : ( / , l , t ' t ' \ s a t s e c 1 l ,| , ( /. ,r+ l ) , r ' ) A [ r ' ] , ,: ( y . y , w ' )

i l r ef - o u t r c l numbers allthese l'<len(t'), ancl w h e r ew , , w '< 1 , / < l e n ( f ) a n c / ' fhet1 sati s fi es t": to [' ^ [( i,y, r ' v") ] 9( i - l) . l in ypothesis u si n gtfi e i n cl r-rcti o : 0 o t h e r w i s e 'T h e : : i + l ) , r " ) w h e r ew " : I i f w w ' 1 a n d w " satsJqo,, | ((s t- l ' sim ilar ly *t1 .n l s]': t([s]iV[s]^ [s]ir ar e tr ezr tecl ca se s ) 1 ancl[s],: (3) If [s],: t 3 v ^ ( ( u< ^ a )A [ s ] , ) r or rvv*(_l (u^< u) V [.t], )t, [s],:

0( i - l ) togetherwith the assumption ar gum ent i n cl gction w e u sea se co n cl r . Let U= val( tt.,y) . The idea is to pr ov e by to p ro d u ceth e re cl uir ed o n p u P to U that i n cl u cti o n i + l ) , r ) A l e n ( t )> 0 3 t [ s a t s e q o ,|, ( s { 1( [r ],: ( i, v[ql k) , h,,) ) l A V q < p3l< len( r ) 3r v T h i s se co n cli l cl u ction is ver y easy. For p:0 tatke ally f sr ' tchthat w' l' using the sa tse q o ,,(s f (i + l ), r) with [r ],:( /' yf} lk) , w) for som e step is pr ovedsir nplyby concatenati ng ftyp o tfrl i i t O(;- 1 ). The induction i + 1) ,.r ') and satseclo,,( a r ' satisfyir lg | (s r r ,vith o b tainecl ,o *. p re vi o u sl y the H a v i r r go b t a i . e c lr s a t i s f y i n g It'f,:ij,ylp+itt<1, w) for some/, w. ( J, r t is easy to chec k that i o i mu ta i n sq u u rebr acketsof ( ' ' ) tor p: w: 0 or l. chosen o r s o m es u i t a b l y s a t s e c l o ,|, ( t s+ t ) , r n [ ( i ,y , w > ] ) h o l c lfs tl 9' l l ' the proof of Lemmer This concludes
('')

the sentence L ru u R 9 .1 2 . P A P roves )" A ( 's ,) (A s 's a t s e q a , , f V J ,/ , s ' ,t ' , i , i ' ,I , l ' , w , w ' , y f s a t s e q o , r [ . s ] , :[ s ' ] , , A [ r ]:, ( i . y . ] t ) n I t ' 1 , , :( i ' , y , w ' ) - w : w ' ) -

on m ax( /,/' ) ' P ro o f. B y i n cl u cti on a n c l[ s ' ] i m u s t b e It l:l':0, [ r ] , : ( 1 l,, v v ) , l t ' \ , : ( i ' , y , r v ' ) t h e n [ s ] ; ff h e f o r r n ' ( r r : i r ' j t o r ' ( t t zl-r ' ) r f o r t e r m s L t , L t ' . l v l o r e o v e r i f atomic,i.e.o r(a t ( a: t r ' ) ' w h e r et t ' t t ' [s'];'or[s],: . < L t ' ) 1[:' s ' ] , ' ' [ r ] , : f r l ] , , ,t h e n [ s ] , : of ter m s eaclability by [s];or [t' ],,, [r y the uniclLrre o r. u n i .i u .l ycl e te i rninecl

S'enruntic:.y

125

a n c lf orn r'-rl a s. Thus w: I val(u,y) : val(r.r y' ) , ( g n , ': I i r rt h c l i r s tc a s e a , nrl r . y : I v a l ( u , y ) < v a l ( r ..ry ' )eyv' -- | in the seconcl. T h e a rg L rme n t r th e i n clLr ction fo step splitsinto sevcr alcases, anclwe s l r a lc l l ot w o o f t h e mh c r e ,l e a v i n g t h eo t h e r s t o t h e r e a d e rl.f I r ] , : ( i , y , * 1 , a r r c[l. i ] , : [ s ' ] , t h e n i s b L r i lL t rp in finitely [ t ' ] , , : ( i ', y , r , r ' ) , m i l n yp o s s i b l e ,- 1 , [ . r ] , w a y sc o r r e s p o n c l i n g A, y, to I or V. Suppose [s],:t(r,Arr), where r , : [ . i ] , t a n c lr , : [ , 1 ] , ,f o l s o m e i 1 ,i . < i . T h e n a l s c l [ . s , ] , , : , ( r , n 1 2 )w r here r ' ,: [ , r 'f,i rz: fo r so me i ',, i' .1i' ,by the uniclr .r re eactability , oI for m r - r las. [,r'],1 Moreover t h e r ea r e/ 1 / il, l ' , < l ' , a n c lr r 1 ,v ) 2 w ,1..11anc , i , w , , s 1 s u c ht h a t ). [ t ] , , :( i t , f, w , ) , [ t ] , r : ( i z , l , w , ) , f t ' ) r t : Q i , l , w , 1 ) , [ t , ] , i : Q \ , y , w Tlh e nb y the incluction h y p o t h e s iw s 1 : w | e t n dw z : w ' 2 , a n c iw : 1 i f f w r : l e t n c l r r t : I i f f r . u j : I a r r cw l \ : I i t f w ' : l , S ow : w , . Suppose n o w t h a t [ s ] , : I l v , , ( ( v , , { a ) A [ . r ] ,) r f o r s o m e i , < i . T h e n b y : 1 :l v ^( ( v,, r "r n i c l u e a c'l a b i l i ty, re : [s,],1, < r r )A [r ,],i) t wher e[s],, for some [.r'],, i ' ,{ i ' . L e t u : va l (u ,y). It fo llowsfr or n the clefinition of satseqo,,( s, r) that
\

n ,: I ) l z < U a l , < l ( ( i , ,y f z lk ] , l ) : [ r ] , , )
ancl

w ' : I Q a z < u a l ' t 4[ ' ( ( i " , ylzlkl, l) : [r,],i).

B t r t t h e n i t fo l l o w sth a t rt,: I i ff w' : I, by the incluction hypothesis ancl the d e f i n i ti o no f sa tse q o ,,(r,r), i l n c lhencew: w' . A l l th e o th e r cu rsea sre p ro vecl in a sir lilir rway. n W e ha ven o w cl o n e a l l th e har cl wor k. All that is r equir ed is to collect the f a c t st og e th e r i n to a th e o re m . T u e o t <E vr 9 .1 3 . T h e fo rmu l a Sato,,( x,y) is ar ( PA) , er ncl PA pr clves the f o l l o w i n gp ro p e rti e s o f i t: , S a t a , , ( r ( r : . 1 ' ),) l ,)< >vztl( r y) : val( ,ry) ,

< Sato,,(r( r s ) r, y ) * v al ( r , y ) < v a l ( s ,y) Sato,,(r(aA u),A S a t 6 , , @ r ) t , y ) - r S a r t o , , (y y, )

* Sato,,( u, Sato,,(r( u D ) l, "y) y) ySato,,@, y) V

Sato,,(r-lr l * .r ),)

-]

y) Sato,,(rr,

S a t . r , ,3 (r v , ( ( v ,< r ) A r r ) l, ) , ) * 3 x ( v a l ( r 'y , ) S a t , ru , ,,(y [ x l i ] )

126

Satisfuction (v,< r) V u)1 , yfxl il) Sato,,(rVv,(-l , y) <t Vx ( val(r, y) Sato,,(a

f o r a l l y , i , r , s1 I I ) L ) . that Sato,,( t,y)is f' ( PA) . It is al s o P ro o f. We h a ve a l readyobser vecl to n l P A ) si n cei t i s e q uivalent A forrno,,(x) Sat6,,( y) - r ,- > V s, /(s,/ deter m ines ( [ r ] , : ( i , y , 1 ) A [ t ] ': t ) ) 3 i < l e n ( s ) 3 / <l e n ( r ) 9.5, us i r r g b y a n a rg u me n tsi milar to that in the pr oof of Pr oposition y om follow ir nm ediate lfr indicated 9 .1 1a n cl9 .72.Thepr oper ties L e mma s tl y). the ), form of Sato,,(x, In particularit followsthat P A l Y x 1 y. ,.., x , - , , Y [ 0 ( v. ,, , , V , , - r ) e .0 , r V , , - l ) t[,t , , , . . , x , , - ' ]n y ) l Sato,,(rg(v show n. fo r e a chA 6 fo rmu l a0( v,,, . , V,,- ,) with only the fr ee- var iables The last thing to do in this sectionis to definethe ),, and I/,, formr"rlas y) a n d S a tn ,,( x, S a tl ,(x, Y) . y) ancl Sat",(x,y) elre alternative nalnes for the Sat:,,(x, Den'rxrrtoN. x, . A r(P A ) fo rmu l aS a to,,( Y) to be the .I,,*t( PA) for m ula S a t',,,(*,y) i s d e finecl > 0AforrnSeQ:,,, r : xA 3s, r[en(r) : len(.r) ,(t) A [s]r.,'t,):/A V i < len( s) ( l> 0- + U ]r" ,'r,t-r : rf vrls]r I lcl) -, I A [/],-, : lt),fz [/]")l ak < slz< r([s], ) A Satn,,([s]"' a n d S a trr,, , ,(*, y) i s the II,,*( PA) for mula : len(s)> 0 Aformseqii,, AVs, r[(len(r) formp,,,,(.r) , ,(t) A r : -/A r : xA l/]r"nt,l[s]r",,t,1' : [r ]' [z/k ]) ) ) 3ft< sAz< r ( [s],: r Vvr ,ls]i- ,1A[/],(i > 0 -- ." V i < l e n (s) A S a t5 ,([s],,, [/],,) 1.

Senrurttics -f

127

rr E o trrvr9 .1 4 . F o r e a ch n7 l, Satr ;,( x, y) is 2,,( PA) , Satr ,,,( y) ;r , is n , ( P A ), a n clP zl p ro ve sth e tollowingsentences: V , r [ f o n n ; , , , ( t ) - V y ( S a t r , , (y ") r* , Sat,.,,(x, y))/\ Vy(Satr,,,(x, y) n51t.r-,, -,(r, y))] () ") ,A V x [ f o r m 1 , , , , ( t ) * V y ( S a t . ; ,y () x< , > S z l t 1 r , , ,y Vy(Satr,,,(x , y) - S2rt11,,, ,(t, y))] Y x, y, k(S a ty.,(r3 v*,rr , y[zl lc]) ) , y) n 3z Satr ,( x
and

IVv rx1, ylz l kl)) Vx, l, k(Satr,,,( y) +- V z Satr7,,(x, P r o of. B y a n e a syi n cl u cti on on ne N. n

y) As a co ro l l a ry,w e h a vethe followingim por tantpr oper tyof Satt,,( x, y): P.4 proves and Sat1,,,(x,

and

V r , ,.,, x k - 1 , y ( S a t r , , , ( ' r p ( u u , . , V r - ' ) 1 , . r-')) . ,,x .1 . . . .x1,-'] [",,, "y) <->tp(x1 shown. f o r a l i 0 2 ,, a n cla l l tp e fI,, with only the fr ee- var iables the theor emthat w i th one ver y simpleapplication, W e cl o se th i sch a p te r clersses of formulitsforms a hierarchy. the 2,,1[I,, Then 9 .1 5 . (D u e to K l eenefor NI : N) . Let M F PA bear bitr ar y. T r , r e o n E rvr -lSat2.,,(x, all for eachn > I the formula [x]) is lI,, but not -I,,(M).Hence the i n F i g . 4 o n p . B 0 ar e pr oper . i n c l u si o n s Proof. If 0(x) is f,, ancl M F Yx( 0( x)* I Sat;,,( x, [,r ]) ) then t lvlE0 (t 0 (v,, ) )--l I r r0(v,, r, rg(v,, Sat5,,( ) ) )' ] ) -' I 0( 0 (v,, ) I

Suti,sfuctiort , co n tra cl i cti nth g e a b o ve r emar ks.Thus *lSatr .,( .r [x]) is n,,( lV) but not 2 ,,(tvl ), S a tr.,(x, r of thesefor mul er s [x]) i s 2,,( M) but not n,,( M) , anclneithe is A,,(iV1). n
Exerci,se.s for Section 9.3 9 . 7 L e t s c N . s h o w t h a t t h e r e i s a f o r m u l a0 ( x ) t h a t i s A , , * , ( N )s u c h t h a t 5 : { r z e N l N f 0 ( n ) li f a n c o l n l y i f S i s r e c u r s i vie n { ( / cr n,r ) } . ,i ) l N F S a t ; , , ( k 9 . { ' i L e t T b e a n y c o n s i s t e ne t xtcnsion of Ptl. Show that sato,,(x y, ) is not eclLrivale i n t7 t o a n y A , ,f o r m u l a0 ( x , y ) . 9 . 9 P r o v e i n P A t h a t V , r , y ( v a l ( xy ,)<l-l(x,y)) whereH(x,y) is the provably recur-sive function
( m a x ( Y , 2 ) ) | c n ( t ) r + lt+

t2il

9 . 1 0 n L e t . r : ,a b e g i v e n s u c h t h a t f o r m o , , ( x a ) n c ll e t . r s a t i s f y

A [.r1,""r"rformseqo,,(s) ([s], r : xAVi < len(s) c, x). S h o wt h a t q ( 0 ) A V i < l e n ( s )- l ( p ( i ) - - + V(i+ L)), where7(i) is the formula V n z < i V y< B ( i - n ' L , s , a ) 3 t { s a t s e q 6 (,n (r s + l ) , t ) A l e n ( r )> 0 |, n f / < l e n ( r ) 3 r< v l ( [ r ] ,: Q n ,y , w ) ) \
and B(nt, s, a) is the function clelinedby B(0,s, ct): a;

,s y < . B Q n. , a),t c, x, term(t)J B ( n rt l , . s n) , :,''o*{r fv at(r, y)Ii] ancl( Tx )

F l e n c e c l e c l u c et h a t a l l o f t l - r e r e s t r l t s o f t l i i s c l . r a p t e r( i n c l u c l i n g T h e o r e r n s 9 . 1 3 a n d

9 , 1 4 )a r e p r o v a b l e f r o m a f i n i t ef r a g r n e no t f 1),. -lSat(.r, 9. I I Let NIFPrl be arbitrary.Extencl Theorern that 9.15by showing [x]) i s r r o te q u i v a l e ntto a t , f o r m u l ar p ( x )e v e ni f r pc o n t a i n s p a r a m e t e rd se M . ( H i n t : D e f i n e c l t e r m ( a ) : r ( . . ' ( 1 + l ) + . ' . - F1 ) r ( a 1 s ) i n l v l a n d g i v e r r . .,.c l t e r m ( a , , )o l s i n gt h e )b t a i n e cu , V , ) , c o n s i c l err2 ( v , , , c l t e r m ( a , ) , V / ( v ,V ,,r, of Exercise substfr,rnction 9.5.) 9.12r Let - Th (N) : rrtence] f1,, 9,1-se {o |1,, I N F(r, o Lrn

Sentuntics
ancl

t29

t , - T h ( N ) : { o e Z , l N Fo , o L v 1 l / . 1 - s e n t e n c e } . Supposn e : - -I . ( a ) S h o wt h a t I I , , - T h ( N )F Z , , ' r- T h ( N ) . ( b ) S h o wt h a t t h e r ei s i i A , , * , ( N )f o r m u l a0 ( - r )s u c ht h a t f o r a l l r z eN
N FO ( r u ) c = - nI - o r f o r s o m eo i l , , - T h ( N ) . (c) Let0(xt,. . . ,xt,y) beaI,,*lforrnulasuch t h a tN F V i S t y 0 ( i , y ) . S h o w t h a tt h e f u n c t i o n / : N ( - > N d e f i n e db y I i s I , , r , - r e p r e s e n t e d in II,,-Th(N). (d) Deduce that for all consistenttheoriesZextending II,, - Th(N) such thzrtthere is o Au* 1(N) forrnula p(-r) with N F rp(m) nt - rrr for some r e Z 't*-1o f o r e a c h n z N , t h e r e i s a i l , , * l s e n t e n c eo s u c h t h a t 7 * o a n d are both c o n s i s t e n tU . se (a) to show that NFo. ( l - l i n t :F o l l o w t h e a r g u m e n ti n S e c t i o n 3 . 2 .Y o u n r a y f i n c lE x e r c i s e g . Th e l p f u l . )