College of Architecture University of Santo Tomas HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 3 1st Semester Ay 2012-2013

LECTURE 1: INDIAN ARCHITECTURE (2,500 B.C. Present)

INDUS REGION - was home to the largest of the four ancient urban civilizations

A. INFLUENCES:
I. Geographical and Topographical Influences:
India - Bharat in Hindi Seventh-largest country (3,287,240 km2) in the world and the second most populous (1,147,995,904), after China Consists of the entire Indian peninsula and portions of the Asian mainland, once included Pakistan, and Bangladesh Borders: North - Afghanistan, Tibet, Nepal, China, and Bhutan; South - Palk Strait and the Gulf of Mannar, which separate it from Sri Lanka, and the Indian Ocean; West - Arabian Sea and Pakistan; East - Myanmar (Burma), Bay of Bengal and Bangladesh, which almost cuts off northeast India from the rest of the country. The capital of India is New Delhi, and the countrys largest city is Mumbai (formerly Bombay). Well defined geographical regions: 1. Mountain zone of the Himalayas, 2. Indo-Gangetic plain (formed by the basins of three great rivers Indus, Ganges and Brahmaputra), 3. Central and Southern peninsula of the Deccan Plateau, 4. Western Region divides India from Pakistan Kashmir Punjab plains Great Thar desert 5. Islands Andaman and Nicobar

II. Climate:
Tropical to temperate zonal extremes; The temperature extremes are confined largely to the slopes of the Himalaya. Except in the more mountainous regions, most of the rest of India has a uniformly tropical climate; Seasonal variations, resulting from the south-western and north-eastern monsoons, profoundly influence temperature, humidity, and precipitation throughout the subcontinent; The seasons of India may be classified as rainy and dry.

III. Geological (Material) Influences:

1. Stone - Fine red and cream sandstone in Agra used mainly as facing for rubble walling - Stone of carpentry works using white marble of Rajasthan in the north - Granite of Deccan and volcanic potstone (soapstone - metamorphic rock of talc schist) of Halebid, center and southern part 2. Lack of building stone and the availability of timber along the Indus and Ganges valley - Teakwood - Burma

- Softwood deodar - Northern mountain ranges - Shisham (Indian Rosewood) - hardwood found in the river valleys of the north 3. Bricks and Terra Cotta - Bengal, Uttar Pradesh and Punjab

IV. Religious Influences:

Religion plays an important role in the everyday life than in the West Very basis of social structure Bound up with human behavior and conduct of public affairs. 1. Vedism and Brahmanism Polytheistic religion brought around 1500 B.C.E. by invading Aryan tribes who gradually conquered the earlier Indus Civilization (already in its decline). The Veda (knowledge) - scripture with a collection of hymns composed between 1500 and 900 B.C.E. Life and earth-affirming, positive faith appropriate to battle-loving tribes whose chieftains and gods/goddesses and heroes resemble divinities and characters. Brahmanism o Theory of Bhakti trusting worship o Asceticism (yoga) o Spiritual Knowledge (Jana) o Period of great epics: 1. Ramayana 2. Mahabharata which contains mystical poems, the Bhagavad Gita or Song of the Blessed 2. Hinduism Hindu is derived from the river Sindhu or Indus, Santana Dharma (immemorial tradition) Sanskrit term Sanskrit is the sacred language Complex mixture of: o Vedic philosophies, o dogmatic Brahmanical rituals, o yogic mysticism, o tantric occultism, o fertility cults, o monastic orders, o pagan customs and the o belief in God who manifests as innumerable divine beings. Hindu tradition acknowledges that there are many parts by which people may seek and experience religious understanding and direction. Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism originated from Hinduism which also shares the concept of dharma. Dharma - moral order, duty and right action Brahma is the chief god, the omnipresent one who is father of the Brahman Trinity. Has 4 heads, 3 of which (representing their Trinity) can be seen from any point of view Three major groupings of deities worshipped by Hindus, o Saktas - worship a Mother Goddess o Saivites - worship the god Siva o Vaishnavites - worship the god Vishnu. Believes in reincarnation- rebirth, kharma- persons misfortune are the result of his or her own misdeeds in a previous life and ahimsa- nonviolence and respect for all living things. Hindus treat the cow with great respect and is considered the mother to the Indian people. Caste System a social group, based partly on occupation which grew up with Hinduism A. Brahmins priests B. Kshatriyas kings and warriors C. Vaisyas merchants and farmers D. Sudras workers E. Untouchables outcasts

3. Jainism Established in the 6th c. BCE by Vardhamana, called Mahavira the Great Hero or Jina, the Victorious One. Based on asceticism and ahimsa, theory and practice of non-violence (non-injury to all living things) Without a belief in God, though there are a number of lesser deities for various aspects of life. Recognizes the fundamental natural phenomenon of symbiosis or mutual dependence which forms the basis of modern day science of ecology. A religion based also on cosmic principles. 4. Buddhism Religion and philosophy founded in northeastern India in the 5th c. B.C.E., and based on the teaching of Siddhartha Gautama, a Sakya prince known as Buddha the enlightened one. Adopted some ideas from Hinduism, doctrine of karma but rejected caste system and all of its gods. Divided into two branches Theravada (Way of the Elders) and Mahayana (The Great Vehicle)

V. Historical and Political Influences

A. Indus Valley Civilization (around 2500 BC) Civilization began to develop around the Indus River in what is now Pakistan and western India. Ruins of ancient cities such as Harappa (Punjab) and Mohenjo-Daro (Sindh). Writing and counting, built drainage systems that ran into brick-lined sewers and dug canals to irrigate their farms were developed systems Civilization developed by the Dravidians equaled and possibly surpassed in splendor the civilizations of ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt. Civilization is founded upon three basic concepts: the sacred, universal and ritualistic B Vedic Period Civilization emerged during the early centuries after the intermingling of Indo-Aryan and Dravidian cultures on the subcontinent was notable in several respects. The Indo-Aryans had advanced skills in various arts and sciences, including livestockraising, metal handicrafts, carpentry, boatbuilding, and military science. Most important state was Kosala, a kingdom situated in the region occupied by modern Oudh. Other important kingdoms were Avanti, Vamsas, and Magadha. The last-named kingdom occupied the territory of modern Bihar, and in about the middle of the 6th century BC., it became the dominant state of India. During the reign of its first great King Bimbisara (reigned about 543-491 bc), Buddha and Vardhamana Jnatiputra or Nataputta Mahavira, the respective founders of Buddhism and Jainism, preached and taught in Magadha. In 326 B.C., Alexander the Great led an expedition across the Hindu Kush into northern India. He won several victories during his march into India, climaxing in the Battle of Hydaspes which ended in the defeat of King Poros near the River Hydaspes (now the Jhelum). C Maurya Dynasty In 321 B.C. Chandragupta, founder of the Maurya dynasty of Indian kings known to the Greeks as Sandrocottos, seized control of Magadha and extended his sovereignty over most of the subcontinent. Set the empire at Pataliputra, probably the largest and most sophisticated city and center of culture in the world. The military power of the Indian Empire caused Seleucus I, one of Alexanders generals and the founder of the Seleucid Empire, to arrange an alliance with the Maurya ruler. Concluded in 305 BC, the treaty was consolidated by a marriage arrangement between Chandragupta and a daughter of the Seleucid ruler. The Maurya dynasty endured until about 185 BC.

During the reign (273-232 BC) of Ashoka (Asoka), the greatest Maurya sovereign, Buddhism became the dominant religion of the empire. India was a great centre of learning with universities such as those at Nalanda, and Takshasila attracting scholars from China and South East Asia. The chief event of this period (184-72 BC) was the persecution and decline of Buddhism in India and the triumph of Brahmanism. Caste system became deeply ingrained in the Indian social structure, creating great obstacles to national unification. D Sunga and Kuskan Dynasty Sunga endured longest, and lasting more than a century. An extensive section of western India was occupied in about 100 BC by invading Shakas (Scythians), then in retreat before the Yueh-chi of central Asia, one of their kings, founder of the Kushan dynasty in about 40 AD. One of the early Kushan monarchs established diplomatic and commercial relations with the Roman Empire. Buddhism thrived under the Kushans, and especially under the rule of Emperor Kanishka, patron of learning and the arts. Mathematics and science flourished and the medical texts of Charaka were written at this time. Rulers of the indigenous Andhra dynasty, which came to control the former Sunga dominions in about 27 BC and endured for about 460 years, made repeated attempts to expel the Shakas and in about 236 AD. The Shakas attained complete sovereignty over western India. Southern cultures and states although divided into rival groups were fully as rich and sophisticated as those of the Aryan influenced north. o Three largest political states of the south: 1. Chola 2. Pandya largest and best preserved 3. Pallava E. Gupta Empire, (400 AD) During the 4th c, Gupta dynasty emerged and united much of northern India. Hinduism became a more coherent and codified religion because of the efforts of the Gupta kings, who fused elements of Buddhism with Hinduism and emphasized the theistic nature of the religion, particularly the role of the god Vishnu In 320 AD, Magadha raja named Chandragupta I (320-330), who had conquered the neighboring territories, founded a new imperial regime and the Gupta dynasty. His grandson Chandragupta II (reigned 375-413) vastly expanded, subjugating the subcontinent north of the River Narmada. Lasted for 160 years, and Indian culture reached new heights. The period was one of sustained peace, steady economic advance, and intellectual accomplishment, particularly in art, music, and literature. . Towards the close of the 5th c, Hunnish invaders (White Huns), pushed into India from central Asia. The Gupta Empire broke up under the attacks of these invaders, whose supremacy went unchallenged for nearly a century. Among the contemporary descendants of the Huns who remained in India are certain tribal groups of Rajasthan state. Another powerful kingdom was founded in northern India in 606 by Harsha, the last Buddhist monarch of consequence in Indian history. Harshas reign emulated the Gupta period in its patronage of the arts, and the cultural achievements of this period can be seen in the chronicles of the great Chinese pilgrim, Xuangzang (Hsuan-tsang or Tripitaka). During his reign, Harsha secured control of almost the entire mainland and attempted, without success, to conquer the Deccan. F Muslim and Mongol Invasions The prolonged period of internal strife drew to a close as a new power, solidly united under Islam, arose in western Asia. This new power was Khurasan, previously a Samanid province which had been transformed into an independent kingdom by Mahmud of Ghazn (reigned 999-1030). A capable warrior whose sovereignty over Khurasan had been recognized by the caliph of Baghdad, Mahmud in 1000 launched the first of 17 consecutive expeditions across the Afghan frontier into India. These

incursions were marked by victories over the disunited Indians. By 1025 Mahmud had sacked many western Indian cities, including the fabulously wealthy port of Somnath, and had annexed the region of Punjab to his empire. The most successful of the Muslim rulers after Mahmud was Muhammad of Ghur, whose reign began in 1173. Another capable Muslim, Ala-ud-Din (reigned 1296-1316), was the second ruler of the succeeding Khalji dynasty. In 1398, when the Mongol conqueror Tamerlane led his armies into India, he met little organized resistance. Tamerlane completed his victorious invasion by sacking and destroying Delhi, and massacring its inhabitants. He withdrew from India shortly after the sack of Delhi, leaving the remnants of the empire to Mahmud (reigned 1399-1413), the last of the Tughluqs. Mahmud was succeeded in 1414 by the first of the Sayyids, a dynasty that was later driven from power by Bahlol (reigned 1451-1489), founder of the Lodi line of kings. In that year Babur, a descendant of Tamerlane and the founder of the great Mughal dynasty, carried out a series of raids into India which ended with the defeat of the Lodi army. Babur occupied Agra, the Lodi capital, and proclaimed himself emperor of the Muslim dominions. Within four years of his initial victory, Babur controlled a large part of the Indian mainland. G Mughal Empire (1700) Ruled much of India in the 16th and 17th c; its rulers developed a stable, centralized form of government that served as a model for later Indian rulers. The empire reached its greatest extent in the latter half of the 17th c under Aurangzeb (ruled 1656-1707), who extended the borders south beyond the Deccan. Akbar, Baburs grandson, was the greatest Mughal sovereign. During his reign (15561605), he subdued rebellious princes in various regions, including the Punjab, Rajputana (modern Rajasthan State), and Gujarat. He added Bengal to his realm in 1576, conquered Kashmir between 1586 and 1592, and annexed Sind in 1592. The Mughal Empire reached its cultural peak under Shah Jahan, Akbars grandson. Shah Jahans reign (1628-1658) coincided with the golden age of Indian Saracenic architecture, best exemplified by the Taj Mahal. He was driven from the throne in 1658 by his son, Aurangzeb, who took the title of Alamgir (Conqueror of the World). The Mughal regime suffered a disastrous blow in 1739 when the Persian king Nadir Shah led an army into India and plundered Delhi. In 1764, the Mughal Emperor regained his throne. With the defeat of the Marathas and the Sikhs, the possibility of the reunification of India into a strong, single state had vanishedand the country fell increasingly under British domination. B. ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER Monolithic Monumental Free standing construction Rock-cut buildings Laid down by Brahmanism (Barabar) and by Jainism (Udayagiri and Khandagiri). Buddhist - magnificent development and artistic character 1. INDUS CIVILIZATION Began to develop around the Indus River in what is now Pakistan and western India. Two principal cities planned systematically: 1. Harappa, Punjab elevated citadel (urban center) 2. Mohenjo-Daro, Sindh - town proper consisting of houses and market palaces Dholavira another significant site, which has some of the best preserved stone architecture. - Had several large reservoirs, and an elaborate system of drains to collect water from the city walls and house tops to fill these water tanks.

System of Construction: Cities were well planned with wide streets, public and private wells, drains, bathing platforms and reservoirs. Houses of the city were constructed of bricks and consisted of apartments built around an open courtyard o Alternating a course of headers (also known as English bond)- method of brick construction o Corbelled arch obtained by schematic arrangement of bricks so as to leave an empty space resembling the shape of an arch. 2. BUDDHIST ART AND ARCHITECTURE: Designed for congregational use Monumental and sophisticated A. Stambhas or Laths Monumental pillars standing free without any structural function, with circular or octagonal shafts. Inscriptions carved on the shaft. Polished sandstone or metal some as high as 60 or 70 ft. Pillar symbolizes the world axis Columns crowned with bell-shaped capitals based on Persepolis and decorated with one or more animals joined together. Hellenistic Iran influence Symbolic forms: 1. Lotus divinity/ mans salvation 2. Wheel cycle of life, death and rebirth/ teaching of Buddha 3. Four animals 4 quarters of the compass 4. Lion Sakyamuni Buddha known as the Lion of the Sakya Clan.

Lion Capital, Column erected by Emperor Asoka (272-232 BC)

B. Rock-Cut Sanctuaries/Cave Temples First rock cut technique was initiated by Asoka The Barabar and Nagarjuni caves excavated were hewn out of the granite rock Other names given to the structure: 1. Chaityagrihas/Chaitya place worship, assembly halls Chaitya hall consists of: a. Ornamental faade b. Central hall divided by means of pillars into a nave and aisles c. Rock-cut stupa at the rear end of the hall with enough space around it for performing the rite of circumambulation (pradakshina patha) 2. Vihara monasteries Consisted of cell and one or more small chapels Plan of a rock-cut chamber - facilitate religious services around the principal symbol of worship - stupa Examples: 1. Chaitya Hall, Karli, 100 AD Nave of 59 ft. (17.7 m.) high, 121 .5 ft. (36.45 m.) long and 43 ft. (12.9 m.) wide. Leads to a monolithic stupa in the apse Aisle formed by a series of massive columns crowned with male and female riders on elephants

STUPA

2. Ajanta Caves Contains 29 caves Most magnificent examples of rock cut architecture and cave paintings which dates back to the 5th c. The paintings and sculptures of major events in the life Buddha are considered masterpieces of Buddhist religious art. 3. Ellora Caves Excavated from the solid rock and symbolizes the three faiths of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. 350 AD to 700 AD, finest examples of rock cut cave - temple architecture houses, detailed facades and exceptionally carved interiors. 34 caves: o 12 caves to the south are Buddhist, o 17 in the centre are Hinduism, o 5 caves to the north are Jainism.

C. Stupa Beginnings were traced back to the funerary customs of the Vedic age Dome-shaped mound that mimics the funerary mounds used to mark the graves of great kings Contain holy relics to indicate the sacred character of the place or commemorate an important event associated with Buddha Spatial characteristics: o Stupa plans develops symmetrically about a central point - centrality o Stupa volume develops symmetrically about an axis that rises vertically from the central point- axiality o Stupa mass is oriented in accordance with the directions of space.orientation

Axis Mundi, Umbilicus Mundi, Sun E

W Free standing architecture built out of stone and bricks Hemispherical mound consisting of 3 main parts:

Northern Stupa at Sanchi (D) Medhi first part in the circular base (B) Anda base supports a hemispherical dome (C) Harmika pedestal crowned by an apex Other parts: (A) Vedika- railing composed of a framework consisting of vertical posts and cross bar (E) Sopana staircases going to the terrace

Pradakshina-patha (circumambulation) - the faithful would use this to circle the stupa to pay homage to the Buddha. Motion was always clockwise, since this kept one's right side (considered better) toward the relics.

The perimeter wall has a gateway at each cardinal direction, and the carvings on these illustrate events from the Buddha's life and past lives. Torana (Gateway) circular stone gateways around the whole structure (on all four sides) 34 ft. (10.2 m.) in height with 2 pillars and architraves (Sanchi)

Symbols: a) Lotus or Elephant (Birth): Lotus - Indian symbol of spiritual growth, since the lotus seed germinates in the muck at the bottom of a pond, then the stem grows as long as is necessary (2, 4 to 10 ft) so that the flower can blossom above the surface of the water (symbolizing transcendence of earthly circumstances). Elephant - connected with the story of the Buddha's conception, in which his mother became pregnant when a white elephant appeared in a dream and tapped her on the abdomen with the lotus it was holding in its trunk. The traditional account of his birth highlights the miraculous elements: the Future Buddha emerged from his mother's side, rather than a normal delivery; upon hitting the ground he took seven steps toward the east and announced that he would be enlightened in that lifetime, and there were various celestial signs--rain and flowers falling from a clear sky, a cool breeze, melodious sounds, disabled people regaining their faculties, and many, many others. b) Tree (Enlightenment): most important of the four events, since this is what made him the Buddha ("Enlightened One"). According to tradition, the Buddha renounced his home after seeing the Four Signs: an old man, a sick man, a corpse, and a wandering monk. Old age, illness, and death are inevitable parts of life--and for the Buddha seemed to have been a shorthand for all of life's unsatisfactory elements--whereas the fourth was a hint that these could be transcended. He then sat down underneath a ficus tree in Bodh Gaya (modern Bihar), and began to meditate on the question of birth-and-death with a focused mind. His analysis eventually revealed the causal chain that leads to rebirth, known as pratityasamutpada (Interdependent Origination), in which each element provides the cause for the one that follows. c) Wheel (Preaching the First Sermon) - symbolizes the 3rd great event in the historical Buddha's life, in which he "turned the wheel of dharma" by preaching his first sermon (The Four Noble Truths) at Sarnath, near modern Benares. It represents his career as a teacher. d) Stupa (Parinirvana): Even though after he became enlightened the Buddha passed beyond being subject to birth and death (or rather ensured that he would not be reborn after his present life), his body was like any other human body. At the age of 80, he ate a bad meal (either pork or mushrooms), got dysentery, and died of dehydration. Examples: 1. Sanchi Stupa in Madhya Pradesh- best specimen of stupa art. 2. Amaravathi, Andhra Pradesh finest Buddhist stupa in South India 3. Stupas in Nagarjunakonda, Jaggayapetta and Ghantasala in South India. Buddhist Ornaments Restrained both in character and extent.

Painted wall decoration was widely used and ranged from purely architectural forms to very elaborate genre paintings - cave walls at Ajanta. Provide invaluable social and architectural records of the period. Female form in its most voluptuous - common motif used in architectural sculpture.

3. HINDU ART AND ARCHITECTURE Architecture (sthapatya) is classified as one of the crafts (silpa) - first passed down to mankind by Visvakarman, the famous demigod builder of the universe. Foreign invaders including Greeks, Bactrians, Parthians, Kushans and Sakas have influenced Indian architecture. A. Temples Residence for the god and not a hall for congregational worship. Symbol of the purusha or primordial man. Mandala - generic name for any plan or chart which symbolically represents the cosmos (magic diagram of the cosmos). An expression of sacred geometry. Vastu Purusha Mandala An indispensable part of vastu shastra and constitutes the mathematical and diagrammatic basis for generating design. Metaphysical plan of a building that incorporates the course of the heavenly bodies and supernatural forces. Purusha refers to energy, power, soul or cosmic man. Associated with the Earth and its movable and immovable basic elements of nature, such as the earth, water, fire, air and space; just as a human being does. Visualized in the basic plan of a Hindu temple, house and even in the city planning. Accurate laying out of the temple ground plan in relation to the cardinal directions and the heavens. Meeting ground of heaven and earth. Consists of intersection of: 1. Square shape symbol of earth, signifying the four directions which bind and define it. (four castes; the four Vedas etc.). 2. Circle - metaphor for heaven without beginning or end, signifying timelessness. eternity and perfection.

Earth is a living organism, with life and energy. That living energy is symbolized as a person; he is the Vastu Purusha. The site for the proposed construction is his field; Vastu Purusha Mandala. The site plan, is his body; and it is treated as such. His height extends from the South West corner (pitrah) to the North East corner (Agni). The Vastu Purusha Mandala also depicts the origin of the effects on the human body.

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The center of the mandala is called the station of Brahma, the first of beings and the engineer of universal order. Surrounding Brahma are the places of twelve other entities known as the sons of Aditi, who assist in the affairs of universal management. The remaining empty squares represent the akasha The temple itself should always face east as that is considered the most auspicious direction-the place of origin of the sun. From the east appears the rising sun, the destroyer of darkness. The sun is the giver of life. It brings joy and happiness and is the watchful eye of the "Cosmic Being. Temple are made of hard crystalline rock with carvings on it or soft stone covered with countless figures. Granite Sandstone PARTS OF A HINDU TEMPLE: 1. Dome and Steeple Steeple of the dome is called shikhara or sikhara (summit), represents the mythological Meru or the highest mountain peak. Shape of the dome varies from region to region and the steeple is often in the form of the trident of Shiva. 2. Inner Chamber Garbhagriha or womb-chamber - where the image or idol of the deity murti is placed. Small unlit shrine for the cult image or symbol crowned with spire-shaped sikhara roof. Only the temple priests are allowed inside. Thick walls and heavy ceiling to protect the deity. Doorway for the devotee to enter the only architectural necessity. 3. Temple Hall Most large temples have a hall for audience to sit, called nata-mandira (hall for temple-dancing) where women dancers or devadasis used to perform dance rituals. Devotees use the hall to sit, meditate, pray, chant or watch the priests perform the rituals. Usually decorated with paintings of gods and goddesses. 5. Reservoir: If the temple is not in the vicinity of a natural water body, a reservoir of fresh water is built on the temple premises. Water is used for rituals as well as to keep the temple floor clean or even for a ritual bath before entering the holy abode.

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6. Walkway Most temples have a walkway around the walls of the inner chamber for circumambulation by devotees around the deity as a mark of respect to the temples god or goddess. Three Styles: 1. DRAVIDIAN (southern) style Found between the Krishna river and Cape Comorin. South-Indian Hindu temples are often like miniature towns. A broad open courtyard (prakaram) surrounds the temple and mandapa (porch) on all sides. The roof contains a vaulted octagonal or domical structure. Complex is composed of: 1. Vimana Sanctuary, the actual temple, square in plan, and surmounted by a pyramidal roof of one or more stories; and contains the cell in which the image of the god or his emblem is placed. 2. Mantapams/Mandapas (porches) - which always cover and precede the door leading to the cell. 3., Gopurams (Gate-pyramids/sculptured gateway) Principal features in the quadrangular enclosures that surround the more notable temples. 4. Chaultris/Chawadis (Pillared halls) - used for various purposes, and which are the invariable accompaniments of these temples.

Vertically represents the gods body with the sikhara as the head and the garbhagriha as the neck, mandapa as the body and gopura as the feet. Seven kingdoms and empires stamped their influence on architecture during different times: 1. PALLAVA Ruled from 600-900 AD Greatest constructed works are the single rock temples in Mahabalipuram and their capital Kanchipuram located in Tamilnadu. Pioneers of south Indian architecture. . 2. CHOLA Ruled from 900 -1150 AD Reached apex of South Indian Architecture

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3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Temples: o Brihadeshvara temple o Siva temple of Thaniavur largest and tallest o Gangaikondacholapuram one of the two great temples Remarkable for its sculptures and bronzes. BADAMI CHALUKYAS Ruled from 543-753 A.D. Most enduring legacy art and architecture. Rock-cut temples of Pattadakal a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Badami and Aihole- most celebrated monuments. Two of the famous paintings at Ajanta cave no. 1, "The Temptation of the Buddha" and "The Persian Embassy" are attributed to them beginning of Chalukya style of architecture and a consolidation of South Indian style. RASHTRAKUTA Ruled the Deccan in the period 753-973 AD. Rock-cut shrines at Ellora and Elephanta, situated in present day Maharashtra o 34 rock-cut shrines, but most extensive is the Kailasanatha temple at Ellora. The architectural style used was dravidian - does not contain the Sikharas common to the Nagara style and built on the same lines as the Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal, WESTERN CHALUKYA Ruled from 973-1180 AD. Art of Western Chalukyas is called the GADAG style" after the number of ornate temples. Well known for ornate stepped wells (Pushkarni) - served as ritual bathing places, found in Lakkundi. Their stepped well designs were later incorporated by the Hoysalas and the Vijayanagara empire. Over 50 temples exists o Kasi Vishveshvara, Lakkundi, Mallikarjuna, Kuruvatii, Kalleshwara temple, Bagali and Mahadeva, Itagi - finest examples HOYSALA The finest examples of their architecture are the o Chennakesava temple, Belur, o Hoysaleswara temple, o Halebidu and Kesava temple, Somanathapura. The Hoysala architecture style is described as Karnata Dravida as distinguished from the traditional Dravida and considered an independent architectural tradition with many unique features. VIJAYANAGAR Ruled from 1343- 1565 AD Combination of the styles developed in South India in the previous centuries. Yali columns (pillar with charging horse), balustrades (parapets) and ornate pillared manatapa are their unique contribution. Ornate pillared Kalyanamantapa (marriage hall), Vasanthamantapa (open pillared halls) and the Rayagopura (tower). Used of hard granite - durable since the kingdom was under constant threat of invasion. Vijayanagara open air theatre of monuments UNESCO World Heritage Site.

2. Vesara or mixed style Found between the Krishna and Vindhyas is circular in plan. In its later evolution, adopted the square for the sanctum, circular or stellar plan was retained for the vimana.

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 The vesara, which came to prevail mostly in western Deccan and south Karnataka was a derivation from the apsidal chapels of the early Buddhist period which the Brahmanical faith adopted and vastly improved. 3. Nagara (northern) style Found between the Vindhyas and Himalayas. Use of a square or cruciform plan but the walls are sometimes so broken up that the tower often gives the impression of being circular. Prasada or vimana rises vertically from its base in a curvilinear form. Characterized by a beehive shaped tower made up of layer upon layer of architectural elements such as: o kapotas and gavaksas, o topped by a large round cushion-like element called an amalaka.

AMALAKA Flattened fluted melon shaped massive stone member crowning the top of sikhara Distinctive circular piece of stone which is shaped like a clogged wheel, with bead-like mouldings along the periphery.

Examples: 1. Temples at Khajuraho 2. Surya temple at Modhera - exquisitely carved 3. Orissa - most outstanding examples of nagara architecture Region of Orissa is an important landmark in the temple building activity in India. Parasuramesvara temple at Bhubaneswar in Orissa - consisting only of a shrine and a hall Composed of two portions: 1. Central shrine 2. Porch in front, raised on a square ground-plan. Orissan builders tried to symbolize the human body in the composition of the vertical sections of the body. Temple is made to look like a tabernacle of the Godhead

Parts of an Orissan Temple (after the Lingaraja Temple at Bhuvaneswar) The temple is made to look like a tabernacle of the Godhead. 1. Bada foot, the lower portion of the human body. It is composed of horizontal mouldings ensuring stability of the structure.

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2. Gandi trunk, main body of the human being. The trunk is decorated with the motifs of miniature 3. Mastaka apex which corresponds to the head portion of the human body.The crown is decorated by a beautiful fluted disc (Amalaka).

DRAVIDIAN STYLE Octagon in plan Vimanam (Sikhara) - in the form of truncated pyramids

NAGARA STYLE Square in their plan Sikhara curvilinear, or beehive tower

VESARA STYLE Apse or circle in plan Sikhara - combines both styles

4. JAIN ART AND ARCHITECTURE Concept of `mountains of immortality building of temple-cities on hills. Temples - militant aura around them, surrounded by embattled walls Divided into wards similar to fortified cities with parapets and niches to repel armed aggression. Considered richest temples in the world, surpassing even Mughal buildings in grandeur and material wealth. Temples - Jina idols along with demigods and goddesses are kept on stone or marble made altar under aesthetic beauty. Richness of sculptural detail and material, especially Solanki temple style of Gujarat in Dilwara Temples, Mt. Abu Ananthanatha Swami Temple, Puliyarmala, outside Kalpetta Temples sometimes have a stupa (tope) Hastinapur, Mathura etc. Free standing pillars called vanity-subduing pillars Examples: 1. Dilwara Temples, Rajasthan (11th - 13th c. AD) 2. Kharatara Vsahi ( Parshvanatha Temple) of different style 5. ISLAMIC ART AND ARCHITECTURE (To be discussed in detail later) Impact of Islam in the 8th c. o Arabs, Turks, Afghans, and Mughals Great builders Excellence in paintings, miniatures, music, dance, poetry Art took place during the reign of Shah Jehan between 1628-1659 Capitals of Agra, Delhi and Lahore - display great buildings and structures. Use of white marble and the red sandstone. Great Islamic gardens Shalimar Garden in Lahore, one of the finest surviving ensembles Taj Mahal (Palace of the Crown) of Agra also known as the pearl of India represents absolute perfection . o Erected by Shah Jahan in memory of his beloved queen, Arjumand Banu Begum, called Mumtaz Mahal (Mausoleum) o Year after her death in 1631, 22 years to complete, o 20,000 workers, costing 32 million rupees o Combines elements of Persian, Central Asian, and Islamic architecture o Complex is comprised of five main elements: 1. Darwaza (main gateway) CLAvendano, UST HOA3 1 sem AY 2012-2013
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2. Bageecha (garden) - fascinating feature with its water channels, lotus pools and colourful flowerbeds and trees 3. Masjid (mosque) 4. Naqqar Khana (rest house) 5. Rauza (Taj Mahal mausoleum)

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Indian style Hindu and Buddhist temples were constructed abroad in ancient times, o Cambodia's Angkor Wat o Java's Prambanan.

World Heritage List:

Sites must be of outstanding universal value and meet at least one out of ten selection criteria. 1. to represent a masterpiece of human creative genius; 2. to exhibit an important interchange of human values, over a span of time or within a cultural area of the world, on developments in architecture or technology, monumental arts, townplanning or landscape design; 3. to bear a unique or at least exceptional testimony to a cultural tradition or to a civilization which is living or which has disappeared; 4. to be an outstanding example of a type of building, architectural or technological ensemble or landscape which illustrates (a) significant stage(s) in human history; 5. to be an outstanding example of a traditional human settlement, land-use, or sea-use which is representative of a culture (or cultures), or human interaction with the environment especially when it has become vulnerable under the impact of irreversible change; 6. to be directly or tangibly associated with events or living traditions, with ideas, or with beliefs, with artistic and literary works of outstanding universal significance. (The Committee considers that this criterion should preferably be used in conjunction with other criteria); 7. to contain superlative natural phenomena or areas of exceptional natural beauty and aesthetic importance; 8. to be outstanding examples representing major stages of earth's history, including the record of life, significant on-going geological processes in the development of landforms, or significant geomorphic or physiographic features; 9. to be outstanding examples representing significant on-going ecological and biological processes in the evolution and development of terrestrial, fresh water, coastal and marine ecosystems and communities of plants and animals; 10. to contain the most important and significant natural habitats for in-situ conservation of biological diversity, including those containing threatened species of outstanding universal value from the point of view of science or conservation. Cultural 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. Agra Fort (1983) Ajanta Caves(1983) Buddhist Monuments at Sanchi (1989) Champaner-Pavagadh Archaeological Park(2004) Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus (formerly Victoria Terminus) (2004) Churches and Convents of Goa (1986) Elephanta Caves (1987) Ellora Caves (1983) Fatehpur Sikri (1986) Great Living Chola Temples (1987) Group of Monuments at Hampi (1986) Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram (1984) Group of Monuments at Pattadakal (1987) Humayun's Tomb, Delhi (1993) Khajuraho Group of Monuments (1986) Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodh Gaya (2002) Mountain Railways of India (1999) Qutb Minar and its Monuments, Deli (1993) Red Fort Complex (2007) Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka (2003) Sun Temple, Konrak (1984) CLAvendano, UST HOA3 1 sem AY 2012-2013
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22. Taj Mahal (1983) Natural 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Kaziranga National Park (1985) Keoladeo National Park (1985) Manas Wildlife Sanctuary (1985) Nanda Devi and Valley of Flowers National Park (1988) Sundarbans National Park (1987)

BIBLIOGRAPHY Books: Auboyer, Jeannie. Landmarks of the World Art: The Oriental World. India and South-East Asia. Mc. Graw-Hill Book Company, New York, Toronto. 1967. De la Croix, Horst and Richard Tansey. Gardner;s Art Through the Ages. Ancient, Medieval and Non-European Art. 7th ed. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc. USA. 1976. Harris, Cyrill M. Historic Architecture Sourcebook. Von Hoffman Press, Inc. 1977 th Palmes, J.C. Sir Banister Fletchers A History of Architecture. 18 ed.The Athlone Press, University of London. London Snodgrass, Adrian. The Symbolism of the Stupa. Studies on Southeast Asia. Cornell University, Ithaca, New York. 1985 Tadgell, Christopher History of Architecture - India and Southeast Asia, The Buddhist and Hindu Tradition. Ellipsis, London. 1988 Westwell, Ian. Timeless India. Chartwell Books, Inc., New Jersey, USA. 2007

DVD Sources courtesy of Archt. Nick Ramos: What the Ancient Did for Us: The Indians BBC, UK. Mysteries of Asia: Lost Temples of India, Discovery Channel
Temple of Kama Sutra, Discovery Channel

Other Sources: Lecture notes of Archt. Nick Ramos Internet sources

HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 3 st 1 Semester AY 2010-2011, 2012-2013

Prepared by:

Archt. Clarissa L. Avendao Associate Professor

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