CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION 1.1.

Rationale of the study

Writing is not only the process the writer uses to put words to paper but also the resulting product of that process. This process and product are also conditioned by the purpose and place of writing (its audience and genre). Writing in a second language is further complicated by issues of proficiency in the target language, first language literacy, and differences in culture and rhetorical approach to the text. More over, academic writing requires conscious effort and much practice in composing, developing, and analyzing ideas. It is altogether crystal clear that Vietnamese student-writers suffer from incapability in expressing themselves in their L2 - English and using grammatical structures and vocabulary properly and effectively. Those shortcomings reveal clearly in paragraph writing - the most basic structure in any academic writing. As a teacher of English who has been teaching English for students of both high and low level of English competence, the author has had chances to observed mistakes in her students writing. This study aims at exploring errors in paragraph writing in relation to particular aspects of second language acquisition and the maybe causes of those errors. Basing on the findings, some solutions are suggested with the hope to be useful for both learners and teachers in writing classes. 1.2. The Study Design The study consists of two main parts. In the first part, a questionnaire was delivered to 30 participants to get to know about the students writing habit their objective view of their writing skill. After the first part done, a short course of five lessons (2 hours each) was carried out to help the participants aware of the process of writing a paragraph. Then in the last lesson, the participants were asked to write an academic paragraph choosing one of the suggested topics. All the date were then collected and analyzed by the author. 1.3. Aims and Research Questions The present study aims at two targets. First, the researcher wishes to point out L2 writers common errors in terms of grammatical use and vocabulary and secondly the relation between the habits of using L1 in L2 writing with these emerged errors. In order to reach the target, the researcher tried to find the answer for the following research questions:
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1. What mistakes in terms of grammatical structures use and vocabulary occur in students paragraph writings? 2. What can be causes of those mistakes occurrence? After finding out the mistakes and their causes, the author would like to suggest some solutions that can be helpful for writing classes.
CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW

General View and some recent researches According to Johanne Myles, the ability to write well is not a naturally acquired skill; it is usually learned or culturally transmitted as a set of practices in formal instructional settings or other environments. Writing skills must be practiced and learned through experience. Writing also involves composing, which implies the ability either to tell or retell pieces of information in the form of narratives or description, or to transform information into new texts, as in expository or argumentative writing. Perhaps it is best viewed as a continuum of activities that range from the more mechanical or formal aspects of writing down on the one end, to the more complex act of composing on the other end (Omaggio Hadley, 1993). It is undoubtedly the act of composing, though, which can create problems for students, especially for those writing in a second language (L2) in academic contexts. Formulating new ideas can be difficult because it involves transforming or reworking information, which is much more complex than writing as telling. By putting together concepts and solving problems, the writer engages in a two-way interaction between continuously developing knowledge and continuously developing text (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1987, p. 12). Indeed, academic writing requires conscious effort and practice in composing, developing, and analyzing ideas. Compared to students writing in their native language (L1), however, students writing in their L2 have to also acquire proficiency in the use of the language as well as writing strategies, techniques and skills. They might also have to deal with instructors and later, faculty members, who may or may not get beyond their language problems when evaluating their work. Although a certain amount of consciousness-raising on the part of the readers may be warranted, students
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want to write close to error-free texts and they enter language courses with the expectations of becoming more proficient writers in the L2. Writing an Academic Paragraph What is a paragraph? A paragraph is a group of about six to twelve sentences about one topic. Every sentence in a strong paragraph is about the same topic. All of the sentences explain the writers main idea (most important idea) about that topic. When the writer wants to write about a new main idea, he/she begins a new paragraph. A paragraph can give information, tell an opinion, explain something, or even tell a short story. The sentences are arranged logically, so the reader can easily understand what the writer wants to say. In academic writing, a typical paragraph has a topic sentence, The topic sentence is usually the first or second sentence in a supporting sentences, and a concluding sentence. paragraph. It introduces a new idea. It presents the topic and explains what the writer will say about the topic. This explanation is called the controlling idea. Supporting sentences add information about the topic and the controlling idea. Supporting sentences can include definitions, explanations, and examples. The concluding (or final) sentence of a paragraph usually reminds the reader of the topic and controlling idea of the paragraph. The concluding sentences can restate the topic sentence, summarize the main idea of the paragraph, make a prediction connected to the paragraphs topic, or make s suggestion or give advice connected to the topic. A paragraph can be considered a weak one if its sentences are not all about the same topic (there are some unconnected sentences); if there are not enough sentences; if there is no topic sentence; or if some sentences say the same thing.
CHAPTER III: PROCEDURE 3.1. Participants

A number of 20 EFL volunteer students whose L1 is Vietnamese were selected for the study 6 boys and 14 girls. They were all junior students who learn English as a non-major subject. They once took a placement test designed
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by their university with the purpose of choosing qualified students for a high level class in field of Environmental Technology. Although they met the requirement of the school, their English was considered at quite low level as their major is not English.
3.2. Data Collection

In order to estimate the writing proficiency of the participants, they were given a questionnaire (see the appendix I) about their writing habits. The result of the pre-term survey showed that the students writing proficiency was at a very low level and they had almost nothing in process of writing an academic paragraph. From the fact revealed, a course of 4 lessons (basing on the course book PARAGRAPH WRITNG from sentence to paragraph by Dorothy E Zemach and Carlos Islam) was designed to help students get used to with the process of writing in general and paragraph writing in particular. After taking part in the course, all participants were given some suggested topics (see the Appendix II) to write a descriptive paragraph in class. All the writings then collected for the final analysis.
3.3. Data Analysis

3.3.1. Pre-course questionnaire Q/A 1 2 3 4 5 6 A (%) 2 (10%) 12 (60%) 14 (70%) 12 B (%) 10 (50%) 5 (25%) 7 (35%) 6 (30%) 7 (35%) 1 (5%) B. No C (%) 16 (80%) 7 (35%) 10 (50%) 1 (5%) D (%) 4 (20%) 3 (15%) 2 (10%) E (%) 1 (5%)

(60%) 7 4 (20%) 16 (80%) Note: A. Yes 8 8 (40%) 12 (60%) 9 5 (25%) 13 (65%) 2 (10%) Table 1: Result of the survey questionnaire

Its surprising that when asked about writing ability, none of the students were confident enough to say they were good at writing but almost student confessed that they were not very good at this; some of them (20%) even said their writing was bad. This fact can be explained by their frequency
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of practicing the skill. The table shows that all the students dont spend much time practicing writing. Half of the students just do English writing practice sometimes and many of them just do it as a kind of hobby, i.e. they only do it when they feel like; and worse, 15% of them rarely or never spend their time doing such kind of practice. This fact concerns not only the students themselves but also the long time study style at High school. When at high school, where almost kinds of tests are designed in multiple choice forms, students lacked of chances using their pens to write, especially in form of writing tests. The writing activities were just sometimes took places and the most common kind of writing was sentence building (60%) while the expected kind paragraph writing accounts for only 35%. All the fact above explain why almost people say that they are most familiar to sentence building and it seems to be the most suitable for their ability as well. Another problem revealed from the survey is that students had to face with many difficulties when writing an L2 paragraph. First, a big number of them said they often get the problems with word choice and grammatical structure use. More over, because of the lacking of practice at high school, they were not aware of the process of writing an academic paragraph; they even had no idea about the form of such a paragraph. That why 65% of them often write in their L1 first then translate it into L2 - a time-consuming and doubtfully effective process of writing an academic paragraph. 3.3.2. Final writings The participants were asked to write a descriptive paragraph with the suggested topics (see the Appendix). The writing process was carried out in class basing on steps taught in earlier lessons. The handed writings showed that after being taught how to write an academic paragraph, the students could deal with the task more effectively. However, there were still many other difficulties they had to face while writing an L2 paragraph. Here is the score-board of the students writing: Table 2: Final writing score-board (See the scoring categories in Appendix III) Scores ranges No. (%)
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< 5.0 3 (15%) 5.0 6.5 11 (55%) 6.6-8.0 4 (20%) 8.1-9.0 2 (10%) > 9.0 0 (0%) The score-board shows that more than a half (55%) of the students are just fairly good at writing. Their papers met not many requirements of the writing categories and also revealed many errors and mistakes. More over, the number of high-scored writing is very small 20% of 6.5-8.0 and other 10% of 8.1-9.0. Whereas there were stills some bad writing with low score 25%. The low results of the students writing can be deeply explained in the following analysis of grammatical structures use and vocabulary Table 3: Errors in Grammatical structure use Criteria / content Topic sentence Instances of errors appear in L2 writing - My mother is great person. - My best friend is special person with me. I very love my mother. Appearance - She talls 1.6 m. description - Look he handsome. She is very gentle and work hard - She have a long hair. - Her lip is thin and her eyes is Characters description black. - She oftens jolly with around peoples. - She teaches poor children and support clothes for them. Other description - My family very prouds of
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Classification of errors - My mother is a great person. - My best friend is a special person with me. - I love my mother very much. (structural) - She is 1.6 m tall. (structure) - He looks handsome. (structure)

- She has got long hair. (tense) - Her lips are thin and her eyes are dark. ( wrong verb form) - She often jollies along others. (tense form) - She teaches poor children and gives them clothes. ( verb form and structure) -Her hobby is reading books. (verb form) - My family is very proud of him.

-Her favourite is read books.

him. - She like listen to music. - I think have a career like his is - Maybe that some reasons helps Ly becomes famous Table 4: Vocabulary errors Criteria / content Topic sentence

(wrong form) - She likes listening to music. (wrong tense and verb phrase) - I think having such a career like his is ( verb from and phrase) - Maybe those reasons help Ly become famous ( structure use/tense/verb phrase)

Instances of errors appear in L2 Classification of errors writing - My mother is great person with me. - I very love my mother. - My mother is a great person to me. - I very love my mother. (L1 transference) - She is 1.6 m tall. (L1 transference) - He looks handsome. (structure) - She has got long hair. ( Noun class) - My mother often wears clothes very simple. - Her lip is thin and her eyes is black. - My mother often wears very simple clothes. (words order) - Her lips are thin and her eyes are dark. (nouns form and word choice) - Her character is very likely mine. - Her character is similar to / the same as mine. (word choice) - She often jollies along others. (wrong form of Verb phrase) - ( L1 transference / wrong preposition) => She is always helpful to her friend.
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Appearance - She talls 1.6 m. description - Look he handsome. She is very gentle and work hard - She have a long hair.

Characters description

- She oftens jolly with around peoples. - She always help full with friend.

- He usually help me and my mother housework. - She works very hard to find money. - She spends many times doing household. - Shes always determined with Other description - She cooking well. - My father teaches me about success and fail. - I think have a career like his is every thing. Her favourite is read books

- L1 transference / wrong phrase => He usually helps me and my mother with the housework. - She works very hard to earn money. (word choice) - She spends a lot of time doing housework. ( word choice)

- Her hobby is reading books ( word choice) - She cooks well. (L1 transference / word choice) - My father teaches me about success and failure. (word choice) - I think having such a career like his is (L1 transference)

CHAPTER IV: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 4.1. Errors and mistakes occurring in paragraph writing process. 4.1.1. Spelling: It can be seen from the writings and from the tables above that spelling mistakes occur regularly in both high and low score ones. Such mistakes can be made just because of students carelessness or a temporary lapse of memory. 4.1.2. Component lacking in sentence: As summarized in the above tables, almost all students made this kind of mistakes (or errors in some cases). Such sentences as My mother is great person or He friendly and kind) are typical instances. Although students were taught that there are two most important parts in a sentence: subject and predicate and they play the keys roles in making up proper sentences, students in their process of writing forgot this points. Thus, mistakes occurred.
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Wrong order of phrases or sentences: Due to the same reason, many of students sentences were in wrong order of words. For instance She often wears clothes very simple; she has got eyes blue; etc. Some say that this kind of mistakes is not worth worrying. It, however, makes sentences less valuable and unacceptable in some extent. 4.1.3. Ungrammatical sentences: Many of those were found in the students papers. It was hard to catch the ideas as the students wrote sentences with wrong grammatical rules. Maybe that some reasons help Ly becomes famous in program. this is a typical instance for the findings. 4.1.4. Mother-tongue interference: Table 4 shows the regular use of students L1 while they are writing an L2 paragraph. As mentioned in the survey analysis, Students use their L1 in all steps of the writing process. And these mistakes are at different papers with different scores. The reasons of this mistakes occurrence may be something more apart from the students carelessness. The other reason may be the habit of using L1 in transference into L2. (The meaning of the two given examples are respectively C y (she) thng (often) mc (wears) qun o (clothes) rt gin d (very simple); Ti (I) rt (very) yu (love) m ti (my mother). In these cases, writers used their mother tongue in cognitive activities and then transferred their ideas into English without considering about grammar rules. This type of errors happened regularly in many writings of both high and low scores. 4.1.5. Tenses and grammatical structural use: It is easy to be seen from table 3 that both writings with high scores and those with low scores made many mistakes in terms of grammatical structures and tense uses. The students seem not aware of tense use and structure enough so they made those mistakes. For instance She have a long hair the writer used verb form of third plural person ( have) in stead of the right form ( has) for the third singular person (she). Moreover, he also used the wrong form of the uncountable noun hair (a long hair) while the correct one must be (long hair);
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Her lip is thin and her eyes is black. This is another instance of wrong verb form use (the disagreement between Subject her eyes- and Verb is) 4.1.6. Vocabulary use: Another problem the students faced while writing is the ability of choosing the right word for each purpose of expression. Its a fact that many Vietnamese meaning can be interpreted by more than one word in English and vice versa. Her favourite is read books for instance. In this case the writer wanted to express favourite activity or hobby but due to wrong interpretation he used favourite only as a noun of the sentence. So does fail in stead of failure) in my teacher teaches me about success and fail. or many times in stead of much time in She spends many times doing household. 4.2. Sources of the mistakes occurrence After analyzing the writings in concern with the background knowledge in writing, the researcher here now can point out some main causes of the mistakes occurrence. 4.2.1. Carelessness A mistake is really a slip of the pen or the tongue (Goner & Walters: 1983: 147 is the common saying to explain the mistakes occurrence in writing. A slip, thus, is the mistake a student make carelessly and he himself can put it right again. According to Douglas Mc Keating (1989: 211), carelessness is considered to be a cause of all kinds of mistakes and errors. Mistakes may occur when the writers are in a hurry, or tired, or thinking about something else, or temporarily forgetful and under these circumstances, carelessness can be considered the cause of the mistakes. A spelling mistake amazin person, for instance, might be made when the writer was in a hurry and didnt pay attention to the spelling of his writing.

4.2.2. Mother tongue interference Table 4 shows the regular use of mother tongue in the students writing process. Due to the mother tongue interference, many kinds of mistakes
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occurred in the writings: wrong order ( she often wears clothes very simple) ; ungrammatical sentence (She have a long hair); wrong word choice (She spends many times doing household.); etc. 4.2.3. Over-generalization Almost learners agree with the saying that it is not easy at all to master English grammar. In a paragraph (as mentioned as a complicated strategy) there are so many roles to consider in term of grammar. And among these, some are really difficult to achieve. This reason explains why freshmen whose English is at low level on the effect to remember the rules of English grammar basing on the principles, unconsciously forget that there are many other complicated exceptions. Take the plural form of a noun as an example, students sometimes are confused whether to put s or es after the noun, or sometimes cant remember the irregular form of a noun (persons - people; childs children). 4.2.4. Other sources The lack of practicing on academic writing and the effect of English learning and communicating strategies can also be considered the other causes of mistakes occurrence. As the survey shows, almost types of writing students did at high school was sentence building and even at present they spend a little time practicing their writing, especially academic paragraph writing. The fact leads to a result that they have to face many difficulties in writing process, from the brainstorming step to drafting or revising one. Many students reported that they often feel hard to express their ideas in a properly grammatical structure and instead, they transfer directly what they think into a so-called L2 sentence without being sure of grammar rules. Sometimes because of the communicating habits, writers express their ideas in spoken way with the intention that the readers can catch their points. But in fact, this is unacceptable in terms of grammatical structures used in academic writing.

CHAPTER V: SOME SUGGESTED SOLUTIONS

5.1. Following the steps of writing process

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As we all agree that writing is a complicated process, it requires a lot of practice and it has its own principles too. Thus, in order to write a paragraph effectively, learners should follow the steps of writing process. Some main steps that writers had better not forget are (1) Brainstorming; (2) Outlining; (3) Writing; (4) Editing. According to the questionnaire, almost objects of the study often start writing right after they are given the topics. This old habit should be changed even it is not easy at first. For those who are competent in writing, it may not necessary to follow all the steps, but before you can reach this level, you should not for get any of the steps. 5.1.1. Brainstorming You cannot write if you dont have something to write about. So, before they start to write, good writers brainstorm ideas (they think of and write down ideas that they can use). As an old habit, many Vietnamese learners often start writing right after they receive the topic. It is also true with the participants of this study (as shown in the survey questionnaire analysis). Therefore, although they can write a complete writing but it is not such a proper writing in term of form or logical ideas. Thus, it is significant, especially for those at low level, to brainstorm what you are going to write before composing a full paragraph. 5.1.2. Outlining Some say that it wastes of time to make an outline because they can write down directly what they think in mind. It is just a faulty argument. In fact, in vie versa, it saves your time to write and it helps you have a logical and well organized writing as well. An outline help you make sure that you paragraph can meet all the requirements of an academic paragraph and it also help you check whether all your ideas are included or some should be excluded. Even a high-scored writers have to make an outline, so why not those of lower level? 5.1.3. Drafting your writing You should not expect to have a perfect composition just at your first time of writing. Mistakes may occur while you are writing, but dont pay much attention to them. Youd better write all that included in your out line in form

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of a full paragraph. Time always goes by so dont miss any second of each step, i.e. your writing should be completed in given time. 5.1.4. Revising or Editing As stated in the previous part, mistakes are unavoidable in the process of writing. Thus, after having a complete composition you should spend some minutes revising your writing so that you can edit the mistakes made. While revising your work, you should pay attention to some criteria as follows: - Punctuation and capitalization: (+) The first word in a sentence is always capitalized; (+) A complete sentence and be end in a period; (+) A question ends in a question mark; (+) Occasionally, writers use an exclamation mark to give emphasis to a sentence. - Fragment: Every sentence must have a subject and a verb and expresses a complete idea. A sentence that is missing a subject or a verb is incomplete or we call it a fragment. (+ My sister beautiful and intelligent => My sister is beautiful and intelligent) - Run-on sentences: Two sentences that run together without correct punctuation between them are called run-on sentences. One way to correct a run-on sentence is to put a period between the sentences. Another way is to add a comma and a connecting word. ( + She is very gentle and work hard. => She is very gentle, and she works hard.) As you can see, there are many things to care about in editing steps and they seem to make you confused. However, after times of practicing, you will find it easier and it is really helpful in your process of having a good writing. 5.2. Correction This section looks quite overlapped with (5.1.4) yet it is in broader consideration. As once stated, correction is indispensable to both learners and teachers in writing process. And it is obvious that it is more effective when both learners and teacher take part in the correction step. In addition, it is worth remembering that correction activity consists of three kinds. They are self-correction; peer-correction; and teacher-correction. It is also worth not missing that
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whichever kind of correction takes place, correctors should follow the procedure of dealing with the mistakes with five main steps as follows: Defining the mistakes and errors Establishing its possible source Determining its seriousness Locating it into certain area of similar one Correcting As one of the main steps to follow in writing process, self-correction is considered an activity where students do their own correction. As in chapter IV shown, some mistakes are made just because of carelessness so when students have chance to look back what they have written, they can define and correct those mistakes themselves. There is a saying that two is better than one. And it can be true in this case. Sometimes it is not very easy for students to correct their mistakes themselves. Thats why they need help form other. It is time when peercorrection and teacher-correction activity take place. In the part of teachers, in order to have effective correction, teachers should be aware of all kinds of mistakes made by their learners. There are many factors that can bring about mistakes to learners writing. Some of them may be psychology of the learners; grammar focused; causes to mistakes; or seriousness mistakes. With careful consideration of these factors, teachers can know what technique to use to correct their students mistakes in positively and effectively. In the other part, peer-correction should also be considered in correction activity. When students cannot do it themselves or ask their teachers for help, theres still someone who is always will to help their classmate. Some may argue that peer-correction is some times unreliable because learners of the same class can not correct their peers mistakes. However, some one who has tried it once can find it really helpful.

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CHAPTER: CONLUSION In order to meet the requirements of an international communicative world, every one must be proficient in its most popular language English. However, it is not easy to get proficiency in English. In fact many Vietnamese students have difficulty in communicating in English in general and in writing version in particular. The objects of this study also have to face this problem. This led the author to carry out the research with the hope of supporting useful information for both teachers and learners in writing classes. With effort to answer the two research questions stated at the beginning of the study, the author pointed out common mistakes and errors made by non-major English learners. At the same time, she figured out the sources of those mistakes and errors that led to some useful suggested solutions for effective writing class. Although the author has tried her best to achieve the expected aims, the result of the study may not satisfy all readers. Due to her limited knowledge, the author cannot do the research in broader scale. Anyway, the author does hopes that the study and its result would more or less contribute to the teaching and learning English, especially to learners and teachers of English writing class where English is non-major subject.

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APPENDIX
APPENDIX I:

Survey Questionnaire
Full Name: _______________________ Class: ___________________________ School: __________________________ Please answer the following questions about yourself 1. How good are you at writing skill? A. Good A. Everyday C. Whenever I feel like your teacher? A. After every lesson C. Sometimes A. Sentence building A. Sentence building A. Sentence building B. Every week D. Rarely B. Paragraph Writing B. Paragraph Writing B. Paragraph Writing E. Other: _________ C. Composition writing C. Composition writing C. Composition writing B. Fairly good C. Not very good B. Sometimes D. Rarely or never D. Bad 2. How often do you do English writing practice on your own?

3. When at High School, how often were you given English writing practice by

4. When at High School, what level of writing practice did you often do? 5. What level of writing are you practicing most? 6. Which level do you think the most suitable for your ability? 7. When you are asked to write a narration or a description, do you try to make your writing beautifully by variety of verbs, nouns, adjective, or just use the familiar words that are popularly used by others? Please give reason for your answer here: ____________________________ 8. What problem do you usually get when you write? A. Word choice B. Grammatical structure use C. Other:_________________ 9. When given a writing practice in class with certain time, do you A. start writing immediately
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B. write it in your Vietnamese then translate it into English? C. Follow steps of writing process (Brainstorming, outlining, writing, and editing) Thank You for your Contribution! APPENDIX II: Topics Final writing: Choose one of the following subject to write a descriptive paragraph of about 150 words. 1. Your relatives 2. A famous star 3. Someone you admire APPENDIX III: Writing test Scoring categories and Descriptors 1. Organizations (25 pts): this includes such features as - Paragraph format (margin, space, indent, etc.) - Clear statement of the topic placed appropriately - Plan of text could be outlined by reader (i.e. text is unified and coherent) 2. Content (25 pts): This includes such features as: - Topic sentence: (address the assigned topic) - Supporting sentences - No unconnected sentences - Pertinence and noteworthiness of ideas 3. Language Use: This includes such features as: - Correct use of grammatical structures (sentence and discourse level) and punctuation - Correct use of complex structures - Intelligible spelling - Clarity of style and expression 4. Vocabulary use (25 pts): This includes such features as: - Appropriate semantic use of vocabulary - Consistent register - Sophisticated choice of vocabulary
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References
Alice Savage & Masoud Shafifiei. (2007). Effective Academic Writing 1 The Paragraph. Oxford University Press. Bereiter, C. & Scardamalia, M. (1987). The psychology of written composition. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Charyl Pavlik @ Margaret K.S. (2002). Interaction 1 Writing ( Silver Edition). McGraw-Hill Higher Education Dorothy E. Z. & Carlos, I. (2004) Paragraph Writing: From Sentence to Paragraph. Macmillan Education. Johnnae Myles. (2002). Second Language Writing and Research: The Writing Process and Error Analysis in Student Texts. TESL-EJ - Teaching English as a Second Language or Foreign Lanuage [online serial], 6(2). Available: http://www.cc.kyoto-su.ac.jp/information/tesl-ej/ej22/a1.html Jones, S., & Tetroe, J. (1987). Composing in a second language. In A. Matsuhashi (Ed.), Writing in real time: Modeling production processes (pp. 3457). Norwood, NJ: Ablex. Kellogg, R. T. (1994). The psychology of writing. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Krapels, A. R. (1990). An overview of second language writing process research. In B. Kroll (Ed.), Second language writing: Research insights for the classroom (pp. 3756). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Whalen, K., & Menard, N. (1995). L1 and L2 writers strategic and linguistic knowledge: A model of multiple-level discourse processing. Language Learning, 45, 381418. Wolfersberger, M. (2003). L1 to L2 writing process and strategy transfer: A look at lower prociency writers. TESL-EJ: Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language, 7(2), 115. Woodall, B. R. (2002). Language-switching: Using the rst language while writing in a second. Journal of Second Language Writing, 11, 728. Omaggio Hadley, A. (1993). Teaching language in context. Boston: Heinle & Heinle.

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