STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

Table of Simple Stresses (Continued)

Case Type of Loading Illustration Stress Distribution

205

Stress Equations For beams of rectangular cross-section:

3V = -----2A
4 Bending

(12)

For beams of solid circular cross-section:

4V = -----3A
Neutral plane Shearing force diagram

(13)

For wide flange and I beams (approximately):

V = -a
Uniform

(14)

Direct shear

F = -A T Tc = ------ = ----Zp J

(15)

Torsion

(16)

SI metric units can be applied in the calculations in place of the English units of measurement without changes to the formulas. The SI units are the newton (N), which is the unit of force; the meter; the meter squared; the pascal (Pa) which is the newton per meter squared (N/M2); and the newton-meter (N m) for moment of force. Often in design work using the metric system, the millimeter is employed rather than the meter. In such instances, the dimensions can be converted to meters before the stress calculations are begun. Alternatively, the same formulas can be applied using millimeters in place of the meter, providing the treatment is consistent throughout. In such instances, stress and strength properties must be expressed in megapascals (MPa), which is the same as newtons per millimeter squared (N/mm2), and moments in newton-millimeters (N mm2). Note: 1 N/mm2 = 1 N/106m2 = 106 N/m2 = 1 meganewton/m2 = 1 megapascal. For direct tension and direct compression loading, Cases 1 and 2 in the table on page 204, the force F must act along a line through the center of gravity of the section at which the stress is calculated. The equation for direct compression loading applies only to members for which the ratio of length to least radius of gyration is relatively small, approximately 20, otherwise the member must be treated as a column. The table Stresses and Deflections in Beams starting on page 237 give equations for calculating stresses due to bending for common types of beams and conditions of loading. Where these tables are not applicable, stress may be calculated using Equation (11) in the table on page 204. In using this equation it is necessary to determine the value of the bending moment at the point where the stress is to be calculated. For beams of constant crosssection, stress is ordinarily calculated at the point coinciding with the maximum value of bending moment. Bending loading results in the characteristic stress distribution shown in the table for Case 3. It will be noted that the maximum stress values are at the surfaces farthest from the neutral plane. One of the surfaces is stressed in tension and the other in compression. It is for this reason that the sign is used in Equation (11). Numerous tables for evaluating section moduli are given in the section starting on page 217.

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STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

Shear stresses caused by bending have maximum values at neutral planes and zero values at the surfaces farthest from the neutral axis, as indicated by the stress distribution diagram shown for Case 4 in the . Values for V in Equations (12), (13) and (14) can be determined from shearing force diagrams. The shearing force diagram shown in Case 4 corresponds to the bending moment diagram for Case 3. As shown in this diagram, the value taken for V is represented by the greatest vertical distance from the x axis. The shear stress caused by direct shear loading, Case 5, has a uniform distribution. However, the shear stress caused by torsion loading, Case 6, has a zero value at the axis and a maximum value at the surface farthest from the axis. Deflections. For direct tension and direct compression loading on members with uniform cross sections, deflection can be calculated using Equation (17). For direct tension loading, e is an elongation; for direct compression loading, e is a contraction. Deflection is in inches when the load F is in pounds, the length L over which deflection occurs is in inches, the cross-sectional area A is in square inches, and the modulus of elasticity E is in pounds per square inch. The angular deflection of members with uniform circular cross sections subject to torsion loading can be calculated with Equation (18).
(17) (18) e = FL AE = TL GJ The angular deflection is in radians when the torsional moment T is in inch-pounds, the length L over which the member is twisted is in inches, the modulus of rigidity G is in pounds per square inch, and the polar moment of inertia J is in inches4. Metric SI units can be used in Equations (17) and (18), where F = force in newtons (N); L = length over which deflection or twisting occurs in meters; A = cross-sectional area in meters squared; E = the modulus of elasticity in (newtons per meter squared); = radians; T = the torsional moment in newton-meters (Nm); G = modulus of rigidity, in pascals; and J = the polar moment of inertia in meters4. If the load (F) is applied as a weight, it should be noted that the weight of a mass M kilograms is Mg newtons, where g = 9.81 m/s2. Millimeters can be used in the calculations in place of meters, providing the treatment is consistent throughout. Combined Stresses. A member may be loaded in such a way that a combination of simple stresses acts at a point. Three general cases occur, examples of which are shown in the accompanying illustration Fig. 10. Superposition of stresses: Fig. 10 at (1) illustrates a common situation that results in simple stresses combining by superposition at points a and b. The equal and opposite forces F1 will cause a compressive stress 1 = F1/A. Force F2 will cause a bending moment M to exist in the plane of points a and b. The resulting stress 2 = M/Z. The combined stress at point a,

F1 M = ----a - ---A Z

(19)

and at b,

F1 M = ----b - + ---A Z

(20)

where the minus sign indicates a compressive stress and the plus sign a tensile stress. Thus, the stress at a will be compressive and at b either tensile or compressive depending on which term in the equation for b has the greatest value. Normal stresses at right angles: This is shown in Fig. 10 at (2). This combination of stresses occurs, for example, in tanks subjected to internal or external pressure. The principle normal stresses are x = F1/A1, y = F2/A2, and z = 0 in this plane stress problem. Determine the values of these three stresses with their signs, order them algebraically, and then calculate the maximum shear stress: = ( largest smallest ) 2 (21)