CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

A. Background of the Study Rudyard Kiplings famous words about the twain cultures which shall never meet today seems quaint and old-fashion. In an age of jet travel, and rapid communication, boundaries between cultures are liable to erode and perhaps to vanish altogether. In the political and economic spheres, there is much talk about the global market and about the emerging new world order, conceptions that pay scant attention to cultural differences and none whatever to Kiplings celebrated hiatus between East and West. Yet, behind the facile rhetoric of globalism, distinct cultural accent or biases can readily be detected: in particular the bias of Western-style universalism deriving from European Enlightenment thought with its offshoots of free enterprise and political internationalism. Seen from this angle, globalism does not so much eradicate as intensify cultural divisions and fissures, especially the fissure between a hegemonic culture of Western origin and the array of not-yet-assimilated and perhaps unassimilable indigenous cultures. Thus, in its effects globalism does not by itself falsify Kiplings observation, although it does place it in a new context, therefore sharpening the issue underlying his dictum. Under the relentless impact of globalism, indigenous cultures are increasingly pushed into a context of cross-cultural encounter or confrontation, an encounter that forces them to interrogate themselves and their competitors in which the chief competitor in most settings is being the West. In many third world societies, bruised already by many decades of colonial domination, confrontation involves cultural misunderstanding. Differing cultural views and expectations regarding hospitality, social propriety and the role of religion in daily life are responsible for misunderstandings. These misunderstanding apparently also lead to contradictions Ever since human beings differentiated between those of their own community and others, the possibility of misperceiving the other has existed. That possibility expanded greatly during the period of European exploration,

colonization, and imperialism carried out by the West. With European exploration of the lands to the east, called the Near East or Middle East, came description, analysis, and interpretation of those lands and their people. Those who studied and wrote on these topics became known as Orientalists and their subject Orientalism. As John McLeod asserts in chapter two of Beginning Postcolonialism, "Reading Colonial Discourses," Orientialism expresses its tenets through binary divisions, which set in opposition the West and the East (2000: 40). Orientalist binaries create unequal divisions between the Occident and the Orient, usually with the East as inferior to the superior West. The binary of English as superior to Indian, for example, is a chief binary established by colonialism. The problem with this and most Orientalist binaries is that the descriptions of the East are artificially created by the West, making the comparisons both untrue and unjust. The opposition between the West and the East creates misunderstandings and barriers between two opposed worlds: East and West that Kipling asserts to be antithetical and adds that neer the twain shall meet. Indeed, the history of intellectual and cultural contact between West and East is convoluted, full of contradictions. There has been no shortage of attempts to theorize the Western fascination with the East. Most influential of all such theorizations in recent years has been Edward Saids widely-celebrated Orientalism in which he argued that the Orients was system of ideological fictions whose purpose was, and is, to legitimize Western cultural and political superiority; furthermore, the Western understanding of the East has grown out of a relationship of power, of domination, of varying degrees of complex hegemony Such misunderstandings are portrayed marvelously in one of literary masterpieces entitled A Passage to India. The novel is chosen as the object of this research because Forster achieved his greatest success with A Passage to India (1924). The novel takes as its subject the relationship between East and West, seen through the lens of India in the later days of the British Raj. Forster connects personal relationships with the politics of colonialism through the story of the Englishwoman Adela Quested, the Indian Dr. Aziz, and the question of what did or did not happen between them in the Marabar Caves. Forster, without prejudice,

draws the dissimilarities among the British, Hindus and Muslims. The English believe in their superiority and so they care little for the emotions of the Indians and in turn their behavior reflects their arrogance, insensitivity and rudeness. Indians on the other hand know that they are not appreciated by the English. Moreover, Forsters novel, A Passage to India, depicts colonisation as frustrating any chance of friendship between the English and the Indians under the Coloniser / colonised status quo. Forster highlights the process of formatting, which the newcomers have to go through so that they end up like the other colonial settlers in terms of their ideologies and practices. Clare Brandabur remarks that A Passage to India attempt[s] to deal with colonialism (or postcolonialism or neo-colonialism) with respect to the destructive impact on personal relationships caused by the racist assumptions (Brandabur, 1993: 36). To Jan Mohamed, A Passage to India attempts to overcome the barriers of racial difference (Childs 1999:348). Nirad Chaudhuri, on the other hand, criticized it for its reduction of political history to a liberals preoccupation with personal relationships (Childs, 1999: 347). B. Statements of the Problem This research deals with Edward Saids Orientalism as portrayed in E.M. Forsters A Passage to India. By making used of postcolonial approach, thus the statement of the problem in this research is what concepts of Edward Saids orientalism are found in E.M. Forsters A Passage to India? The statements of the problem mentioned above can be broken down into more detail research problems as follows: 1. What description does the Occident have on the Orient in E.M. Forsters A Passage to India? 2. What description does the Orient have on the Occident in E.M. Forsters A Passage to India? 3. What does the novel reveal about the cultural conflicts between the Occident and the Orient?

C. The Purposes of the Study The purposes of the study in relation with the topic discussed are: 1. To identify and to find out the Occident representations of the Orient being reflected in E.M. Forsters A Passage to India 2. To identify and to find out the Orient representations of the Occident being portrayed in E.M. Forsters A Passage to India 3. To describe the cultural conflicts between the Occident and the Orient in E.M. Forsters A Passage to India D. The Significance of the Study 1. In Relation to the Literary Teaching Teaching literature can be a great challenge for lecturers because of some reasons such as the talent of them, the preparations, the material available, the quality and motivation of the students, and the mastery of the materials being taught. The more the lecturers master the materials prepared to be taught in the classroom, the more interesting the process of learning will be. This research, which tries to explore thoroughly into the core of a novel, to identify and find out the concept of Edward Said Orientalism, is believed to be able to help the lecturers and the students who are also the readers to get a better perspective and understanding of what a novel can offer. 2. In Relation to the Creativity in Literary Analysis Every single person, including the handicapped ones, has his or her talent and creativity. Wales (2001: 90) confirms that creativity is also used for artistics originality or idea or inventiveness in form: it is connected with deviation and foregrounding, the departure from what is expected in language. It is much associated with poetry and literary prose, and register such as advertising. It means that any body can create or produce or analyze any kinds of things which need a portion of creativity. Literary analysis is the same thing. Any person has his or her own literary creativity to interpret a piece of literary work. By studying the data of this research and the result of the analysis on them, it is hoped that the rank of a persons creativity will be triggered to the higher degree and that

someones literary creativity will produce more interpretation dealing with literary work being read. This statement is supported by Lucretius in De Rerum Natura (Webster, 1992: 80) who states that nothing can be created out of nothing. 3. In Relation to the Theory Being Used in This Research It is strongly hoped that the findings of this research will be able to strengthen and perfect the theory of Orientalism used in his research so that the stereotype characteristics of the Orient and the Occident as well as the binary opposition between them can be clearly proven based on step-by-step analysis that will be done to answer the research problems. E. The Scope and the Limitation of the Study Just like any kind of research normally conducted in the name of knowledge and science, some limitations are necessary to be set up. This act of limiting, either in the scope of the study, i.e. the approach or theory chosen, or in the limitation of the study, i.e. the source of the data, is normally an integral part of a research. The scope and the limitation are important and should be stated clearly. 1. The Scope of the Study The scope of the study is set up as the following: the only theory which will be used to analyze the data is the concept of Orientalism proposed by Edward Said; this theory is chosen simply because it is a prominent and leading theory in post-colonial study. 2. The Limitation of the Study The limitations of the study are set up as the followings: The data will be taken from a novel entitled A Passage to India written by E.M. Forster. This research will used the mentioned novel published in 2004 in New Delhi by Peacock Books. The analysis will be focused on the characters represented the Orient and the Occident.

F. Definition of the Key Terms The followings are the operational definitions of the key terms used in the study: 1. Orientalism, a term proposed by Edward Wadie Said, describes an enormous system or inter-textual network of rules and procedures which regulate anything that may be thought, written or imagined about the Orient. It also marks the historical juncture at which any Western attempt to know or directly engage with the non-Western world is mediated, as James Clifford argues, by a tendency to dichotomise the relationship between the Occident and the Orient into an usthem contrast, and then, to essentialise the resultant Other; to speak, that is, in a generalising way about the Oriental character, mind and so on (Clifford, 1988: 258). 2. Post-colonial theory is a theory that investigates, and develops propositions about, the cultural and political impact of European conquest upon colonized societies, and the nature of those societies responses. The post in the term refers to after colonialism began rather than after colonialism ended, because the cultural struggles between imperial and dominated societies continue into the present. Post-colonial theory is concerned with a range of cultural engagements: the impact of imperial languages upon colonized societies; the effects of European master-discourses such as history and philosophy; the nature and consequences of colonial education and the links between Western knowledge and colonial power. In particular, it is concerned with the responses of the colonized: the struggle to control self-representation, through the appropriation of dominant languages, discourses and forms of

narrative; the struggle over representations of place, history, race and ethnicity; and the struggle to present a local reality to a global audience (Ashcroft and Pal Ahluwalia, 2001: 15) 3. Orient is a term, proposed by Edward Said, which holds different meanings for different people. As Said points out, Americans associate it with the Far East, mainly Japan and China, while for Western Europeans, and in particular the British and the French, it conjures up different images. It is not only adjacent to Europe; it is also the place of Europes greatest and richest and oldest colonies, the source of its civilizations and languages, its cultural contestant, and one of its deepest and most recurring images of the Other (1978:1).

CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE This chapter covers the theoretical framework of the study. It functions as a theoretical point of view to lead the study. This chapter consists of two subchapters. The first subchapter is related to the theories and methods of analyses to describe the intended findings of the study. The term post-colonial theory is firstly explained in this subchapter. The next terms illustrated in this subchapter are orientalism and conflict. The second subchapter deals with the related previous studies. The purpose of presenting the related previous studies is to differentiate between what has been done and what the present study does in line with the problems of the study. The last subchapter illustrates the conceptual and theoretical framework which summarizes a number basic concepts and theories mentioned previously. A. Review of the Related Literature

1. Post-Colonial Theory To engage in a form of postcolonial theory is to engage in the term postcolonialism and its notions of history, agency, representation, identity and discourse. According to the literature emerging in the last decade, there are several theories as to what constitutes the basis of the term (Alexander and Mohanty, 1997: 45). Postcolonialism was traditionally seen as a period of history initializing the handing over of colonized states by what were classified as supreme powers to rulers born and bred in the colonies themselves (Ahmad, 1995: 276). Post-colonialism may also be defined as an intellectual direction (sometimes also called an era or the post-colonial theory) that exists since around the middle of the 20th century. It developed from and mainly refers to the time after colonialism. The post-colonial direction was created as colonial countries became independent. Nowadays, aspects of post-colonialism can be found not only in sciences concerning history, literature and politics, but also in approach to culture

and identity of both the countries that were colonised and the former colonial powers. However, post-colonialism can take the colonial time as well as the time after colonialism into consideration (Ahmad, 1995: 279). Post-colonialism has increasingly become an object of scientific examination since 1950 when Western intellectuals began to get interested in the Third World countries. In the seventies, this interest lead to an integration of discussions about post-colonialism in various study courses at American Universities. A major aspect of post-colonialism is the rather violent-like, unbuffered contact or clash of cultures as an inevitable result of former colonial times; the relationship of the colonial power to the (formerly) colonised country, its population and culture and vice versa seems extremely ambiguous and contradictory (Mongia, 1996: 175). This contradiction of two clashing cultures and the wide scale of problems resulting from it must be regarded as a major theme in post-colonialism: For centuries the colonial suppressor often had been forcing his civilised values on the natives. But when the native population finally gained independence, the colonial relicts were still omnipresent, deeply integrated in the natives minds and were supposed to be removed. Post-colonialism also deals with cultural contradictions, conflicts of identity and cultural belonging (Rajan, 1995: 217). Colonial powers came to foreign states and destroyed main parts of native tradition and culture; furthermore, they continuously replaced them with their own ones. This often leads to conflicts when countries became independent and suddenly faced the challenge of developing a new nationwide identity and self-confidence. As generations had lived under the power of colonial rulers, they had more or less adopted their Western tradition and culture. The challenge for these countries was to find an individual way of proceeding to call their own. They could not get rid of the Western way of life from one day to the other; they could not manage to create a completely new one either. On the other hand, former colonial powers had to change their self-assessment. The semantic basis of the term 'post-colonial' might seem to suggest a concern only with the national culture after the departure of the imperial power. It

has occasionally been employed in some earlier work in the area to distinguish between the periods before and after independence. And yet, the term 'postcolonial', however, can also be used to cover all the culture affected by the imperial process from the moment of colonization to the present day. It is due to the fact that what post-colonial literatures have in common beyond their special and distinctive regional characteristics is that they emerged in their present form out of the experience of colonization and asserted themselves by foregrounding the tension with the imperial power (Ashcroft et.al, 1989: 27) To give a conclusion of it all, one might say that post-colonialism is a vivid discussion about what happened with the colonial thinking during and at the end of the colonial era. What legacy arouse from this era? What social, cultural and economical consequences could be seen and are still visible? In these contexts, one examines alternating experiences of suppression, resistance, gender, migration and so forth. While doing so, both the colonising and colonised side are taken into consideration and related to each other. The main target of postcolonialism remains the same: To review and to deconstruct one-sided, worn-out attitudes in a lively discussion of colonisation. Post-colonial theory cannot be separated from a Palestinian scholar named Edward Said, for The field of post-colonial studies would not be what it is today without the work of Edward Said (Ashcroft, 2001: 1). His importance as a cultural theorist has been established in two areas: his foundational place in the growing school of postcolonial studies, particularly through his book Orientalism; and his insistence on the importance of the worldliness or material contexts of the text and the critic. 2. Orientalism Edward Saids Orientalism inaugurated a new approach to postcolonial critique, the colonial discourse, demonstrating the politics of knowledge production and culture as well as the moral-epistemological belief systems underlying the production of the Otherthe Orient. Orientalism (1978) demonstrates that the ways of knowing are themselves mechanisms of power (Bauman, 1998: 79) in that the will to knowledge, and to produce its truth, is also

10

a will to power (Young, 2001:387); thus, while Saids work exposes via discourse analysis the superiority complex and imperialistic attitude of the West, it also exposes the surveillance experienced by those that are Othered through Western knowledge structuresWesterns are informed observers and their complacent gaze reduces other peoples to be observed (Cannella and Soto, 2010: 247-248) and depicted as something one judges (as in a court of law), something one disciplines (as in a school or prison), something one studies and depicts (as in a curriculum), something one illustrates (as in a zoological manual) (Said, 1978: . 40). Thus, Orientalism substantiates how knowledge structures that construct the Other are intricately tied to power and culture. The following sections will briefly summarize the key points and methodology found in Orientalism. Said conducted a literary inquiry that gathered evidence from philology (linguistics), lexicography, history, political/economic theory, novels, and poetry to demonstrate how these literary pieces affirmed an imperialist view of the world during the nineteenth and twentieth century. The variety of textual forms demonstrated how the West imagined the Orient and reproduced it through various political, social, scientific, and ideological discourses that consequently created and sustained an otherness as part of an imperialist apparatusthe colonial rule. As Said succinctly explains: Orientalism can be discussed and analyzed as the corporate institution for dealing with the Orientdealing with it by making statements about it, authorizing views on it, describing it, by teaching it, settling it, ruling over it: in short, Orientalism is as a Western style for dominating, restructuring, and having authority over the Orient (1978:3). Thus, in the broadest sense, Orientalism is about the constellations of representations created about the Other through colonial discourse. Thus, Orientals were stereotyped and essentialized as irrational, depraved (fallen), childlike, different as opposed to the rational, virtuous, mature European (Said, 1978: 40). The geographic Orient was depicted as feminine, timeless, bizarre, lustful, backward, and lazya total imagined contrast to the civilized, masculine,

11

moral, and productive West. The negative stereotypes about the Orient/al appeared to contain an objective reality that consequently produced a monolithic body of knowledge about the Orient/al character, culture, history, society, and traditions. These pieces of information incorporated into the knowledge of subject races made their management easy and profitable under the all embracing Western tutelage (Said, 1978: 35-36). The body of knowledge obtained, read, and constructed by the Wests textual scrutiny, study, judgment, discipline, or governing justified the West domination, intervention or interference (Said, 1978:41). Orientalism demonstrates that the construction of the Orient in the arts, literature, science, and politics projected a cultural hegemony. Hegemony (broadly defined) is understood as a set of dominant ideologies that gain power through subtle and inclusive forms of power (e.g. education, media, literature) and become part of peoples common sense and norms. Furthermore, although Orientalism was also influenced by various forms of cultural hegemony (e.g. under the Christian religion, scientific racism/Darwinist discourses), it ultimately had a vision of reality whose structure promoted the difference between the familiar (Europe, the West, us) and the strange (the Orient, the East, them) (Said, 1978: 43-44). Said points to the danger of this type of discourse, When one uses categories like Oriental and Western as both the starting and end points of analysis, research, public policy, the result is usually to polarize the distinctionthe Oriental becomes more Oriental, the Westerner more Westernerand limit the human encounter between different cultures, traditions, and societies (Said, 1978: 45-46). Thus, the division expressed by the Othering of the Orient is simply an expression of hostility by the West.

12

a. Definitions of Orientalism Orientalism, in its broadest sense, is the study of the Orient or the East. In the 19th century, many writers and scholars from the West took a keen interest in the social, historical and geographical landscape of the Middle East, among other neighboring regions. Western scholars who study Eastern languages, cultures and arts are thus dubbed Orientalists. Edward Said's Orientalism has been a foundational text for the burgeoning field of postcolonial studies. It is stated by Leela Gandhi that: While the publication of Saids Orientalism in 1978 is commonly regarded as the principal catalyst and reference point for postcolonial theory, insufficient attention is given to the fact that this text (and its followers) evolved within a distinctly poststructuralist climate, dominated in the Anglo-American academy by the figures of Foucault and Derrida. (Gandhi, 1998: 25) Edward Said's evaluation and critique of the set of beliefs known as Orientalism forms an important background for postcolonial studies. His work highlights the inaccuracies of a wide variety of assumptions as it questions various paradigms of thought which are accepted on individual, academic, and political levels. The term Orientalism is derived from Orientalist, which has been associated traditionally with those engaged in the study of the Orient. The very term the Orient holds different meanings for different people. As Said points out, Americans associate it with the Far East, mainly Japan and China, while for Western Europeans, and in particular the British and the French, it conjures up different images. It is not only adjacent to Europe; it is also the place of Europes greatest and richest and oldest colonies, the source of its civilizations and languages, its cultural contestant, and one of its deepest and most recurring images of the Other (1978: 1-2). Oriental was simply understood as the opposite of occidental (western). The word is used by western people to develop negative connotations. However it is challenged after the publication of the work Orientalism by Edward Said. Following the ideas of Michel Foucault, Said emphasizes the relationship between power and knowledge in scholarly and popular thinking. By examining many selected literary works made by western writers, Said sees that those writer

13

take a part in creating the spreading popular thinking about what they call or invent as the oriental world. In particular, Said says that: My contention is that without examining Orientalism as a discourse one cannot possibly understand the enormously systematic discipline by which European culture was able to manageand even produce--the Orient politically, sociologically, militarily, ideologically, scientifically, and imaginatively during the post-Enlightenment period (Said, 1979: 3). Therefore, the spirit of Orientalism is nothing but the means of western imperialism, conquest, and exploitation. Part of the pervasive power of Orientalism is that it refers to at least three different pursuits, all of which are interdependent: an academic discipline, a style of thought and a corporate institution for dealing with the Orient. As an academic discipline, Orientalism emerged in the late eighteenth century and has since assembled an archive of knowledge that has served to perpetuate and reinforce Western representations of it. Orientalism is the discipline by which the Orient was (and is) approached systematically, as a topic of learning, discovery and practice (Said, 1978:73). As a style of thought it is based upon an ontological and epistemological distinction (Said, 1978:2) between the Orient and the Occident. More historically and materially defined, Orientalism is a Western style for dominating, restructuring, and having authority over the Orient (Said, 1978: 3). This third definition of Orientalism as a corporate institution is demonstrative of its amorphous capacity as a structure used to dominate and authorise the Orient. The three definitions as expounded by Said illustrate how Orientalism is a complex web of representations about the Orient. The first two definitions embody the textual creation of the Orient while the latter definition illustrates how Orientalism has been deployed to execute authority and domination over the Orient. The three are interrelated, particularly since the domination entailed in the third definition is reliant upon and justified by the textual establishment of the Orient that emerges out of the academic and imaginative definitions of Orientalism.

14

b. The Scope of Orientalism The core of Saids argument resides in the link between knowledge and power, which is amply demonstrated by Prime Minister Arthur Balfours defence of Britains occupation of Egypt in 1910, when he declared that: We know the civilization of Egypt better than we know any other country (Said, 1978: 32). Knowledge for Balfour meant not only surveying a civilisation from its origins, but being able to do that. To have such knowledge of such a thing [as Egypt] is to dominate it, to have authority over itsince we know it and it exists, in a sense, as we know it (1978:32). The premises of Balfours speech demonstrate very clearly how knowledge and dominance go hand in hand: England knows Egypt; Egypt is what England knows; England knows that Egypt cannot have self-government; England confirms that by occupying Egypt; for the Egyptians, Egypt is what England has occupied and now governs; foreign occupation therefore becomes the very basis of contemporary Egyptian civilization. (Said, 1978: 34) But to see Orientalism as simply a rationalisation of colonial rule is to ignore the fact that colonialism was justified in advance by Orientalism (1978:39). The division of the world into East and West had been centuries in the making and expressed the fundamental binary division on which all dealing with the Orient was based. But one side had the power to determine what the reality of both East and West might be. Knowledge of the Orient, because it was generated out of this cultural strength, in a sense creates the Orient, the Oriental and his world (1978:40). With this assertion we come right to the heart of Orientalism, and consequently to the source of much of the controversy it has provoked. To Said, the Orient and the Oriental are direct constructions of the various disciplines by which they are known by Europeans. This appears, on the one hand, to narrow down an extremely complex European phenomen on to a simple question of power and imperial relations, but, on the other, to provide no room for Oriental selfrepresentations. Said points out that the upsurge in Orientalist study coincided with the period of unparalleled European expansion: from 1815 to 1914. His emphasis on its political nature can be seen in his focus on the beginnings of modern Orientalism: not with William Joness disruption of linguistic orthodoxy, but in

15

the Napoleonic invasion of Egypt in 1798, which was in many ways the very model of a truly scientific appropriation of one culture by another, apparently stronger one (1978: 42). But the crucial fact was that Orientalism, in all its many tributaries, began to impose limits upon thought about the Orient. Even powerful imaginative writers such as Gustav Flaubert, Gerard de Nerval or Sir Walter Scott were constrained in what they could either experience or say about the Orient. For Orientalism was ultimately a political vision of reality whose structure promoted the difference between the familiar (Europe, the West, us) and the strange (Orient, the East, them) (1978:43). It worked this way because the intellectual accomplishments of Orientalist discourse served the interests, and were managed by the vast hierarchical web, of imperial power. Central to the emergence of the discourse is the imaginative existence of something called the Orient, which comes into being within what Said describes as an imaginative geography because it is unlikely that we might develop a discipline called Occidental studies. Quite simply, the idea of an Orient exists to define the European. [O]ne big division, as between West and Orient, leads to other smaller ones (1978: 58) and the experiences of writers, travellers, soldiers, statesmen, from Herodotus and Alexander the Great on, become the lenses through which the Orient is experienced, and they shape the language, perception and form of the encounter between East and West (1978:58). What holds these experiences together is the shared sense of something other, which is named the Orient. This analysis of the binary nature of Orientalism has been the source of a great deal of criticism, because it appears to suggest that there is one Europe or one West (one us) that constructs the Orient. But if one sees this homogenisation as the way in which the discourse of Orientalism simplifies the world, at least by implication, rather than the way the world is; the way a general attitude can link various disciplines and intellectual tributaries despite their different subject matter and modes of operation, one may begin to understand the discursive power of this pervasive habit of thinking and doing called Orientalism. The way one comes to understand that other named the Orient in this binary and stereotypical way can be elaborated in terms of the metaphor of

16

theatre. Where the idea of Orientalism as a learned field suggests an enclosed space, the idea of representation is a theatrical one: The Orient is the stage on which the whole East is confined. On this stage will appear figures whose role it is to represent the larger whole from which they emanate. The Orient then seems to be, not an unlimited extension beyond the familiar European world, but rather a closed field, a theatrical stage affixed to Europe. (Said, 1978:63) In this way certain images represent what is otherwise an impossibly diffuse entity (Said, 1978:68). They are also characters who conform to certain typical characteristics. Thus, Orientalism shares with magic and with mythology the self-containing, selfreinforcing character of a closed system, in which objects are what they are because they are what they are, for once, for all time, for ontological reasons that no empirical material can either dislodge or alter. (1978: 70) Imaginative geography legitimates a vocabulary, a representative discourse peculiar to the understanding of the Orient that becomes the way in which the Orient is known. Orientalism thus becomes a form of radical realism by which an aspect of the Orient is fixed with a word or phrase which then is considered either to have acquired, or more simply be, reality (Said, 1978: 72). 3. Gramscis Cultural Hegemony Gramscis concept of cultural hegemony is useful for Saids purposes because Gramsci sees political society reaching into civil society and the cultural areas within it to saturate them, like the academic realm, with significance of direct concern to them (Rajan 1986: 23). Hegemony is defined by Gramsci as cultural leadership exercised by the ruling class (Ritzer and Goodman, 2004:136). Like other common Marxists, Gramsci states that this world is divided between the ruling, and the ruled classes. It is Antonio Gramsci that views the significance of culture in the relation

17

between the ruling, and the ruled classes where the ruling class takes the dominant role to be models for the ruled class for the sake of the ruling class interest. There are three principles to analyze the data by making use the concept of hegemony: 1. Ideology, in any of its Marxist senses, in which a system of meanings and values is the expression or projection of a particular class interest (Williams, 1977:108). 2. In a class society there must be primarily inequalities between classes. Gramsci, therefore, introduced the necessary recognition of dominance and subordination in what has still, however, to be recognized as a whole process (Williams, 1977:108). 3. What is decisive is not only the conscious system of ideas and beliefs, but the whole lived social process as practically organized by specific and dominant meanings and values.'. Ones world view is guided by his superstructure (Williams, 1977:109). 4. Foucaults Discourse Methodologically, Orientalism is a text that examined the configuration of power/knowledge/culture that resulted in systems of knowledge and social practices that created and were directed toward the Orient. Edward Said employed to a great extend Foucaults concept of discourse. He stated as follows I have found it useful here to employ Michel Foucaults notion of a discourse, as described by him in The Archaeology of Knowledge and in Discpline and Punish, to identify Orientalism (Said, 1978:3) Foucault uses the term discourse according to the standard usage of the term in the 1930s in which discourse refers to a unit of language larger than a

18

sentence, and discourse analysis is the study of these sequences of sentences (Sawyer 2002:434). Foucaults definition of discourse is a technical one and therefore limits the meaning of the term. It is about text and the analysis of text. In his chapter about the statement, a central concept of his definition of discourse, he emphasizes his ambivalent usage of the term discourse in his book The Archaeology of Knowledge and defines the meaning of his usage of the term as follows: discourse is constituted by a group of sequences of signs, in so far as they are statements, that is, in so far as they can be assigned particular modalities of existence (Foucault, 1972:107). Hence, discourse is an activity, a practice that can be initiated by a single author or person. Furthermore, the term discourse is also defined as a group of statements which provide a language for talking about a way of representing the knowledge about a particular topic at a particular historical moment (Foucault, 1972: 143). As Foucault points out, it is important to remember that he offers a very different definition of discourse than that ordinarily used by linguists, in the sense that Foucaults definition is as much about ways of thinking and practices as it is about language. Indeed, according to Foucault, meaning and, thus, meaningful action are only made meaningful within the constitutive abstract space of a discourse. It is, then, discourses which distinguish episteme from episteme, framing ways of thinking about certain topics, things and objects. When a discourse which in a sense helps to both characterize and classify particular epistemesis manifested and found in a number of areas, such as language, institutions, and practices, than that discourse is said by Foucault to be evident of a discursive

19

formation. Foucault proposes that We shall call discourse a group of statements in so far as they belong to the same discursive formation (Foucault, 1972:117). On discursive formation he writes that Whenever one can describe, between a number of statements, such a system of dispersion, whenever, between objects, types of statement, concepts, or thematic choices, one can define a regularity (an order, correlations, positions and functionings, transformations), we will say, for the sake of convenience, that we are dealing with a discursive formation (Foucault 1972:38). Discursive formation, in the sense of Foucault, has four indispensable characteristics; these are that statements refer to the same object, are enunciated in the same way, share a common system of conceptualizations and have similar subjects or theories. A central concept in Foucaults outline is the statement which he defines as an enunciative function that involved various units (these may sometimes be sentences, sometimes propositions; but they are sometimes made up of fragments of sentences, series or tables of signs, a set of propositions or equivalent formulations); and, instead of giving a meaning to these units, this function relates them to a field of objects, instead of providing them with a subject, it opens up for them a number of possible subjective positions; instead of fixing their limits it places them in a domain of coordination and coexistence; instead of determining their identity, it places them in a space in which they are used and repeated (Foucault 1972:106). Thus, on the one hand, the illustration of the discursive formation demonstrates the specificity of a statement; on the other hand, the description of statements and organization of their enunciation lead to the individualization of

20

the discursive formation. To describe a statement means to define the conditions of its specific existence. It is the description of what is said, namely as it has been said exactly. It is a precise description and therewith, in the view of Foucault, it is no interpretation or the search for what really has been said or what lies behind what was said. Rather it is the description of the meaning of the formation of the occurrence of statements in a particular time at a particular place. It is the description of how meaning is produced in texts. Moreover, discourse analysis via Foucault is not exclusively concerned with language as such but rather broadens to the discursive regimes of knowledge (academic disciplines) that conform in order to be regarded as true (Young, 2001:385). Foucaults reformulation of the concept discourse derives from his attempts to provide histories of knowledge which are not histories of what men and women have thought. Foucaults histories are not histories of ideas, opinions, or influences nor are they histories of the way in which economic, political, and social contexts have shaped ideas or opinions. Rather they are reconstructions of the material conditions of thought or knowledges. They represent an attempt to produce what Foucault calls an archeology of the material conditions of thought/knowledges, conditions which are not reducible to the idea of consciousness or the idea of mind (Kendall & Wickham, 1999: 35). Thus, the development of discourse is an inseparable part of the formation of a discipline and the delimitation of the object which ultimately is restrictive and productive (Said cited in Young, 2001: 385-386). Discourse is productive in that it constructs the objects of study (e.g. psychopathology creates the mentally ill) which do not exist independently of the definitional work (Kendall & Wickham, 1999: 41). Discourse is restrictive in that discourse always

21

involves a form of violence in the way it imposes its linguistic order on the world (Foucault cited in Young, 2001, p. 386). In a general sense, [Discourse] is regulated and systematic. An important proposition is related to this recognition: the rules are not confined to those internal to the discourse, but include rules of combination with other discourses, rules that establish differences from other categories of discourse (for example, scientific as opposed to literary, etc.), the rules of production of the possible statements. The rules delimit the sayable. But (except for axiomatic systems such as chess) they do not imply a closure. The systematic character of a discourse includes its systematic articulation with other discourses. In practice, discourses delimit what can be said, while providing the spacesthe concepts, metaphors, models, analogies, for making new statements within any specific discourseThe analysis which we propose regards every discourse as the result of a practice of production which is at once material, discursive and complex, always inscribed in relation to other practices of production of discourse. Every discourse is part of a discursive complex; it is locked in an intricate web of practices, bearing in mind that every practice is by definition both discursive and material (in Kendall & Wickham, 1999: 41). Foucault recognizes discourse as a system of statements that are regular and systematic allowing for the differentiation between discourses (e.g. Orientalism, medical, educational, legal, etc.). Further, discourse analysis involves the identification of 1) the rules of production of statements(the conditions that allow statements to emerge); 2) the rules that delimit the sayable (production and repeatability of what is considered legitimate and true); 3) the rules that create the spaces in which new statements can be made; and 4) the rules that ensure that a practice is material and discursive at the same time (Kendall & Wickham, 1999: 42-43). Thus, discourse via Foucaults philosophical formulations consists of both things and words. For example, the discourse of discipline consists of sites of power (schools, prisons, etc.), respective practices (punishment or reward) as well as the sayable (explicit rules and regulations about behavior).

22

The notion that practice is both material and discursive is critical in understanding knowledge/power/culture configurations. For Foucault, power is neither negative/positive, repressive/resistance, it is simply practiced and it is non-stratified, local, unstable and flexible while knowledge is stratified, stable, and segmented (Kendall & Wickham, 1999: 55). Therefore, the configuration of the power/knowledge structure via Foucaults philosophical

formulations proposes that discursive relations are relations of power in that power relations serve to connect the two poles of knowledgethe visible and sayable (Kendall & Wickham, 1999: 48). In other words, the role of knowledge actually supports certain techniques of power that control, govern, and/or manage. The following excerpt is helpful in understanding by the

knowledge/power/culture formulations,

relation

proposed

Foucaults

Knowledge is involved inattempts to impose control or management: the economy should be slowed, the economy should be stimulated; the war should be stepped up, the war should be ended Here knowledge is being used to select some techniques of [power] over others and to implement the chosen techniques in the attempts to impose control or management on the objects concernedThe knowledge used ranges from very simple, informal knowledge to very complex, formal knowledge and the range includes knowledge called rational, within modern social sciences, and knowledge called irrational (Kendall & Wickham, 1999: 52). Foucault maintained that it is in discourse that power and knowledge are joined together (1978: 100). Consequently, Orientalism is characterized as a discourse produced in an uneven exchange with different forms of other institutional

23

discursive power that through the production of knowledge demonstrate a will to truth that expose a will to power (Young, 2001: 387).

Orientalism describes the discursive formation of the Orient that 1) constructed the common object of analysisthe Orient/Oriental; 2) expressed a common mode of speaking, perception, vocabularies, and representations found across the humanities of and social sciencesbased and 3) on the the

assumption

Western

superiority;

showed

interconnection between Orientalism as discourse and the system of concepts represented by Western ideologies of liberal humanism, capitalism, and scientific rationality (Denyer, 2002). 5. The Nature of Conflict The idea of conflict is basic to our understanding and appreciation of our exchange with reality--of human action. Conflict can be treated broadly as a philosophical category denoting the clash of power against power in the striving of all things to become manifest. Or, conflict can be seen simply as a distinct category of social behavior--as two parties trying to get something they both cannot have. Moreover, conflict can be apprehended as a potentiality or a situation, as a structure or a manifestation, as an event or a process (Rummel, 1976: 47). Conflict is a balancing of vectors of powers, of capabilities to produce effects (Rummel, 1976: 48). It is a clash of powers. Conflict is not a balance, equilibrium, of powers. It is not a stable resultant. Conflict is the pushing and pulling, the giving and taking, the process of finding the balance between powers. Most fundamentally, therefore, conflict is correlative to power. Power, simply, is the capability to produce effects; conflict is the process of powers meeting and

24

balancing. To understand what powers become succeed requires comprehending their conflicts; to understand conflict involves untangling the powers involved. As a balancing of powers, conflict embodies the levels of potentiality, dispositions, or manifestations. Potentiality is what may become; it is the space of possibilities, as the space of a blackboard is the realm of all the two-dimensional figures and forms that may be drawn on it. Conflict as potentiality is then the space of possible conflicts: the realm of potential opposing vectors of power (Rummel, 1976: 50) For example, the space of our interests (where interests are vectors of power) is a space of potential conflicts; this page of text is a space of potential conflict between the power of these words and the meaning one projects onto them; the two-dimensional space of a landscape painting is a potential conflict between the vectors of action in the painting which stand in dynamic tension and the viewer's perspective. It is the space within which conflict can occur, although at any moment there may be no ongoing conflict. Reality, then, is a conflict-space. Even our perception presupposes a conflict between inward directed vectors and our active reaching out to sense and comprehend such reality. A second is that of dispositions and powers: of potentialities transformed into tendencies toward specificity and their strength to be so manifest. At this level two facets of conflict can be discriminated: a conflict-structure of those dispositions opposing each other within the conflict space; and the conflictsituation consisting of opposing powers, and their indeterminate balancing (Rummel, 1976: 55). Reality is a multidimensional space of potentialities and multifold, divergent, congruent, intersecting, and opposing dispositions. Two such dispositions are oxygen and hydrogen, which have the tendency to form a dynamic balance called water. Water itself has the opposing dispositions to become steam or ice. Normally, in water these dispositions form a structure; they exist with little strength towards conflict. Neither heating the water to boiling nor freezing it alters the structure of conflict, although the disposition of water to become steam or ice is manifested. The structure merely indicates the existence of dispositions which have a tendency to conflict. Thus, slaves and masters,

25

proletariat and bourgeoisie, and peasant and landowner comprise structures of conflict, regardless of the strength of their opposing dispositions. Within a conflict-structure, however, may exist a conflict-situation. This is a situation in which the opposing tendencies are activated--opposing powers are manifest. Consider water again. If water is contained in a pipe ten meters long with one end heated by a torch and the other packed in dry ice, the opposing dispositions to become steam or ice are activated. That is, they have become opposing powers towards manifestation. Similarly, if both slaves and masters share a normative system legitimizing slavery, as was true in classical Greece, then there exists a structure of conflict, but no conflict-situation. However, let a religion spread which emphasizes the equality and freedom of all people and the evils of slavery, and slaves become conscious of their exploitation and the masters become aware of the need to protect their interests. Dispositions have become actual opposing powers: a conflict-situation exists. The final level of reality is of manifestations. This is the level of manifest conflict, of conflict behavior, where the opposition of powers is specific(Rummel, 1976: 60). For water enclosed in a pipe, the simultaneous heating and freezing of the two ends--the situation of conflict--manifests a rapid circulation of water. This circulation reflects the balancing of powers--the struggle of opposite tendencies-within the water. Likewise, secret meetings among slaves and the organization of an escape route manifest the conflict-situation. On this one must be careful, however. This process has three facets: opposing attempts to produce effects, that is, opposing powers; the balancing of these powers; and the actual balance of powers. Now the opposing powers create a conflict-situation at the level of dispositions and powers. On this plane the actual balancing, the process of their clashing, may be partially indeterminate, like the unconscious cognitive balancing in a psychological field which partially underlies our perception, or the movement of molecules in the circulating water. However, aspects of this process may become manifest. We perceive the rapidly circulating water in the pipe (assume the pipe is made of a special glass), slaves may riot or demonstrate against their masters.

26

Consequently, the balancing process occurs both at the level of dispositions and powers and of manifest effects; the process may involve both the conflict situation and manifest conflict. The thunderstorm which manifests the conflict between hot and cold air systems is but the determinate aspect of the balancing of these two systems. Finally, there is the balance of powers, the momentary equilibrium established between the opposing powers. This balance is manifest, determinate. Much of our perception constitutes such a balance between outward and inward directed powers (as a child's cry may overcome one's absorption in a TV drama). Although water may be a balancing between tendencies to become steam or ice, there is still sufficient balance to manifest the qualities of a liquid. Although there may be a situation of conflict between slaves and masters, a sufficient balance of the opposing powers may exist to manifest the patterns of dominance and subordination. To conclude, conflict is a balancing of powers which can be correlated to potentiality, dispositions, and manifestations. 6. Culture and Conflict Culture is an essential part of conflict (LeBaron, 1993: 2). Cultures are like underground rivers that run through our lives and relationships, giving us messages that shape our perceptions, attributions, judgments, and ideas of self and other. Though cultures are powerful, they are often unconscious, influencing conflict and attempts to resolve conflict in imperceptible ways (LeBaron, 1993: 6). Cultures are more than language, dress, and food customs. Cultural groups may share race, ethnicity, or nationality, but they also arise from cleavages of generation, socioeconomic class, sexual orientation, ability and disability, political and religious affiliation, language, and gender -- to name only a few. Two things are essential to remember about cultures: they are always changing, and they relate to the symbolic dimension of life (Hall, 1976: 25). The symbolic dimension is the place where we are constantly making meaning and enacting our identities. Cultural messages from the groups we belong to give us information about what is meaningful or important, and who we are in the world

27

and in relation to others -- our identities. Cultural messages, simply, are what everyone in a group knows that outsiders do not know (Hall, 1976: 27). They are a series of lenses that shape what we see and do not see, how we perceive and interpret, and where we draw boundaries. In shaping our values, cultures contain starting points and currencies. Starting points are those places it is natural to begin, whether with individual or group concerns, with the big picture or particularities. Currencies are those things we care about that influence and shape our interactions with others (Hall, 1976: 30) Though largely below the surface, cultures are a shifting, dynamic set of starting points that orient us in particular ways and away from other directions (LeBaron, 1993: 21). Each person belongs to multiple cultures that give him messages about what is normal, appropriate, and expected. When others do not meet our expectations, it is often a cue that our cultural expectations are different. We may mistake differences between others and us for evidence of bad faith or lack of common sense on the part of others, not realizing that common sense is also cultural. What is common to one group may seem strange, counterintuitive, or wrong to another. Cultural influences and identities become important depending on context. When an aspect of cultural identity is threatened or misunderstood, it may become relatively more important than other cultural identities and this fixed, narrow identity may become the focus of stereotyping, negative projection, and conflict. This is a very common situation in intractable conflicts (Hall, 1976: 33). Therefore, it is useful for people in conflict to have interactive experiences that help them see each other as broadly as possible, experiences that foster the recognition of shared identities as well as those that are different. Cultures are embedded in every conflict because conflicts arise in human relationships. Cultures affect the ways we name, frame, blame, and attempt to tame conflicts. Culture is always a factor in conflict, whether it plays a central role or influences it subtly and gently (LeBaron, 1993: 30). For any conflict that touches us where it matters, where we make meaning and hold our identities, there is always a cultural component. Intractable conflicts like the Israeli-

28

Palestinian conflict or the India-Pakistan conflict over Kashmir are not just about territorial, boundary, and sovereignty issues -they are also about acknowledgement, representation, and legitimization of different identities and ways of living, being, and making meaning. Conflicts between teenagers and parents are shaped by generational culture, and conflicts between spouses or partners are influenced by gender culture. In organizations, conflicts arising from different disciplinary cultures escalate tensions between co-workers, creating strained or inaccurate communication and stressed relationships (LeBaron, 1993: 35). Culture permeates conflict no matter what, sometimes pushing forth with intensity, other times quietly snaking along, hardly announcing its presence until surprised people nearly stumble on it. When the cultural groups we belong to are a large majority in our community or nation, we are less likely to be aware of the content of the messages they send us (Le Baron, 1993: 39). Cultures shared by dominant groups often seem to be "natural," "normal" -- "the way things are done." People only notice the effect of cultures that are different from their own, attending to behaviors that they label exotic or strange. 7. Cross-Cultural Conflict In its simplest term, Conflict is competition by groups or individuals over incompatible goals, scarce resources, or the sources of power needed to acquire them (Avruch, 1998: 7). This competition is also determined by individuals perceptions of goals, resources, and power, and such perceptions may differ greatly among individuals. One determinant of perception is culture, the socially inherited, shared and learned ways of living possessed by individuals in virtue of their membership in social groups. Conflict that occurs across cultural boundaries thus is also occurring across cognitive and perceptual boundaries, and is especially susceptible to problems of intercultural miscommunication and misunderstanding. These problems exacerbate the conflict, no matter what the root causes of itincluding strictly material interestsmay be. In this sense culture is an important factor in many sorts of conflicts that at first may appear to

29

be exclusively about material resources or negotiable interests. In addition to framing the contexts in which conflict is understood and pursued by individuals, culture also links individual identities to collective ones. This fact is important in understanding the basis of most ethnic or nationalist conflicts, in which selected cultural material is utilized to constitute special sorts of social groups, those based upon putative (and primordial) ties of shared kinship, history, language, or religion (Avruch, 1998: 25). By definition, conflict occurring between individuals or social groups that are separated by cultural boundaries can be considered cross-cultural conflict (Avruch, 1998: 30). But individuals, even in the same society, are potentially members of many different groups, organized in different ways by different criteria: for example, by kinship into families or clans; by language, religion, ethnicity, or nationality; by socioeconomic characteristics into social classes; by geographical region into political interest groups; and by education, occupation, or institutional memberships into professions, trade unions, organizations, industries, bureaucracies, political parties, or militaries. The more complex and differentiated the society the more numerous are potential groupings. Each of these groups is a potential container for culture, and thus any complex society is likely to be made up various subcultures, that is of individuals who, by virtue of overlapping and multiple group memberships, are themselves multicultural. This means that conflict across cultural boundaries may occur simultaneously at many different levels, not just at the higher levels of social groupingfor example, those that separate American from Japanese cultures. Cross-cultural conflict highlights the effects of cultural difference on communicational competence, on mutual understanding or shared metrics and perceptions (Avruch, 1998: 30). Note that except in the strict sense of promoting a failure to communicate across cultural boundaries, the mere existence of cultural difference is not necessarily the primary cause of conflict between groups. This argues against the position taken by such scholars as Samuel Huntington, who conceptualize a post-Cold War world divided into six or seven civilizations (Western, Confucian, Islamic, Hindu, Slavic-Orthodox, Latin American, and possibly African), destined in some way to clash with one another by virtue of

30

their respective essential differences. (Huntington sees Islam and the West in an especially contentious relationship in the future, but the scenario he envisions basically involves the West against the rest.) Nevertheless, while it is important not to see cultural difference per se as an autonomous cause of conflict, it is the case that culture is almost always a refracting lens through which the perceptions according to which conflict is pursued are formed (Avruch, 1998: 47). This is because culture frames the contexts in which conflict occurs. It does so by indicating, among other things, what sorts of resources are subjects for competition or objects of dispute, often by postulating their high value or relative scarcity: honor here, purity there, capital and profits somewhere else. It does so also by stipulating rules (sometimes precise, usually less so) for how contests should be pursued, including when and how to begin, and when and how to end, them. It does so, finally, by providing individuals with cognitive, symbolic, and affective frameworks for interpreting the behavior and motives of others and themselve B. Review of the Related Previous Studies There are several previous studies on Edward Saids concept of Orientalism closely related to the present study. The studies have addressed Orientalism from various view points. The areas of previous related research on Orientalism that have been reviewed in the present study include Orientalism in the representations of Persia in a number of canonical and non-canonical texts in English literature (Peernajmodin, 2002), a revelation and consideration of Danish perspectives adds to the diversity of sources encompassed by the study of Orientalism (Kauffeldt, 2006), Islamophobia and anti-Muslim racism that is present in reports of mainstream media and the implications it has on the lives of people in the Muslim community in Canada (Harb, 2008), Shirin Neshats photographs that perpetuate Saids concept of Orientalism, which allocates the Oriental to an inferior position vis--vis his Occidental counterpart (Khosravi, 2011). The first previous study reviewed in this present study is a research conducted by Hossein Peernajmodin (2002, University of Birmingham,

31

Birmingham, United Kingdom) who investigated the representations of Persia in a number of canonical and non-canonical texts in English literature. The theoretical framework comes from Edward Saids analysis of orientalism. It is argued that the case of Persia instances the heterogeneous and striated character of orientalism (representations rather than representation in the title). It is shown that while a number of relatively similar set of motifs and topoi, mainly derived from classical tradition and contemporary travel writing, circulate in the works of the three Renaissance authors included (Spenser, Marlowe, Milton), they are differently inflected and serve different thematic and ideological purposes. Central to the analysis is the point that though Saids theorisation of orientalism is immensely useful, and essential, to any consideration of the orientalist canon, issues such as masquerading and displacing as well as the specificities of each text, of its context, and of the object of representation, compound the notion of orientalism as merely a mode of Western domination and hegemony. The second previous study conducted by Jonas Kauffeldt (2006, The Florida State University, Florida, United States) explored a range of experiences that Danes, citizens of a small and relatively weak European state, garnered in their encounters with the Middle East. Their views and understandings of events, as well as their perspectives on the Other, served to influence the shaping of knowledge in Denmark about the East. Further, as their country was unentangled in the web of strategic and imperial intrigue that dominated the affairs of the larger powers, Danes were able to position themselves before the local populations as individuals untainted by affiliations that might present a danger of undue influence. In short, a revelation and consideration of Danish perspectives adds to the diversity of sources encompassed by the study of Orientalism. The next previous study belongs to Jukka Jouhki (2006, University of Jyvskyl, Jyvskyl, Findland) studied Orientalism and Occidentalism based on ethnographic fieldwork on collected material dealing with the relationship between Europeans and Tamils in Auroville, a multinational intentional community and Kuilapalayam, a rural Tamil village in India. According to the material gathered, the Europeans of Auroville followed the traditional Orientalist discourse in describing their Tamil neighbors. In accordance with Saids findings,

32

Europeans emphasize certain key elements of being Tamil, namely the ancientness of Tamil people and the image of Tamil culture as a significantly confining entity. On the other hand, in the discourse images of Tamil intuition, spontaneity and freshness were applauded although they were seen viewed as in opposition with Western qualities like organizational capabilities. The Occidentalism of Tamil villagers, in which the West was interpreted mainly through observing the behavior of other Tamils living in Auroville, constructed an image of Europeans as a highly financially oriented group with little or no spiritual qualities. The cultural impact of Auroville was lamented but its economic impact was welcomed. On the whole the two discourses seemed to produce a simplified and exaggerated image of the Other. The traditional Orientalist binary ontology was visible in European discourse whereas in Tamil discourse perhaps the lack of Occidentalist tradition and thus the significantly limited archive in the Foucauldian sense was reflected in less binary views of Europeans and Tamils. The last previous study presented in this present study is the one conducted by Hanan Harb (2008, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada) who examined the topic of Islamophobia and anti-Muslim racism that is present in reports of mainstream media and the implications it has on the lives of people in the Muslim community in Canada. The Western media has played a major role in both reviving historical Orientalist depictions of the other and shaping the views of many ordinary Canadians about Muslims and people from the Middle East. Negative portrayals of Islam, and more specifically Muslims, have often been defended in the West under the principle of freedom of speech and the press, and this type of racism has been allowed to continue to exist in society under the contentious pretext of security. Mojgan Khosravi (2011, Georgia State University, Georgia, United States) analyzed Shirin Neshats Women of Allah photographs by exploring key sociopolitical events that have shaped Iranian history since the reign of Cyrus the Great, ca. 600 B.C. Since Neshats photographs have been largely intended for a Western audience, it is important to explore the concept of colonialism that has

33

created East/West polarities and so greatly influenced our modern era. The study also intended to demonstrate that Neshats images perpetuate Edward Saids concept of Orientalism, which allocates the Oriental to an inferior position vis-vis his Occidental counterpart. For a Western audience, Neshats consistent use of the Muslim veil, illegible Persian calligraphy, and guns symbolizes Islams violence and degeneracy; additionally, these elements position the Muslim woman as a subaltern entity in an archaic society. As a result, the Iranian Muslim woman remains restricted by her social, cultural, and religious praxis, as well as by Neshats formal and contextual depiction of her. From the above researches, the scholars have made accomplishment in postcolonial study on the Saids concept of Orientalism. These researches focus on the application of the concept of Orientalism in different areas of study. Thus the present study is going to explore the concept of Orientalism seen from both sides namely the orient and the occident and how those two sides represent each other. C. The Conceptual and Theoretical Frameworks To summarize a number of basic concepts that has been mentioned previously, in this section, they are linked and devised the theoretical frameworks which will be applied to analyze A Passage to India using Saids concept of Orientalism. The concept of Orientalism is widely applied in various areas of study. And yet the concept of Orientalism will not be understood thoroughly without linking the concept to the concept of discourse proposed by Michel Foucault and also to the concept of hegemony proposed by Antonio Gramsci. Foucaults own writing on the subject in the books Said mentions, The Archaeology of Knowledge and Discipline and Punish, is famously difficult, but fortunately Said himself, particularly in the introduction to Orientalism and beginning in the first section, is fairly clear about what he means by the term. The discourse of Orientalism is related in some way to an enormously systematic discipline by which European culture was able to manageand even produce the Orient politically, sociologically, militarily, ideologically, scientifically, and imaginatively.

34

Gramcsis hegemony becomes an important concept for understanding the concept of Orientalism because Said also mention the term in his Orientalism. He states that: The relationship between Occident and Orient is a relationship of power, of domination, of varying degrees of a complex hegemony, and is quite accurately indicated in the title of K.M. Panikkars classic Asia and Western Dominance. The Orient was Orientalized not only because it was discovered to be Oriental in all those ways considered common place by an average nineteenth-century Europen, but also because it could be-that is, submitted to being-made Oriental. (Said, 1978: 5) Hence, Orientalism for Said is a form of cultural hegemony at work. Some cultural forms predominate over others, just like some ideas are more influential than others. Said draws on Antonio Gramscis concept of hegemony, a form of cultural leadership, to understand Orientalisms strength and durability. To sum up, the present study illustrates the concept of Orientalism in term of discourse and hegemony, so as to examine the application of Saids concept of Orientalism and to investigate how the Orient and the Occident represent each other in A Passage to India.

35

CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHOD A. Research Approach An appropriate approach is certainly required to achieve an intended goal in a research. The approach is needed to answer research problems and to fulfill the purpose of the study. Therefore, it can be said that the approach is a means of thinking dealing with the determined object. The approach used in this research is postcolonial approach. Postcolonialism is a name for a critical theoretical approach in literary and cultural studies, but it also, as importantly, designates a politics of transformational resistance to unjust and unequal forms of religion, political and cultural authority which extends back across the twentieth century, and beyond, as explained by Patricia Waugh (2006: 340). In day-to-day academic discourse the so-called postcolonial approach is commonly associated with names such as Edward Said, Gayatri Spivak dan Homi Bhabha. Yet it is important to mention here that this study will only focus on Edward Saids concept of Orientalism. Thus, Edward Saids Orientalism will be used to answer the research problems.
In order to analyze the intended data, postcolonial method is also applied.

Postcolonial methods utilize social, cultural, and political analysis to engage with the colonial discourse. Postcolonialism has been defined as both a social movement and a research approach whose main agenda addresses racism and oppression. Postcolonial research names the cultural, political, and linguistic experiences of former colonized societies by including voices, stories, histories, and images from people traditionally excluded from European/western descriptions of the world (Bauchspies, 2007: 2981). From the quotation, it can be

36

understood a study of postcolonialism can be achieved when a study dealing with a colonial discourse is conducted by applying either social, cultural, or political analysis. Due to the significance of observing the dominating and dominated people in a novel entitled A Passage To India from social, political, and cultural aspects, it is necessary to make use of Antonio Gramscis concept of hegemony, and Foucaults concept of discourse. B. Research Design A research is either qualitative, quantitative, or mixed (Creswell, 2003:18). The characteristics of qualitative research, as stated by Bogdan and Bilken (1982: 27-30), are (1) the research is done in natural setting and the researcher of the present study interacts with the sources of data in its natural context; it means that the data being analyzed and interpreted are not manipulated; (2) the study is descriptive as the data are collected, analyzed and described in the form of words; (3) the key instrument is the researcher as much of his time is spent to collect, analyze and interpret the data; and (4) the data are analyzed inductively; it means that the theories are used to enrich the researchers insight in analyzing and interpreting the findings; (5) extensive triangulation or cross checking; (6) making use of informants; (7) the significance lies in the subject under research instead of the researchers view of point; (8) usually applying purposive sampling rather than probabilistic sampling and (10) it is possible to make use qualitative data. Based on the above description, the current research is qualitative, descriptive, explanatory and interpretative in nature. It is descriptive because it attempts to describe Edward Saids Orientalism as Portrayed in E.M. Forsters A Passage to India. By exploratory it is meant that this research neither has any hypothesis to prove nor is intended to generalize the results. By interpretative it is meant that analysis is very much dependent on researchers judgment and interpretation with respect to natural object under investigation. To arrive at the goals of the analysis, this research is conducted in four steps as proposed by Frankel and Wallen (1993: 381-383). They are (1) the identification of the phenomena to be studied, (2) the collection of the data (in this case selecting the utterances containing the topic under investigation), (3) analysis

37

of the data (which relies heavily on description), and (4) drawing conclusion made throughout the course of the study. Since the present research also applied postcolonial method by making use of both Antonio Gramscis concept of hegemony, and Foucaults concept of discourse,

C. Data and Source of Data The data that emerge from a qualitative study are descriptive. That is, data are reported in words rather than in numbers (Creswell, 2003: 199). In this qualitative research, the data will be in the forms of phrases and sentences quoted from dialogues carried out by the characters in the intended literary work represented the Orient and the Occident used as the object of this research. The main source of data for this research is a novel entitled A Passage to India. A Passage to India is the sixth and final novel by English writer Edward Morgan (E. M.) Forster. It received almost universal acclaim when it was published in 1924. The novel depicts life in British colonial India during the early part of the twentieth century, offering a balanced look at both the English and the Indians they ruled. At the time of publication, its unflattering portrayal of the English caused many to view the book as a critique of the British government's colonial policies. Only later did critics begin to see themes in the novel that transcended the immediate politics of the time. Forster began writing the book in 1913, the year after his first visit to India. The start of World War I delayed his work, and it was only after another visit to India in 1921 that Forster decided to finish the novel. In this research, the source of data is the novel entitled A Passage to India published in 2004 in New Delhi by Peacock Books. D. Research Instrument In qualitative research, the researcher is the primary instrument in data collection rather than some inanimate mechanism (Creswell, 2003: 198). Therefore, the main research instrument in this study is the researcher himself. It

38

is due to the fact that it is the researcher who conducts the research by collecting, categorizing and analyzing the data in order to answer the research problems.

E. Data Collection Technique The data used in this research are collected by using close reading and quoting technique. In this technique, the researcher as the key instrument reads the literary text thoroughly and underlines the words, expressions, sentences relevant to the research problems and then quotes them as data. Data coding will also be used in the process of collecting data. By definition, Coding is the process of examining the raw qualitative data which will in the form of words, phrases, sentences or paragraphs) and assigning CODES or labels (Bryman, 1993: 29). Bryman identified the following types of coding: Axial coding and Open Coding. Open coding is to code or label words and phrases found in the transcript or text and axial coding is to create themes or ategories by grouping codes or labels given to words and phrases (Bryman, 1993: 30). Conducting open coding is to sweep through the data and mark (by circling or highlighting) sections of the text selected codes or labels. For example, the researcher circles words or phrases expressing the occidents description on the orient. Eventually, the researcher has a large number of codes and he will find it necessary to sort them into some sort of order or into groups and this is called axial coding. In line with the collected data of this study, the coding is conducted by applying a combination of abbreviation of key words called descriptive codes (Miles and Huberman, 1994: 57), for example, OC (for Occident) and OR (for Orient). Those codes will be label to attach themselves to the intended research questions for the data display such as 1/p5/B.1. This data display indicates that 1

39

refers to the data number; p5 indicates to the page number from which the utterance is quoted, B.1 refers to the first research question.

F. Data Analysis Technique and Interpretation

After data is collected, researchers engage in a three step process of analysis: data reduction, data display, and conclusion drawing/verification (Miles and Huberman, 1994: 10). The three steps and relationships between the steps and data collection efforts are pictured in Exhibit 3.1. Exhibit 3.1. Components of Data Analysis: An Interactive Model

Source: Miles, Matthew B. and A. Michael Huberman (1994), Qualitative Data Analysis: An Expanded Sourcebook, Sage Publications Inc: Thousand Oaks, California, p. 12.

1. Data Reduction Data reduction refers to the process of selecting, focusing, simplifying, abstracting, and transforming the data that appear in written-up filed notes or transcriptions (Miles and Huberman, 1994: 10). The researcher, therefore, will select
the data by categorizing sections of the novel into categories and label them with

40

names and sometimes code numbers. The selection of the data will of course focus on the intended research question.

2. Data Display The second major flow of analysis activity proposed by Miles and Huberman is data display. Generally, a display is an organized, compressed assembly of information that permits conclusion drawing and action (Miles and Huberman,
1994: 11). The displays used in this research include tabulations. All are designed

to assemble organized information into an immediately accessible, compact form so that the readers can see what is happening and either draw justified conclusions or move on the next step of analysis the displays suggest may be useful. The data displays presented in tabulations will be based on each of stated research questions. 3. Conclusion Drawing or Verification The fourth stream of analysis activity is conclusion drawing and verification. After displaying the data, the next step will be to draw preliminary conclusion and verification. The initial conclusion will be conducted by doing data interpretation. The researcher, in this phase, will start to decide what those data mean, make sense or justifying the findings, and offering explanations referring to the intended data. The result of data interpretation will be consulted to the related theories in this case the concept of orientalism proposed by Edward Said and the theory of conflict. The final conclusion will be drawn after consulting the result of data interpretation to the proposed theories. The meanings emerging from the data have to be tested for their plausibility, their sturdiness, their confirmability that is, their validity (Miles
and Huberman, 1994: 11). To determine whether the data concerning the portrayal of Edward Saids Orientalism in E.M. Forster A Passage to India are valid, there are several strategies as suggested by Creshwell (2003: 197) such as 1) triangulate different data sources of information by examining evidence from sources and using it to build a coherent justification for themes, 2) use member-checking to determine the accuracy, 3) use peer debriefing, and 4) use external auditor to review the entire project.

41

In this research, there are only two strategies which will be used, that is, 1) use peer checking and 2) expert checking. For the first strategy, the researcher will ask one of his colleagues who is interested in the topic of Orientalism in work of literature to check and verify the data concerning portrayal of Edward Saids Orientalism in E.M. Forster A Passage to India. For the second strategy, the researcher will ask one of his lecturers of prose and theory of literature to verify the data concerning the topic under investigation.

4. Data Interpretation Adding Miles and Hubermans explanation dealing with three concurrent flows of activity in qualitative analysis, Zoltan Dornyei also proposes data interpretation as the final flow of conducting qualitative analysis. Dornyei explains: The final generic process of qualitative data analysis is interpreting the data and drawing conclusions. Strictly speaking, data interpretation happens not only near the end of a project; researchers start tentative interpreting as early as the initial coding stage when they prepare memos; in fact, the whole process of qualitative data analysis is geared to our becoming more and more familiar with the data and developing increasingly abstract analytical insights into the underlying meanings. Thus, as with so many components of qualitative research, data interpretation is also an iterative process. (2007: 257) Since data interpretation is iterative process, the researcher has tried to interpret the data from the very beginning of his attempt in coding the data. The process of data interpretation conducted by the researcher involves attaching significant of what is discovered in the data taken from the novel entitled A Passage to Indian, considering the meaning of the data, and making sense or justifying the findings based on the concepts used in the study, and presenting explanation of the data. The figure 3.1. summarizes the procedure and techniques of the data analysis.

42

43

Figure 3.1. The Procedure and Techniques of the Data Analysis

Source of the Data: A novel entitled A Passage to India written by E. M. Forster published in 2004

The Qualitative Data: Quotation taken from the intended novel

The Research Questions

Occidents description on the Orient

Orients description on the Occident

Conflict between the Occident and the Orient

Data Collection

Data Reduction

Data Display

Data Analysis, verification (done based on the principles of the related concepts), Interpretation and Conclusion Drawing

Foucaults Discursive Relations : Knowledge-power

Gramschis Hegemony IdeologyDominance- Ruling Class-Ruled Class

Orientalism Orient Occident

Adopted and Modified from Miles and Hubberman, 1994: 20

THESIS
44

Since the present research also applied postcolonial method by making use of both Antonio Gramscis concept of hegemony, and Foucaults concept of discourse, the researcher also formulates the steps to interpret the data covering:
1.

Identifying the Orients description on the Occident and the Occidents description on the Orient; Interpreting the ideology in a class society where the Orient and the Occident live in; Exploring the relation of knowledge and power between the Orient and the Occident.

2.

3.

45

CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS

The following sub chapters would like to present the analysis of the Occident representations of the Orient and vice versa as well as the conflicts involving the Orient and the Occident reflected in E.M. Forsters A Passage to India. Forster spends large sections of the novel characterizing different typical attitudes the English hold toward the Indians whom they control. Forsters satire is harsh on Englishwomen, whom the author depicts as overwhelmingly racist, self-righteous, and viciously condescending to the native population. Some of the Englishmen in the novel are as nasty as the women, but Forster more often identifies Englishmen as men who, though condescending and unable to relate to Indians on an individual level, are largely well-meaning and invested in their jobs.

A. Occident representations of the Orient reflected in E.M. Forsters A Passage to India. A Passage to India is grounded in the logic of a disjunctive space that eternally separates the same from the other. The narrative fabric of the novel is interwoven around a distinct order of spatial disjunction between the Occident covering the same, England and the Orient involving the other, India. Forsters strategy of registering moral indignation against colonial rules relies on the authority of the stated disjunction. It brings the eternal division between the Orient and the Occident in the novel. There is an eternal separation between the Orient and the Occident and the boundary between them must not be crossed. Consequently, the Occidental colonial power, by crossing the forbidden boundary that divides it from the Orient, has produced its own representation of the Orient. This sub chapter intends to present the representations of the Occident to the Orient. The Occident, so-called Anglo-Indians, includes Miss Adela Quested, Mrs.
Moore, Mr. Cyril Fielding, Colonel Ronny Heaslop, the Turtons and the McBrydes.

46

1.

Miss Adela Quested

In the first place, it is stated by Said that it would be wrong to conclude that the Orient was essentially an idea, or a creation with no corresponding reality (1979: 5). It means that there are cultures and nations whose location is in the East and their lives and customs interest young Occident to explore.

Miss Adela Quested is among those interested in seeing and knowing the Orient. Upon her arrival, she ventures to see the real India rather than an arranged tourist version. . and Miss Quested, who always said exactly what was in her mind, announced anew that she was desirous of seeing the real India (API, p.20). Adela Quested claims that she wants to see the real India, detesting the false constructs of English garden parties and elephant rides. One quickly finds however, that Adelas image of India is itself restricted. Speaking to the women of the Club, Adela makes her complaint. As if one could avoid seeing them, sighed Mrs. Lesley. Ive avoided, said Miss Quested. Excepting my own servant, Ive scarcely spoken to an Indian since landing. Oh, lucky you. But I want to see them. (API, p. 23) As a new comer in the Oriental land, Adela has never met and got along with Indian except her own servant. By rejecting her servant as a representative of the Indian character, Adela has recognized that the act of colonial subjugation disrupts the human relationship. However, she nonetheless maintains a psychological distance from the Colonial Other, But I want to see them. Adela is demanding to know more about seeing the Indian, the Orient. The Orient is an object to study, to observe and to discuses. Said states it clearly: Orientalism, therefore, is not an airy European fantasy about the Orient, but a created body of theory and practice in which, for many generations, there has been a considerable material investment (Said, p. 14).

47

It is Adelas intention to go adventuring and seeing what she calls the other side of the world. She has made such a romantic voyage across the Mediterranean and through the sands of Egypt. Adelas idea of place is constructed as India being the exotic other, and she desires to see India in its purest form, thereby relying upon her own constructed binary of Self/Exotic as a sense of place. In Adelas ignorance or naivet, she partly believes that India is there solely for her in order to experience exotic tastes. Adelas desire for a mystical India proves that she subscribes to her own conception and construction of an authentic India. Adela Quested is haunted by her own imagination of what real India looks like. She keeps on questioning her own mind to reveal India as an object of study, an object of observation. One thing for sure, she does not want to see India as only charming or quaint view presented by her fellow Anglo-Indians such as an elephant ride, the harbor of Bombay and a gridiron of bungalows at the end of it. When Adela asks Ronnie at the Club to see the real India, with real Indians, she is under the delusion that there is such a person or persons as the purely authentic. Her nonsensical wish for a real India further advances the notion and myth of authenticity that she creates. She is orientalized the Orient. Adela expresses her eagerness to fulfill her fantasy about India implicitly when she states: "I'm tired of seeing picturesque figures pass before me as a frieze," the girl explained. "It was wonderful when we landed, but that superficial glamour soon goes." (API, p. 21) Adela, indeed, does not want to see picturesque figures of India. She is longing to see something different, to seek out the other India that is still unknown to her own fantasy. What is in her mind is her own fantasy of oriental land. Something romantic is what Adela expects to find in India. "This sounds very romantic," said Miss Quested, who was exceedingly fond of Mrs. Moore, and was glad she should have had this little escapade. "You meet a young man in a mosque, and then never let me know!" (API, p. 23). Here, in Adela, it is apparent what is stated that orientalism is a Western fantasy, the occident fantasy. It is important to grasp Saids argument that Western view of

48

the Orient is not based on what is observed to exist in Oriental land but results from Occidents fantasies and assumptions about what this radically different, contrasting place contains. It is not an inert fact of nature (Said, p. 4) but manmade (Said, p. 5). Therefore, Occident imposes upon the Orient specifically Westerns view of its reality. It is also interesting to know what happens to Adela when she is with her fellow Anglo-Indians in the Club. For the first time, as a new comer among the Anglo-Indians, Adela is introduced to the hegemony of the Occident toward the Orient. She became the centre of an amused group of ladies. One said, "Wanting to see Indians! How new that sounds!" Another,Natives! Why, fancy!" A third, more serious, said, "Let me explain. Natives don't respect one any the more after meeting one, you see." "That occurs after so many meetings." But the lady, entirely stupid and friendly, continued: "What I mean is, I was a nurse before my marriage, and came across them a great deal, so I know. I really do know the truth about Indians. A most unsuitable position for any Englishwoman I was a nurse in a Native State. One's only hope was to hold sternly aloof." "Even from one's patients?" "Why, the kindest thing one can do to a native is to let him die," said Mrs. Callendar (API, p.20). Adela Quested is being exposed to occidental hegemony when she is mingles with the English women in the Club. The ladies at the Club are labeled Anglo-Indian as they are in between England and India with English citizenship living in India. It is apparent what the Anglo-Indians think of the Orient. The English women seems to behave cruelly and patronizing toward the Orient population. The Anglo-Indians appear to represent their superiority and there is a sense of prejudice in their utterances. Therefore, the Occident deserves to be treated with disrespect and the Occidents life is not worth rescuing. Seen from the
British Club, the Orient, Indians are fixed. In order to maintain the colonial discourse, they speak and act towards India and Indians as if they already know them. The stereotypical attitude towards Indians legitimizes the British Clubs behavior, even though the Orient does not always behave as expected.

Adela is also introduced to Occident representation of the Orient in a small exchange with Mr. Turton. 49

"I only want those Indians whom you come across sociallyas your friends." "Well, we don't come across them socially," he said, laughing. "They're full of all the virtues, but we don't, and it's now eleven-thirty, and too late to go into the reasons" (API, p. 21) The geniality with which Collector Turton offers to give the "Bridge Party" which is supposedly intended to bridge the gap between nationalities, to satisfy Adela Quested's desire to see Indians is indicative of the courtesy the English tender to their own kind. This serves as a contrast to the lack of courtesy they show to their Indian subjects. Mr. Turtons uneagerness to consider the Orient as friend truly shows the superiority of the Occident over the Orient. Said proposes that Orientalism assumed an unchanging Orient (2004: 96). If the West is considered the place of historical progress and scientific development, then the Orient is deemed remote from the influence of historical change. Adela, as an Occident, also has such view. She is trapped by the sense of prejudice when she thinks that none of the Indian ladies coming to the bridge party speaks English well. Advancing, she shook hands with the group and said a few words of welcome in Urdu. She had learnt the lingo, but only to speak to her servants, so she knew none of the politer forms and of the verbs only the imperative mood. As soon as her speech was over, she enquired of her companions, "Is that what you wanted?" "Please tell these ladies that I wish we could speak their language, but we have only just come to their country." "Perhaps we speak yours a little," one of the ladies said. "Why, fancy, she understands!" said Mrs. Turton. "Eastbourne, Piccadilly, High Park Corner," said another of the ladies. "Oh yes, they're English-speaking." "But now we can talk: how delightful!" cried Adela, her face lighting up. "She knows Paris also," called one of the onlookers (API, p. 33-34). Adela prefers to ask her fellow Anglo-Indian to be the interpreter instead of asking the Indian women directly whether they can speak English or not. And how delightful Adela is when she finds out that those Indian women can speak English. This accident truly shows the fact how Adela thinks that the Orient exists as timeless people, changeless and static, cut off from the progress of Western history. Implicitly, Adela acts and thinks as an Occident travelling to an Oriental land that is not just moving in space from one location to the other, but potentially she is also travelling back in time to an earlier world where the indigenous people

50

cannot speak other language but their own. Conceived this way, Adela considers the Orient primitive and backward. Adela Quested, as the Occident, wants to interpret India from her own perspective. Eurocentric prejudice against the Orientals very often tends to misrepresent the Orient and it is formed and shaped in the way the Occident thinks of it. Edward Said has justly identified the colonial and imperial ambitions of the Europeans and the Americans and criticized how they produce the romanticized images of Orient as a subject for the practice of hoodwink. In his book Orientalism (1978) Said has marked the Western mindset about the East as Orientalism and says how he got it. In his words, As a cultural apparatus Orientalism is all aggressive, activity, judgment, will-to-truth, and knowledge (Orientalism, p. 204). Hence, Adela Quested comes to see the real India. She is very enthusiastic to see and visit the hill and Marabar cave. These hills look romantic in certain lights and at suitable distances, and seen of an evening from the upper verandah of the club they caused Miss Quested to say conversationally to Miss Derek that she should like to have gone, that Dr. Aziz at Mr. Fielding's had said he would arrange something, and that Indians seem rather forgetful (API, p. 111). The hill looks romantic in Adelas view. It is Adelas judgment that the hill looks romantic and at the same time it is her will-to-truth that the hill is romantic so that it is worth visiting and exploring. Adela Quested sees those hills through the need for something picturesque, reducing their power and Otherness. In fact, real India is the image of India that Adela, as an Occident, produces and imposes upon the Indians. She wants to see good India whose image she has already created in her mind and is determined not to compromise with anything else. The real Oriental landscape Adela fails to think is actually described in the story. This India is remote, ancient and unknowable, a Himalayan India becoming covered by the newer lands (API, p. 109). There is something unspeakable in these outposts. They are like nothing else in the world, and a glimpse of them makes the breath catch. They rise abruptly, insanely, without the proportion that it kept by the wildest hills or elsewhere, they

51

bear no relation to anything dreamt or seen. To call them uncanny suggests ghosts, and they are older than all spirit (API, p. 109) Inside these ancient hills, disguised now by the veneer of The Oriental landscape, lie the Marabar caves, which will confront Adela on their trip to see the real India. Adela Quested wanted to see the real India but does not obviously know what the real India means. Whatever things here she attempts to see, it is marred by her reaction in the cave. On her arrival at the Marabar caves, and in her agitated emotional state, Adela is no longer able to contain this real India, and the overwhelming of her senses leads to an abandonment of her wish to see India, replaced with a fear of something threatening, something which has attacked her. This cave accident proves that Adela has made a mistake representation of the Orient. It is due to the fact that the real Orient is not similar to what she has imagined. In this part, Adela gets hallucinations in which she imagines that Aziz has
tried to rape her that shows loss of faith, mutual trust and disrespect towards the Indians.

"What is the charge, precisely?" "That he followed her into the cave and made insulting advances. She hit at him with her field-glasses; he pulled at them and the strap broke, and that is how she got away. When we searched him just now, they were in his pocket." (API, p. 148) Adela has indicted Dr. Aziz for rape which is later on the trial she is not sure about her own indictment. Adela, as an Occident, certainly has made a representation of the Orient based on her fantasy. The Occident representation to the Orient as portrayed through what Adela does to Dr. Aziz has fulfilled Saids description when he states that in orientalism the representation of the Occident to the Orient is that .Orientals are inveterate liars, they are lethargic and suspicious, and in everything oppose the clarity, directness, and nobility of the Anglo-Saxon race ( 1978: 39). Therefore, it is fair enough for Adela to accuse Dr. Aziz because as the Orient he deserves it.

52

2.

Mrs. Moore

Mrs. Moore, an Occident visiting the oriental land, also desires to see India. "We aren't even seeing the other side of the world; that's our complaint," said Adela. Mrs. Moore agreed; she too was disappointed at the dullness of their new life. They had made such a romantic voyage across the Mediterranean and through the sands of Egypt to the harbour of Bombay, to find only a gridiron of bungalows at the end of it. But she did not take the disappointment as seriously as Miss Quested, for the reason that she was forty years older, and had learnt that Life never gives us what we want at the moment that we consider appropriate. Adventures do occur, but not punctually. She said again that she hoped that something interesting would be arranged for next Tuesday (API, p. 18). Mrs. Moore is also longing to see the other side of the world. It is in her mind that Orient is considered as the other. She truly expects that the Orient can ease her dullness. She expects something interesting that can amuse her curiosity as an Occident over the Orient seen as an object. An object that is considered to have certain quality to fulfill her fantasy of having romantic experience. It is her desire to go traveling and have such new experience in a remote oriental land as it is stated by Said. But one big division, as between West and Orient, leads to other smaller ones, especially as the normal enterprises of civilization provoke such outgoing activities as travel, conquest and new experiences (1978: 58). On her arrival, Mrs. Moore has encountered the first Oriental place, a mosque. It is her representation to the Orient that she has to be polite and adapt the way Orient does. "Madam, this is a mosque, you have no right here at all; you should have taken off your shoes; this is a holy place for Moslems." "I have taken them off." "You have?" "I left them at the entrance." "Then I ask your pardon." Still startled, the woman moved out, keeping the ablution-tank between them. He called after her, "I am truly sorry for speaking." "Yes, I was right, was I not? If I remove my shoes, I am allowed?"

53

"Of course, but so few ladies take the trouble, especially if thinking no one is there to see." "That makes no difference. God is here." (API, p. 14) It is Mrs. Moore representation to the Orient that she has to take of the shoes before entering the mosque. It is also in her mind that the oriental holy place is as sacred as other holy grounds. Another representation to the Orient portrayed by Mrs. Moore is that the Orient is also human deserving to be respected for religious reason. "I'm going to argue, and indeed dictate," she said, clinking her rings. "The English are out here to be pleasant." "How do you make that out, mother?" he asked, speaking gently again, for he was ashamed of his irritability. "Because India is part of the earth. And God has put us on the earth in order to be pleasant to each other. God . . . is . . . love." She hesitated, seeing how much he disliked the argument, but something made her go on. "God has put us on earth to love our neighbours and to show it, and He is omnipresent, even in India, to see how we are succeeding." (API, p. 41) The representation of Occident to the Orient showed by Mrs. Moores argument is that the Orient is as valuable as the Occident. According to Mrs. Moore, Orient and Occident belong to the same world. Therefore, there is no reason to hate and disrespect each other. Moreover, Mrs. Moore believes that that it is Gods order to love each other and to show the love for others because God represents love. In fact, God is love. In a manner of speaking, the Orient should be loved and it is also the duty of the Occident to love and respect the Orient. Since the Orient and the Occident live on the same earth, Mr. Moore also has strong faith that God is there between the Orient and the Occident. Mr. Moore keeps on believing that God is present everywhere. Although God is not totally immersed in the fabric of creation, He is present everywhere at all times. In Mrs. Moores mind, God's presence is continuous throughout all of creation including the Orient and the Occident, though it may not be revealed in the same way at the same time to people everywhere. At times, He may be actively present in a situation, while He may not reveal that He is present in another circumstance in some other area. Omnipresence is God's characteristic of being present to all ranges of both time and space. Although God is present in all time and space, God is not locally limited to any time or space. God is everywhere

54

and in every now. Therefore, Mrs. Moore keeps on insisting that God is also among the Indian natives, the Orient. Moreover, Mrs. Moore considers that there will always be possibility for the Orient to be treated well by both the Orient and the Occident. "One knows people's characters, as you call them," she retorted disdainfully, as if she really knew more than character but could not impart it. "I have heard both English and Indians speak well of him, and I felt it isn't the sort of thing he would do (API, p. 182). Mrs. Moore keeps on thinking that one cannot be judged from his nationality. It is the character and attitude that become the basis of judgment. It is hard for Mrs. Moore to believe that Dr. Aziz has committed such crime as it is accused by Adela. Mrs. Moore does not think of Dr. Azizs attitude merely from the fact that he is an Orient but Mrs. Moores judgment is based on what people think of Dr. Aziz. It is Mrs. Moore representation to the Orient that one should not always think of the Orient as a criminal.
3. Colonel Ronny Heaslop

Ronny Heaslop is the typical Occident influenced by power, prestige, and a set pattern of behavior. These traits make it easy for him to be led into the Turton -Callendar - McBryde camp, for they represent to Ronny the peak of social and political prestige. Ronny is the epitome of the class-conscious Englishman. He does not judge on the basis of merit, but rather by position on the social ladder. As a result of his training, he cannot countenance, or understand, anyone who questions these standards, the standards of the Orient. Ronnys first description of the Orient is portrayed in his argument with Mrs. Moore, hid mother. But Ronny was ruffled. From his mother's description he had thought the doctor might be young Muggins from over the Ganges, and had brought out all the cornradely emotions. What a mix-up! Why hadn't she indicated by the tone of her voice that she was talking about an Indian? Scratchy and dictatorial, he began to question her. "He called to you in the mosque, did he? How? Impudently? What was he doing there himself at that time of night?--No, it's not their prayer time."-- This in answer to a suggestion of Miss Quested's, who showed the keenest interest.

55

"So he called to you over your shoes. Then it was impudence. It's an old trick. I wish you had had them on (API, p. 24)."
Ronny is suspicious of Dr. Aziz whom Mrs. Moore met in the mosque. It is fair and logical for Ronny to be suspicious of Dr. Aziz because Ronny thinks that it is not the right time for a Moslem Orient to go to the mosque. Ronny acts as if He knows well about Moslem ritual. Moreover, Ronny thinks that what Dr. Aziz has done by calling Mrs. Moore is truly impolite manner to do. For the Occident, The Orient is tricky and suspicious. The same description of the Orient presented by Ronny can also be seen in what Ronny utters.

But whether the native swaggers or cringes, there's always something behind every remark he makes, always something, and if nothing else he's trying to increase his izzat--in plain Anglo-Saxon, to score. Of course there are exceptions (API, p. 26)." In Ronnys mind, Orientals are fond of arranging secret planning of something illicit or detrimental to someone. There will always be something hidden by the Orientals. That is Ronnys description of the Orient in accordance with what Said proposes. Orientals or Arabs are thereafter shown to be gullible, devoid of energy and initiative, much given to fulsome flattery, intrigue, cunning, and unkindness to animals (1979, p. 38). Ronny also believes that education does not do any good for the Orient. Even though there are many educated orient and yet they cannot produce anything but to complaint. Assured of her approbation, Ronny continued: "The educated Indians will be no good to us if there's a row; it's simply not worth while conciliating them, that's why they don't matter. Most of the people you see are seditious at heart, and the restd run squealing (PTI, p. 31). Ronnys mind is full of prejudice whenever he talks about Orient. He realized that there are many well educated Orient, but it does not do any good for them. Ronny still thinks that education does not make Orientals turn to be good and decent people. Looking at India from the perspective of an Orient, Ronny is eager to expose the Orient pretentious claim of superiority over the Indians. Such exposure

56

is clearly dramatized in the confrontation between Mrs. Moore and Ronny, the city Magistrate. "We're not out here for the purpose of behaving pleasantly!" "What do you mean?" "What I say. We're out here to do justice and keep the peace. Them's my sentiments. India isn't a drawing room." "Your sentiments are those of a god," she said quietly, but it was his manner rather than his sentiments that annoyed her. Trying to recover his temper, he said, "India likes gods." "And Englishmen like posing as gods." "There's no point in all this. Here we are, and we're going to stop, and the country's got to put up with us, gods or no gods. Oh, look here," he broke out, rather pathetically, "what do you and Adela want me to do? Go against my class, against all the people I respect and admire out here? Lose such power as I have for doing good in this country because my behaviour isn't pleasant? You neither of you understand what work is, or you 'ld never talk such eyewash (API, p. 41) For Ronny, to keep India under British control is necessary; India needs to be ruled, because, as he puts it: "India likes [Anglo-Indian] Gods" to be there "to do justice and keep peace". In elevating the Anglo-Indian to the image of "Gods," an image evocative of positive qualities such as justice, wisdom, perfection, and power, Ronny is creating a hierarchy for the two cultures, that is, this elevation simultaneously debases the Orient for its incapacity for self-government, an incapacity often associated with infantility and immaturity. Seen as a "baby" country, the oriental India thus needs a mature adult to take care of her, to make decisions for her, and above all, to claim sovereignty over her. In turn, Ronny's remarks suggest the Indians' flattering attitude toward the Occident. It is the Occidents duty to act as the ruling class and treat the Orient as the ruled class where the ruling class takes the dominant role to be models for the ruled class for the sake of the ruling class interest. Ronnys evocations of power represent a sense of omnipotence among the Anglo-Indians whose minds had elevated themselves to the level of gods. When Ronny says to Mrs. Moore and Adela that to the Orient they were like gods, his belief places him among typical Occident puff with superiority complex. His declaration represents the attitude of the British government whose mission was to apply force only, not to show sympathy. Ronnys description of the Orient is

57

merely the ruled class that needs guidance. The relationship between Occident and Orient is merely the relationship of power as stated by Said that t he relationship
between Occident and Orient is a relationship of power, of domination, of varying degree of a complex hegemony( 1979: 5). Therefore, Ronny thinks that it becomes his personal duty to rule the Orient. He clearly says,

I am out here to work, mind, to hold this wretched country by force. I'm not a missionary or a Labour Member or a vague sentimental sympathetic literary man. I'm just a servant of the Government; it's the profession you wanted me to choose myself, and that's that. We're not pleasant in India, and we don't intend to be pleasant. We've something more important to do." (PTI, p. 41). Ronny simply wants to fulfill his duty as a British officer. It is his main concern to serve the Government by ruling the Orient. It is his profession to have authority over the Orient. There is nothing wrong with that because he is only doing what he has to do for the sake of his career. And indeed, Orient is a career, as stated by Said.
I study it here deals principally, not with a correspondence between Orientalism and orient, but with the internal consistency of Orientalism and its ideas about the Orient (the East as career) despite or beyond any correspondence, or lack thereof, with a real Orient (1979: 5). Therefore, as an Occident, Ronny keeps on thinking that Orient is nothing but the object of his career. It is an object that should be ruled and having no authority over him. The Orient should be mastered because the master in this case is the Occident. As a master, it will not be decent to get close to the one being mastered. This description of Orient is indirectly stated when Ronny witnesses Adela among the Orient. WellIm the sun-dried bureaucrat, no doubt; still, I dont like to see an English girl left smoking with two Indians. (API, p. 66) Indians are the Orient ruled by the Occident. It will not be a decent deed to socialize with the ones being ruled. Moreover, the Oriental people do not deserve to get along with the Occident. Ronny does not like to see Adela, an Occident, among the Orient. As it is proposed by Said that Orientals are inveterate liars, they are lethargic and suspicious, and in everything oppose the clarity, directness, and nobility of the Anglo-Saxon race (API, p. 39).

58

Since Orientals are liar and suspicious, Ronny has strong belief that Dr. Aziz is dangerous. For Ronny, Oriental cannot be trusted. There is no logical reason for the Occident to think that Orient is trustworthy.

"I thought she would want to give it. No one blames you, mother, but the fact remains that you dropped off at the first cave, and encouraged Adela to go on with him alone, whereas if you'd been well enough to keep on too nothing would have happened. He planned it, I know. Still, you fell into his trap just like Fielding and Antony before you. . . . (API, p. 178). Ronny is convinced that what happened in Marabar caves is Dr. Azizs fault. Dr. Aziz is an Orient, therefore, he is the one everybody just cannot believe in. Ronnys description of the Orient is still the same, that is, the Orient is the one to be blame on.
3. Mr. Cyril Fielding

Fielding, though resentful of officialism, shows his inability to envision a non - co lonized cultural location for the Orient. Fielding representation to the Orient can be best seen in the sincerity with which he tries to befriend Aziz, an attempt which is both unconventional and challenging during this historical period. Their friendship is further developed when Fielding flouts conventions to visit Aziz during the latter's ailment and culminates in their allied defense of Aziz's innocence in the trial scene. But there is also a fact that it is difficult for Fielding to get rid of his existence as an Orient in nature. For example, faced with Hamidullah's poignant question, "How is England justified in holding India?" (p. 96), Fielding first mocks the political texture of the question, only to admit: "It's a question I can't get my mind on to. . . . I 'm out here personally because I needed a job. I cannot tell you why England is here or whether she ought to be here (p. 96). However, as the narrator tells us, Fielding does have an answer: There is only one answer to a conversation of this type: "England holds India for her good." Yet Fielding was disinclined to give it. The zeal for honesty had eaten him up. He said, "I'm delighted to be here too--that's my answer, there's my only excuse. I can't tell you anything about fairness. It mayn't have been fair I should have been born (API, p. 96) That is an answer he cannot express. And when further confronted with Hamidullah's question of how an English worker is justified when Indians also 59

need work, Fielding is forced to come up with his own logic of fairness, which goes something like this: there is no such thing as fairness; for example, it might not have been fair that Fielding should have been born, because in coming into life he takes other people's air. Thus, he concludes that if one is happy in consequence, that is enough justification. Following Fielding's logic, then, the Occident occupation of Orient is finally justified: England is there just as a newborn baby is there to take some of oriental air, and no one should blame the newborn for breathing other people's air. Fielding simply desires to replace the hostile official rule with the friendlier personal rule, a replacement that does not call for the dissolution of the Empire itself. In a manner of speaking, Fielding wants to say that the Orient rules the Occident for the sake of the orients interest. It is difficult for Fielding to be an Orient because he is not an Indian native. He is an Anglo-Indian who sympathizes the Orient. "If I may venture to say so, no," said Fielding, also going white, but sticking to his point. "I make no reflection on the good faith of the two ladies, but the charge they are bringing against Aziz rests upon some mistake, and five minutes will clear it up. The man's manner is perfectly natural; besides, I know him to be incapable of infamy. (API, p. 145) Fielding believes that Dr. Aziz is innocent. It is hard for Fielding to think that Dr. Aziz is capable of doing such crime accused. It is due to the fact that Fielding knows much about Dr. Aziz and there is no prejudice in Fieldings heart. Dealing Adela's supposed assault that becomes an excuse for the British officials to exercise authority over their oriental subjects with Aziz as the "example." Feelings that have smoldered between the two nationalities suddenly burst into flame. Fielding shows the strength of mob psychology when emotions that have been held in check have something to feed upon. Because Fielding always thinks first of the individual, and because he knows Aziz is incapable of the crime of which he is accused, he feels he must defend Aziz; his stand earns him the hatred of his countrymen. The subaltern called, "Stand up, you swine." "Mr. Fielding, what has prevented you from standing up?" said the Collector, entering the fray at last. It was the attack for which Fielding had waited, and to which he must reply. "May I make a statement, sir?" "Certainly." 60

Seasoned and self-contained, devoid of the fervours of nationality or youth, the schoolmaster did what was for him a comparatively easy thing. He stood up and said, "I believe Dr. Aziz to be innocent." "You have a right to hold that opinion if you choose, but pray is that any reason why you should insult Mr. Heaslop?" "May I conclude my statement?" Certainly.'' "I am waiting for the verdict of the courts. If he is guilty I resign from my service, and leave India. I resign from the club now." (API, p. 167-8) Fielding has made up his mind to defense Dr. Aziz. He is brave enough to risk his career and his social life as an Occident in an oriental land. Fielding believes in his judgment that Dr. Aziz is innocent and at the same time he is eager to follow the rule of the law so that he will wait the verdict of the trial. Seen from what Fielding says and does it can be concluded that basically Fielding describes Dr. Aziz, an orient, based on his feeling as a friend of an orient. The feeling which is not based on prejudice and the mind that is free from the hegemonic thought. As cited by Ritzer and Goodman, Gramsci defines Hegemony as cultural leadership exercised by the ruling class (2004:136). British government is the ruling class that exercises cultural leadership in oriental land. As part of the ruling class society, Fielding does not want to be influenced by stating that Dr. Aziz is guilty and yet the trial has never give the verdict. It is the ideology of colonialism that makes such hegemony exists.
4. The Turtons and the McBrydes

Mrs. Turton is haughtier than her husband. She relegates all Indians to the servant class. She intends to preserve as much of England in Chandrapore as possible and to allow as little encroachment of India into her society as she can. In order to legitimize their colonizing India, not legally obtained, the Occident set up a degenerated image of the Orientals partly through imagination or misunderstanding. The new coming British people in India are injected such notion by the early comers. Mrs. Turton tries to convince Mrs. Moore: Don't forget that. You're superior to everyone in India except one or two of the Ranis, and they're on an equality (API, p. 33).

61

What Mrs. Turton utters indicates that she typifies the "official Englishwoman." She is the acknowledged leader of the British social class system. As an Occident, she considers herself superior to the Orient, even to those who surpass her in knowledge. Here, one can directly notice how Mrs. Turton describes the Orientals. Superiority is the status attached to the Occident. There is a simple thought in Mrs. Turtons mind that a line is drawn between two continents. Occident is powerful and articulate whereas Orient is defeated and distant. Mrs. Turtons description of the Orient is similar to what is stated by Said that, There are Westerners, and there are Orientals. The former dominate; the latter must be dominated, which usually means having their land occupied, their internal affairs rigidly controlled, their blood and treasure put at the disposal of one or another Western power (1979: 36). Typical Occident representation to the Orient can also be depicted through the attitude of McBryde, the District Superintendent of Police, who, though shocked at Azizs predicament, cannot but pour forth his disgust in these lines, Mr. McBryde was shocked at his downfall, but no Indian ever surprised him, because he had a theory about climatic zones. The theory ran: "All unfortunate natives are criminals at heart, for the simple reason that they live south of latitude 30. They are not to blame, they have not a dog's chance--we should be like them if we settled here." (API, p. 148) Mr. McBryde feels that Aziz pretends to be a respectable member of society, getting a Government position, while in reality he is leading a double life. His negative way of life takes over his respectable self. In McBrydes opinion, Aziz behaves cruelly and brutally to an English lady and cannot be forgiven. The policeman is quick to blame the Orient as all the Occident did. For the Occident, the Oriental people are nothing but criminal. They were born to be the criminal. He has also formed a philosophy that is saturated with prejudice. His speech is an exposure of a harsh judgment in which the dominating Occident is proud of labeling the Orient with all sorts of pejorative expressions. All the hatred, grudge and negligence of Orientals produce a discourse through which the Occident labels the oriental people as inferiors. In fact, the discourse

62

that they produced was used as a powerful weapon to label, rule, and persecute the Orientals. This intellectual discourse, of course, is Orientalism. Actually it is the projection of the colonial power in politics, culture, and thought. As it is proposed by Foucault, the term discourse is defined as a group of statements which provide a language for talking about a way of representing the knowledge about a particular topic at a particular historical moment (1972: 143). Here, McBryde, as an Occident, states his own theory to label the Orient and deliver certain knowledge to project the colonial power over the Orient. Moreover, based on McBrydes description of the Orient, It can be seen that the Occident does not consider the Orient as an individual. Said describes the way the Occident counts the Orient as follows, .. the non-European known to Europeans is precisely what Orwell say about him. He is either a figure of fun or an atom in a vast collectivity designed in ordinary or cultivated discourse as an undifferentiated type called Oriental (1979: 252). The Orient is not considered as human having different identity. For the Occident, the Orient is nothing but a bunch of object having no individual name. The Orient is treated as subhuman. The oriental people are merely a kind of undifferentiated brown stuff, about as individual as bees or insect. They arise out of the earth. They sweat and starve for a few years and they sink back into the nameless mounds of nowhere and nobody notices that they are gone. Therefore, McBryde does not name the Orient because as subhuman the Orient is nameless. McBryde, while presenting Azizs crime, makes a strict racial comment generalizing the common tendency of the Orientals as Oriental Pathology, Here Mr. McBryde paused. He wanted to keep the proceedings as clean as possible, but Oriental Pathology, his favourite theme, lay around him, and he could not resist it. Taking off his spectacles, as was his habit before enunciating a general truth, he looked into them sadly, and remarked that the darker races are physically attracted by the fairer, but not _vice versa_--not a matter for bitterness this, not a matter for abuse, but just a fact which any scientific observer will confirm (API, p. 194). Another description of Orient is delivered by McBryde. He considers that the Orientals are attracted to the Occident and it is a matter of fact. It has already the nature of the Orient. McBryde description is generalization based on what he

63

calls scientific fact. Indeed it is the occidental knowledge to label the Orient. Similarly, Said states, Taking the late eighteenth century as a very roughly defined starting point Orientalism can be discussed and analyzed as the corporate institution for dealing with the Orient-dealing with it by making statements about it, authorizing views of it, describing it, by teaching it, settling it, ruling over it: in short, Orientalism as a Western style for dominating, restructuring, and having authority over the Orient (1979: 3). McBryde has presented his statement dealing with Oriental in his case. The statement he calls Oriental Pathology. It aims to describe the nature of Orient in relation to the pathological phenomenon. The statement proposed has dominated the way of thinking in which giving the authority that Orientals are fond of the Occident having brighter skin. He is trying to rule it over in order to win his case. The case whose victim is an Occident and the accused is an Oriental. And again, the description of the orient presented by McBryde is that the Orient has great tendency to be criminal by nature. B. Orient representations of the Occident being portrayed in E.M. Forsters A Passage to India 1. Dr. Aziz Dr. Aziz is a skilled surgeon and a well-educated, intelligent Indian doctor. As an Orient, his first impression to see an Occident is somehow still covered by a prejudice. It happens when Dr. Aziz meet Mrs. Moore at the mosque. "Madam, this is a mosque, you have no right here at all; you should have taken off your shoes; this is a holy place for Moslems." "I have taken them off." "You have?" "I left them at the entrance." "Then I ask your pardon." (API, p. 14) Seen from the accident, it cannot be denied that Azizs description of the Occident is still based on a stereotype that an Occident does not know how to

64

behave in Moslem holy place. Even though later Dr. Aziz find out that Mrs. Moore has already taken off her shoes. Another description of Occident presented by Dr. Aziz can be seen when he is a bit insulted by what Fielding has done. Dr. Aziz is an Indian intellectual, as an educated orient, he also tries to be civilized just the way the Westerners do. He also knows about art and therefore is interested in having such conversation about it with Adela. "Post Impressionism, indeed! Come along to tea. This world is getting too much for me altogether." Aziz was offended. The remark suggested that he, an obscure Indian, had no right to have heard of Post Impressionism--a privilege reserved for the Ruling Race, that. He said stiffly, "I do not consider Mrs. Moore my friend, I only met her accidentally in my mosque," and was adding "a single meeting is too short to make a friend," (API, p. 56) Because of being offended, Dr. Aziz has an opinion that the ruling race, the Occident does not want to give a chance to the Orient to be civilized. Dr. Aziz thinks that the Occident has underestimated the ability of the Orient. The knowledge of art and culture is only the privilege kept by the Occident and the Occident think that the Orient is too stupid to learn and discuss about that matter. Being arrogant is what Dr. Azizs description of the Occident. And Dr. Azizs description is the antithesis of the Occidents description of the Orient in which it is stated that, The entire periods of the Orients cultural, political, and society history are considered mere responses to the West. The West is the actor, the Orient a passive reactor. The West is the spectator, the Judge and jury, of every facet of Oriental behavior (Said, p. 109). It means that as an Orient, Dr. Aziz is not allowed to determine what is read and learned. It is not the capacity of an orient to start anything. The leader should be the Occident. When the Occident does not give a chance to the Orient to discus something it means that the Orient should keep silent. Therefore, Dr. Aziz feels insulted because of the above description of the Orient performed by the Occident.

65

Dr. Aziz also thinks that there is something wrong with the Occident when they are in the oriental land. When the occidentals are living in the Oriental land, then it is hard for them to be friendly with the Orient. "How do you like Englishwomen generally?" "Hamidullah liked them in England. Here we never look at them. Oh no, much too careful. Let's talk of something else." "Hamidullah's right: they are much nicer in England. There's something that doesn't suit them out here." (API, 102) Dr. Aziz agrees to what Hamidullah said. When Indians live in England, they can be extremely close to and respected by the English. Yet the Indians cannot return this hospitality when these Occidentals move to India. The AngloIndians would already have influenced these fellow Englishmen to put a stop to such friendships. The relationship between the Occident and the Orient in oriental land is nothing but the relation of power. As it is described by Said that, The relationship between Occident and Orient is a relationship of power, of domination, of varying degrees of a complex hegemony(1979: 5). There is indeed something does not suit the Occident because the relationship is determined by an unstoppable Occidental expansion in search of markets, resources, and colonies, and finally, because Orientalism had accomplished its self-changing from an intellectual discourse to an imperial institution. It is difficult for the ruling class to be the friend of the ruled class, the Orient. Dr. Azizs description of the Occident dealing with the peculiar attitude of the Occident in oriental land is such a foreshadowing of Dr. Azizs final description of the Occident. Dr. Azizs description of the Occident is getting worse when Adela addresses a shocking question. The question that is considered very sensitive by Dr. Aziz. And having no one else to speak to on that eternal rock, she gave rein to the subject of marriage and said in her honest, decent, inquisitive way: "Have you one wife or more than one?" The question shocked the young man very much. It challenged a new conviction of his community, and new convictions are more sensitive than old. If she had said, "Do you worship one god or several?" he would not have objected. But to

66

ask an educated Indian Moslem how many wives he has-appalling, hideous! He was in trouble how to conceal his confusion. "One, one in my own particular case," he sputtered, and let go of her hand. Quite a number of caves were at the top of the track, and thinking, "Damn the English even at their best," he plunged into one of them to recover his balance (API, 136). The question dealing with how many wife Dr. Aziz have truly insults his personal feeling. Dr. Aziz suddenly thinks that there is a strong prejudice behind that question. It is the prejudice of an Occident that considers the Orient as a savage because of having more than one wife. It deals with a conviction that differentiates between the Occident and the Orient. The last conversation in the book is between Fielding and Aziz and takes place on their last ride at the Mau jungles (API, p. 286). They are friends once again, yet they have to bear in mind that they will no longer meet. All the misunderstandings have been sorted out between them and yet they can no longer socialise. The Orient and the Occident differences, and personal misunderstandings, separate them. Also, once married to an English lady, Fielding will withdraw into the English way of thinking, like all the rest before him. He will no longer be ready to defy his fellow countrymen for the sake of an Orient. Indeed, Fielding is already, at this point, feeling surprised at his past heroism. A great part of this conversation is dedicated to politics. Fielding and Aziz have trusted each other and this could be partly because they are going to go their separate ways. Fielding is of the opinion that once the Occident withdraw from India, then the Orient will decline. Fielding begins to mock Aziz. Aziz, who gets very excited in this conversation, argues that the Indians had been very keen to have the British colonists up to ten years ago, but that now it was too late. The only reason that the Indians tolerate the British is for political reasons. Towards the very end of the novel Aziz blurts out, .And Aziz in an awful rage danced this way and that, not knowing what to do, and cried: "Down with the English anyhow. That's certain. Clear out, you fellows, double quick, I say. We may hate one another, but we hate you most. If I don't make you go, Ahrned will, Karim will, if it's fifty-five hundred years we shall get rid of you, yes, we shall drive every blasted Englishman into the sea, and then "-he rode against him furiously-- "and then," he concluded, half kissing him, "you and I shall be friends." 67

"Why can't we be friends now?" said the other, holding him affectionately. "It's what I want. It's what you want." (API, p. 2878) In these last sentences, Aziz explains that he and Fielding cannot be friends until India is independent and free of the British. Yet it might be possible at the right time. However, the circumstances do not allow it, surroundings do not want it, at least not yet. Likewise, no other Englishman or Indian can be friends until India obtains independence. The last two words in the book are uttered by Aziz, Not yet (API, p. 288). It is Dr. Aziz representation to the Occident. As an Orient, he cannot undergo a relationship based on power. It is enough for Dr. Aziz to deal with the Occident.

2. Professor Narayan Godbole

Prof. Narayan Godbole is an elderly Hindu of the Brahmin caste. He is an Orient who does not have any prejudice to both Occident and his fellow Orientals. His first description of the Occident can be seen in his sentences as follows, "Visitors like you are too rare." "They are indeed," said Professor Godbole. "Such affability is seldom seen. But what can we offer to detain them? " (API, p. 62) Prof. Godbole utterances are addressed to Adela and Mrs. Moore on their first meeting with him. There is neither prejudice nor negative presumption uttered. This understanding conforms with the tenets embraced by Godbole, for whom good and evil are different, as their names imply. But . . . they are both of them aspects of my Lord. He is present in the one absent in the other . . . Yet absence implies presence, absence is not non-existence (API, p. 186). But it is the Jain tradition, which unlike Islam and Hinduism has no sentient protagonists in the book. Prof. Godbole believes in a construction in which nothing has value. Everything exists, nothing has value (API, p. 160), a gnomic phrase compressing the Jain recognition of the physical world as abundantly corporeal and verifiable, and its assignment of merit to detachment from all things secular. It is his belief that makes him absence of describing both Orient and Occident.

68

Prof. Godbole also believes that he has no reason to make moral judgment over anybody or anything because he has tried to place himself in the position of others by giving sympathy and also to place himself in the position of God so that he can always love others. What he can do to other people is nothing but to invite them in the sense of loving and being loved. He was a Brahman, she Christian, but it made no difference, it made no difference whether she was a trick of his memory or a telepathic appeal. It was his duty, as it was his desire, to place himself in the position of the God and to love her, and to place himself in her position and to say to the God, "Come, come, come, come." This was all he could do. How inadequate! But each according to his own capacities, and he knew that his own were small. "One old Englishwoman and one little, little wasp," he thought, as he stepped out of the temple into the grey of a pouring wet morning. "It does not seem much, still it is more than I am myself." (PTI, p. 259)

C. Cultural conflicts between the Occident and the Orient in E.M. Forsters A Passage to India Based on the analysis of the Occidents description of the Orient and vice versa, this subchapter intends to present the possible cultural conflicts undergone by both the Occident and the Orient in A Passage to India. 1. The Conflict between Colonel Ronny Heaslop and Dr. Aziz Aziz and Ronny Heaslop rarely meet during the course of the story but both these representation of the Orient and the Occident are undergoing cultural conflict deeply. It is stated by Rummel that conflict is a balancing of vectors of powers, of capabilities to produce effects (1976: 48). Both Aziz and Ronny are the vectors of power and involve in conflict-situation. It is the situation that makes those two vectors in conflict. The conflict between them is essentially caused by different culture they belong. The term culture here does not merely cover language, dress, and food customs because it may also deals with race, nationality,

69

and political and religious affiliation -- to name only a few (Hall, 1976: 21). Dealing with Ronny and Aziz, the conflict between them is due to two causal factors. The first causal factor is nationality and the second one is political affiliation. From the very beginning, Ronny has very reason to hate Aziz. The way he addresses Aziz by using the words Mohammedan and young Muggins from over the Ganges indicates certain sense hatred. The way Ronny treats her mother after knowing the meeting between Mrs. Moore and Aziz also indicate that Ronny dislikes Aziz. The fact that Ronny has different nationality from Aziz is the first essential causal factor for Ronny to hate Aziz. Born to be British and happened to be Anglo-Indian makes Ronny think that Aziz does not deserve his respect. Occident is more superior compared to Orient. Ronny, as British, feels that it is vital for him to stick to the unwritten rules on how he behaves towards the locals, the Orientals. These unwritten rules, which the Orientals are bound to follow in their relations with the Occident, safeguard the interests of the Occident, making them the white superiors. Any modification of these rules would risk the whole system. As the city Magistrate, it is Ronnys duty to keep the town in order. It is the duty of Occident to rule the Orient. And the ruler does not socialize with the ruled. There should not be mutual understanding between the ruling class and the ruled class. Ronny as a British feels that it vital for him to stick to the unwritten rules on how he behaves towards the locals, the Orientals. These unwritten rules, which the Orientals are bound to follow in their relations with the Occident, safeguard the interests of the Occident, making them the white superiors. Any modification of these rules would risk the whole system. Ronny does not take the conflict personally. He is just undergoing it for the sake of his duty as government officer. Ronny is creating a hierarchy for the two cultures; that is, this elevation simultaneously debases India for its incapacity for self-government, an incapacity often associated with infantility and immaturity The same situation also happens to Dr. Aziz. He does not take the conflict personally because as an individual he does not get along often with Ronny. It is the nationality and political affiliation that should make him to be in conflict with

70

Ronny. As a Muslim Indian native, Aziz is responsible for asking what a female Anglo-Indian does in the mosque in the night. That is such responsibility that Ronny fails to understand because of having different nationality. Political affiliation also forces Aziz to be in a conflict-situation with Ronny. As an Orient, Aziz is well aware that his political as well as social status is only as subhuman. The Occidentals intends to rule the Oriental because they think that that is the best way to keep the Orient in good order. On the contrary, as part of the Oriental society, Aziz also believes that the orient has every right to rule his own land. Aziz does not want the Occident consider that India is seen as a "baby" country, India thus does not need a mature adult to take care of her, to make decisions for her, and above all, to claim sovereignty over her. India can be an independent nation. It is this conflicting situation that makes both Ronny and Aziz to be in a bigger scope of conflict. 2. The Conflict between Adela Quested and Dr. Aziz Rummel states that conflict is the pushing and pulling, the giving and taking, the process of finding the balance between powers (1976: 48). This kind of conflict happens to Adela Quested and Dr. Aziz. Adela and Aziz undergo a conflict because of cultural misunderstanding. The conflict they undergo has brought tremendous effect on both of them. As an Occident, Adela has had false presumption that it is a common deed for the Muslim Indian native to have four wives. It is such presumption that comes from the Occidents representation of the Orient addressed by her fellow AngloIndian. The conflict happens when Adela asks the question about how many wife Aziz has. It is a simple question based on a curiosity of an Occident who wants to know more about the real India. That simple question turns to be not as simple as it is supposed to be when Aziz in truly insulted because of that question. The cultural different has made both Aziz and Adela, as the vectors of powers fail to understand each other. When Adela pushes that question then Aziz pulls himself to be an Orient. The Orient that believes such question is an insult and addressed based on occidental prejudice.

71

The process of balancing between the conflicting powers is getting worse when Adela undergoes severe hallucination due to the cave interior environment. Adela presumption on the Orient has made her accuse accuses Aziz of attempting to assault her sexually in the cave. The result of the conflict is Azizs trial of being accused as a criminal. Eventhough Adela, at last, withdraws the accusation but still the effect of conflict cannot be cured for both of them.

CHAPTER V CONCLUSION Based on the analysis conducted in the previous chapter, the conclusion is presented in this last chapter. The conclusion drawn covers the Orients description on the Occident, the Occidents description on the Orient and the cultural conflicts between the Occident and the Orient. There are two characters representing the Orient, namely Dr. Aziz and Prof. Narayan Godbole. Dr. Aziz thinks that in general the Occident tends to underestimate the existence of the Orient. Most of the Occidentals feel superior over the Orient. Eventhought there will always and exception but only few Occidentals have respect on the Orientals. Prof. Narayan Godble does not give vivid description of the Occident. It is due to his belief that he has no authority to judge other people. For Prof. Godbole, both Occident and Orient have exactly similar potential to do either good deed or bad deed. There are five characters representing the Occident. They are Miss Adela
Quested, Mrs. Moore, Mr. Cyril Fielding, Colonel Ronny Heaslop, the Turtons and the McBrydes. Most of the characters representing the Occident think that the Orientals are

primitive, backward, intrigue, cunning, suspicious, and lack of government guidelines on being civilized citizens. Among the six characters representing the Occident, there are there characters having different description on the Orient under certain condition. Miss Adela Quested finally realizes that Orient is not the subject to be blamed on but

72

she does not want to get along with the Orient anymore. Mr. Cyril Fielding comes to
conclusion that having good friendship with the Orient is something worth doing but the political condition will be the biggest hindrance. Mrs. Moore believes that the Orient is similar to the Occident. They are Gods creatures that need to love and be loved. The cultural conflicts happened between the orient and the Occident are represented firstly by the conflict between Dr. Aziz and Colonel Ronny Heaslop. The conflict is rooted on the difference of nationality and political affiliation. The second conflict happened between Dr. Aziz and Miss Adela Quested. The conflict is due to the cultural misunderstanding and the personal prejudice.

73