BACKGROUND MATERIAL: SMALL HYDRO

Introduction
Among the renewable energy resources, water provides the possibility of continuous supply of energy without the need for storage. There are various factors that must be considered in choosing an appropriate site, which if suitably done, the extraction of energy from rivers can be made economically viable, especially to the rural communities. Historically, the tendency has been to dam rivers for large-scale electricity production. Recent trends suggest that small hydro systems will be able to provide adequate amount of sustainable energy at cheaper costs. In many parts of Africa, rivers flow through out the year and the objective is to harness their energy-generating potential (Singh, 2001) There has been a growing realization that micro-hydro systems have an important role to play in the economic development of developing countries with hydro resources especially in remote areas. The needs of rural populations for greater and constant power supply have encouraged the utilization of smaller and local energy resources. Coupled with the rising costs of conventional energy sources and the high costs of grid extensions to remote regions, renewable energy seems more viable and applicable (Singh, 2001).

Definition of Small Hydro

Small hydro is often categorized into mini and micro hydro. No consensus has been reached on the definition of mini and micro hydros. The term small hydro power covers both mini and micro hydro power of under 10 MW (Karekezi and Ranja, 1997). Small hydro is small-scale power generating systems that harness the power of falling water (AFREPREN, 2004). Small hydropower is often categorised into mini and micro hydro, referring to the harnessing of power from water at a small-scale, i.e. capacity of less than 10 MW (Karekezi and Kithyoma, 2005). Pico hydro is defined as small-scale hydro electric power generation systems with an electrification output of up to 5kW capacity. Pico hydro comes usually in the form of run-of-river schemes, which do not have the same adverse environmental impact as their larger counterparts (Wertheimer, 2005). Over the last one hundred years, advanced turbine technology has resulted in the development of hydroelectric stations that generate large-scale electricity. Micro-hydro converts the energy in flowing water to direct-drive shaft power or for electricity generation on a very small scale. Conventionally, micro-hydro refers to shaft or electrical power raising from 10 to 250 kW (Singh, 2001).

Fundamentals and Principles of Operation of Small Hydro; Delivery Mechanisms and How to Implement Small Hydro
The basic principle of hydropower applies the work-energy theorem, which uses the difference in water pressure to do work. This is achieved when water is piped from a higher level to a lower level. If the water pressure is used to move a mechanical component, then the water energy is converted to mechanical energy. This in turn, can be used to drive a mechanical shaft to generate electrical energy. The basic features of a small hydro system are presented in the diagram overleaf (Hislop, 1992:60).

Figure 1

A Typical Micro Hydro System

The main advantages of hydropower are: The power is usually available when needed. The amount of energy is proportional to the head. The energy available is determinable. No fuel and only limited maintenance are required, so running costs are low (e.g. compared to diesel power) and in many cases imports are displaced to the benefit of the local economy. It is a long-lasting and robust technology; systems can readily be engineered to last for 50 years or more without the need for major new investment. Small hydropower is clean - it prevents the burning of 22 billion gallons of oil or 120 million tons of coal each year (national hydropower association: 1996). Hydropower systems contribute to local economies.

Disadvantages of hydropower are: The technology implementation depends on the site. Upgrading of the existing systems is not easily achievable when power demands begin to increase with time. River flows cannot be predicted accurately; consequently, seasonal variations can drastically reduce the peak power output. The technology is specific and once installed, it needs to be maintained on site. This would involve teaching and training the local communities to look after (in some cases) sophisticated hardware.

Potential and Installed Capacity of Small Hydro in Africa

Eastern and Southern Africa has many permanent rives and streams providing excellent hydropower development potential. However, as shown in the following table, small hydropower utilisation in the region is still very low. Table 1:
Country Botswana Burundi Ghana Kenya Lesotho Malawi Mauritius Mozambique

Small Hydropower Utilisation in Africa

Harnessed (MW) 1.00 2.93 1.20 13.64 8.74 4.50 6.70 0.10 Country Rwanda Somalia South Africa Swaziland Tanzania Uganda Zambia Harnessed (MW) 1.00 4.60 0.40 0.30 4.00 8.00 4.50

Source: Karekezi and Kithyoma, 2005

Hydropower contributes about 18% of the total power generation in Africa Table 2:
Country Uganda Mauritius Kenya Burundi Zambia Tanzania Lesotho Malawi Botswana Rwanda South Africa Swaziland Mozambique

Small Hydropower Developed and Potential in Selected African countries

Small hydro potential (MW) 46 600 42 4 70 ? 20 ? Harnessed (MW) 8 .00 6.70 14.00 18.00 1.05 9.00 5.10 4.50 1.00 3 0.40 0.1

Source: Karekezi and Kithyoma, 2005, UNIDO and REEEP, 2006

Table 3:
Country Mauritius Kenya Burundi Somalia Zambia Tanzania Lesotho Malawi Botswana Rwanda Uganda South Africa Swaziland Mozambique

Small Hydro Utilisation in Selected Countries in Africa

Harnessed (MW) 6.7 6.28 5.17 4.8 4.5 4 3.54 1.52 1 1 7.3 0.4 0.3 0.1

Source: AFREPREN, 1998

Table 4:
Country Madagascar Burundi Kenya Uganda Lesotho Zambia Rwanda

Small Hydro Power Sites in Selected Countries in Africa

Number of Sites Over 100 Over 100 Over 100 22 22 20 8

Source: AFREPREN, 1998

Burundi has a large hydro potential estimated at 1,300 MW and 6,000 GWh, from which 300 MW could be economically exploited. Today, 27 micro hydro power plants have been installed in Burundi with a total capacity of 32 MW Hydropower is Mozambiques most important commercial energy resource, with the potential estimated at about 14,000 MW, of which about 2,300 MW has so far been developed, 2,075 MW at Cahora Bassa Dam over the Zambezi River and the remaining is distributed among a number of sites throughout the country. Mapping of hydro resources for medium and high size hydro plants has been made in around 60 rivers throughout the country, during the seventies [1]. No specific study has been undertaken for small hydro power plants, but the Ministry of Energy has plans to start such a study soon (Cuamba, 2006). The history of mini/small hydropower development in Tanzania dates back to the colonial period where small hydro plants were developed to supply power to specific communities like religious centers (schools and hospitals). Table 5 shows existing mini/small scale hydro power stations (Kassana, 2006). Table 5:
Location Tosamaganga - Iringa Kikuletwa - Moshi Mbalizi - Mbeya Uwemba - Njombe Kitai - Songea Lupilo (Chipole) - Songea Maguu - Mbinga Nyagao - Lindi Isoko - Tukuyu Uwemba Mission - Njombe Bulongwa Makete Kaengesa - Sumbawanga

Existing Mini/Small Scale Hydropower Stations in Tanzania

Turbine/Manufacturer Gilkes & Gordon/Francis Boving & Voith Reaction Installed Capacity (kW) 1220 1160 340 840 45 400 50 15.8 15.5 100 180 44 Remarks/Owner TANESCO TANESCO TANESCO TANESCO PRIVATE PRIVATE PRIVATE PRIVATE PRIVATE PRIVATE PRIVATE PRIVATE

Cross-flow/ Ossberger Francis Cross Flow/Ossberger Cross Flow/Ossberger Cross Flow/Ossberger Cross Flow/Ossberger

Location Rungwe - Tukuyu Ngaresero - Arusha Sakare Soni _Tanga Ndanda - Lindi Peramiho - Songea Ndorage Bukoba Mbarari Mbeya Mngeta Kilombero Ikonda Njombe Total

Turbine/Manufacturer Cross Flow/Ossberger Gilbsk Geiselbrecht Gilbsk Cross Flow/Ossberger B.Maler Chinese Xxxxxxx/North Korea CMTIP

Installed Capacity (kW) 21.2 15 6.3 14.4 34.6 55 700 400 40 5.3 MW

Remarks/Owner PRIVATE PRIVATE PRIVATE PRIVATE PRIVATE PRIVATE PRIVATE PRIVATE PRIVATE

Source: TANESCO/MEM in Kassana, 2006

The government policy on small hydropower is to develop small sites in areas, which are not supplied with power from the National grid, or to replace diesel generation in isolated areas. Based on this policy, several small-scale hydropower development activities have been initiated by the government in cooperation with local and foreign agencies. On-going development activities in small hydro development range from site identification, pre-feasibility/feasibility studies (Kassana, 2006). Both large and small hydropower business fall under the same energy structure as other sources of energy. At this time in point, they are still controlled and regulated under mainly, the ministry of energy and minerals (Kassana, 2006). The general status of the small-hydro power sites (Non-Nile sites) in Uganda is shown in the following table. The table shows the installed capacities of the sites, the general status of the power site whether operational or non-operational and the districts in which they are located (Opio, 2006).
Site Maziba Kuluva Kagando Kisiizi Mobuku 1 Mobuku 3 Muzizi Paidha/Nyagak District Kabale Moyo Kasese Rukungiri Kasese Kasese Kibale/ Kabalore Nebbi Installed Capacity (MW) 1.0 0.12 0.06 0.06 5.4 10 Potential (Estimated) (MW) 10-20 3.5MW STATUS Out of operation- needs rehabilitation In operation feeding Kuluva Hospital In operation feeding Kagando Hospital In operation at 60 kW Expansion program to 365 kW is in progress. Project exemption was approved in 2002. In operation by Kilembe Mines. Supplies Kilembe and feeds into the Main Grid Operated by Kasese Cobalt Co and feeds into the Main Grid Developer SN Power Invest AS Permit granted Nov/Dec 2004 for 12 months Feasibility study still going on Feasibility study completed and ready for development WENRECO was awarded concession in March 2003 Conducting a Resettlement Action Plan (RAP). Construction expected to begin Jan 2007 Pre-investment studies carried out Feasibility studies carried out by SWECO Eco Power has applied for a permit and is carrying out pre-investment studies EDM has a permit to develop the site. Developer USEC (Uganda Sustainable Energy Company Limited. Permit granted Feb 2005 Feasibility study was conducted by Norplan. USEC yet to start on pre-investment study Developer Mt. Elgon Power Company Permit issued July 2002 and extended until expiry in September 2004 Developer Mt. Elgon Power Company Permit issued July 2002 and extended until expiry in September 2004

Rwizi Kakaka Nshungyezi Nyamabuye

Mbarara Kabarole Mbarara Kisoro

0.5 7.2 20 2.2

Siti Sipi-Chebonet

Kapchorwa Kapchorwa

3.3 2.5

Site Anyau/ Olewa Haisesero Kitumba Mpanga Nyakibale Leya Amua Narwodo Mvepi Adjumani Rural Electrification Project (River Esia) Ela Agoi Nkussi Kikagati

District Arua Kabale Kabale Kabarole Rukungiri Moyo Moyo Nebbi Arua Moyo

Installed Capacity (MW) -

Potential (Estimated) (MW) 1.5 1.0 0.2 0.4 0.1 0.12 0.18 0.4 2.4 1

STATUS WENRECO has exclusive rights to the site through the West Nile License Estimate Estimate Estimate Estimate Estimate Estimate Estimate Estimate Permit granted 29th July 2005 for 12 months Developer Adjumani Rural Electrification Company Limited (ARECO) Estimate Estimate Estimate Old Power plant used to operate at 1MW. China Shang Sheng Industrial Intl Ltd to rebuild and expand the plant to 20MW. Permit granted 29th July 2005 for 12 months Estimate Developer Uganda Energy for Rural Development (UERD) Estimate Estimate Estimate Feasibility studies carried out by Tele Consult Eco Power has applied for a permit and is carrying out pre-investment studies Feasibility studies completed by Hydromax 12 months extension of the permit granted effective 1st August 2005 Developer SN Power Invest AS Permit granted Nov/Dec 2004 for 12 months Feasibility study by Norplan Developer SN Power Invest AS Permit granted Nov/Dec 2004 for 12 months Developer SN Power Invest AS Permit granted Nov/Dec 2004 for 12 months Pre-feasibility studies being carried out by Eco Power Developer Mt. Elgon Power Company Permit issued July 2002 and extended until expiry in September 2004 Developer Mt. Elgon Power Company Permit issued July 2002 and extended until expiry in September 2004 Developer Uganda Energy for Rural Development Permit granted Nov/Dec 2004 for 12months Developer Uganda Energy for Rural Development Permit granted Nov/Dec 2004 for 12months

Arua Arua Kibale Mbarara

1.5 0.35 0.9 20

Sezibwa Tokwe Mgiita Miria Adua Sogahi Ishasha Buseruka Nengo Bridge Waki Bugoye Kyambura MuyembeSirinutyo Ririma Mahoma Rwebijooka

Mukono Bundibugyo Bundibugyo Arua Kabalore Rukungiri Hoima Rukungiri/Kanungu Masindi/Hoima Kasese Bushenyi Sironko Kapchorwa Rutete Sub-County Buheesi Sub-County

0.5 0.1 0.15 0.1 2.0 5.0 10 7.5 5 11 10 2.6 1.2 3 1

Source: Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development in Opio, 2006

The mini hydro potential in Zambia is estimated at more than 60MW, however no countrywide studies have been done to verify this figure. Exploitation of this resource continues to be very low. With the setting up of the Rural Electrification Authority, it is anticipated that more small hydro power stations will be developed. Currently almost all the small hydro stations are in the north and North West of the country and operate as isolated systems. ZESCO, Zambias power utility, owns and operates small hydropower plants in the northern half of the country. These are the 12 MW Lusiwasi hydropower station, the 6MW Chishimba Falls power plant on the outskirts of Kasama, 5MW Musonda Falls power station in Mansa and the 0.75MW Lunzua Power station near Mpulungu (Phiri, 2006).

Application of Small Hydro in Electricity Generation

Small Hydro in the Central African Republic The pico hydro power station (PCH) in Bakouma, in the Central African Republic has an installed capacity of 9.5 kW. The power produced by the PCH provides lighting to the 25-room district hospital and ensures the functioning of several medical machines, including the operating theatre, as well as lighting for the towns small mechanical workshop and functioning of a rice hulling machine. The PCH has been developed entirely by the local personnel under the supervision of Father Henri Zandbelt, from the bishopric of Bakouma and Bangassou. The bishopric owns the PCH. Father Henri himself provided and installed the turbine and related equipment as well as the cables necessary for the lines and the lamp. Father Henri has trained a team of four people to run and maintain the PCH as well as for the mechanical workshop. The Bakouma cathedral town pays for the maintenance team thanks to the small revenue earned by the mechanical workshop (Tondo, 2004). Small Hydro in Kenya Small hydropower systems have been used in Kenya as stand-alone power generation supplies for Missionary stations and private large farms. Since 1920s, water lifting applications or mechanical loads have dominated the small hydro utilization. There are also isolated cases where tea factories and other institutional establishments have exploited small hydro for own power supply (Mbuthi, 2006). Though Kenya is endowed with rich hydropower potential, available literature gives conflicting figures as to the actual potential for both large and small hydropower. The overall hydropower potential of Kenya, estimated in 1991, amounts to approximately 30,000GWh/year, representing 6,000 MW of installed capacity. It is also estimated that almost over half the potential is attributable to small rivers. The energy bill estimates small hydropower potential to be 3,000MW (Balla, 2006). A more conservative figure has been given to represent the hydropower potential of 8,860 GWh/year, representing 2,107.5MW of capacity. It is estimated that the technically feasible hydro potential is 4,710GWh/year, of which 62% has been developed. This potential seems to represent the large hydropower plants, as there is no systematic study to establish the exploitable potential for small hydropower. Inventions and emerging technologies in small hydropower generation may also influence increases in the potential, for instance exploitation of low head high volume technologies (Balla, 2006). A number of small hydropower schemes have been implemented in Kenya by Kenya Generation Company, the private investors (e.g. tea companies, mission hospitals), individuals and communities. Some tea companies and community groups have already running systems and the impact is clear, with one company (Unilever) making savings of over Kshs.30 million (US$ 375,000) on electricity costs. UnileverTea Company has installed capacity of 2.2MW. James FinlayTea Company has an installed capacity of 2.4MW. A missionary complex that includes a boarding secondary school in Meru runs on a 70Kw plant. Tanwek missionary hospital runs on 320KW plant (Balla, 2006) A small community in Muranga district has installed a 10Kw machine and uses the electricity even for cooking. A community in Chuka has implemented a14Kw scheme that powers a trade centre where economic activities e.g. welding are already taking place. The following table is a summary of some of the small hydro schemes implemented in Kenya (Balla, 2006).

Table 6:
Scheme Tana Ndula Wanjii Gogo Sagana Mesco Sosiani Tanwek

Small hydropower schemes currently implemented in Kenya

Type Mini-hydro Mini-hydro Mini-hydro Mini-hydro Mini-hydro Mini-hydro Mini-hydro Mini-hydro Mini-hydro Mini-hydro Ownership KenGen KenGen KenGen KenGen KenGen KenGen KenGen Tanwek Missionary Hospital Unilever Tea Company James Finlay Tea Company Community Community Community Community Location (River) Upper Tana Thika Maragua Migori Upper Tana Maragua Sosiani Bomet Kericho Kericho River Tungu Mukengeria Kathamba Installed Capacity 14.4 MW 2.0 MW 7.4 MW 2.0 MW 1.5 MW 0.38 MW 0.4 MW 320KW 2.2MW 2.4MW 14KW 70KW 2KW 1.2KW 2000 2001 2001 Date Commissioned 1940 -1953 1924 1955 1952 1952 1919 1955 1987

Tungu Kabiru Thima Kathamba

Source: Balla, 2006

Micro-hydro Micro-hydro Pico-hydro Pico-hydro

The Ministry of Energy (Kenya) in collaboration with the Intermediate Technology Development Group East Africa (ITDG-EA) has undertaken several initiatives to develop a sustainable infrastructure for isolated small hydropower development in the country. These include the following (Karekezi et al, 2005): A pilot community micro hydropower project in Mbuiru village, Meru South District with a capacity of 14 kW. The energy generated is for powering micro enterprises such as grain milling and oil processing. Two community pico hydropower schemes in Kirinyaga district generating 1.1 kW and 2.2 kW providing electricity to 65 and 165 households respectively Small Hydro in South Africa In South Africa, there are at most a dozen or so small hydro installations in the KwaZulu Natal region. Most of these systems are concentrated in farmlands in the interior of the country and are just a few kilowatts in magnitude. Table 7 summarises some of the installations that have been installed in KwaZulu Natal (Singh, 2001). Table 7:
Place Oribi Gorge Giant's Castle Njusuti Richmond Mooi River Bulwer Crammond

Small Hydro Installations in KwaZulu Natal

Area Type Waterfall Drakensberg Mountain - Trout Hatchery KwaZulu Natal Parks Board Farm Farm Dairy Farm Capacity 100 kW 5 kW 2 kW 3 kW 6 kW 3 kW 40 kW Purpose Provider (flood damaged in 1996) Water pumping Lighting and Heating Irrigation Irrigation Water pumping and Irrigation Irrigation

Small Hydro in Crammond (KwaZulu Natal - South Africa)

The Solomon family has been growing 100 ha of maize on their 1,125 ha farm for many years and had an outlay of R110, 000 in 1991 (about US$35,000 in 1991). They installed a 40 kW water turbine on the Umgeni River for irrigation purposes. The system was estimated to pay for itself within a period of five years and would provide a lifetime of power with minimal maintenance costs (Singh, 2001). The water driving the turbine flows along a canal, which is about 0.80 km long. At the end of the canal, 400 litres/s is fed into a Monax Type 24 turbine through a 750 mm pipe with a fall of 12 m. The actual power that can be generated is about 48 kW, but allowing for losses and efficiency, about 40 kW output is obtained. The Monax turbine runs at 750 rev/min and drives a Southern Cross RHF

100 centrifugal pump, through the Vee belt drive. The capacity of the driven pump is 180 kilolitres/hour at a pressure of 520 kPa. The water is pumped into a dragline sprinkler system that was recently upgraded to include 140 sprinklers, which are used to irrigate 50 ha of pasture for dairy animals (Singh, 2001). This power is available day and night, 24 hours a day, year in and out at no cost above normal maintenance. The butterfly valve is to be connected to an electronic governor in the near future to regulate water flow and to maintain a constant power output regardless of load variation. In terms of the cost analysis, the maintenance involves changing a flat belt twice a year, bearings and brushes occasionally. The system has been in use all these years at virtually no cost once the cost had been recovered. Further calculations show that the initial cost was two-thirds that of the grid supply, which was recovered over a period of five years (Singh, 2001). Small Hydro in Svinuray, Cashel Valley, Zimbabwe The micro hydro system at Svinurayi, Cashel Valley, was installed in the 1930s and consists of the civil works, a penstock and a powerhouse with a turbine. In addition, the turbine is coupled to a 220 V direct current generator and a grinding mill for milling maize. The hydropower system is supplied with water from the Mutengambudzi River, which is 176 m above the powerhouse level. The water is then channelled to a settling tank system through a distance of 650m. The forebay is about 100 m above the powerhouse level and is circular with a diameter of 3.65 m with a depth of 1.74 m. The total length of the penstock is 412 m (Singh, 2001). The turbine is a 10 kW Pelton wheel, while the generator is rated at 33A, 9.5 kV and 1,500 r.p.m and it has a double-ended shaft. One end is driven by the turbine and the other is fitted with a V-belt pulley, which drives a layshaft running at about 3,000 r.p.m (Singh, 2001).

Application of Small Hydro for Mechanical Power

Small hydro has the advantage of multiple uses: energy generation, irrigation, water supply and mechanical power for grain milling, saw milling and running a lathe machine, among others. It is also a very reliable technology with a solid track record, well suited to rural areas outside the central power grid (Karekezi and Kithyoma, 2005) In Kenya, small hydropower has been harnessed for over a century. However, the development was mainly aimed at supplying mechanical power for agro-processing activities such as maize milling and in very few cases for electricity generation for villages far from the grid (Karekezi et al, 2005) Hydro power is used for irrigation and water supply. Traditionally, water wheels operated grindstones, thresher, water pumps, Lathes, saw blades and eventually with gearing produce electricity (AFREPREN, 1998). The micro hydro system at Svinurayi, Zimbabwe was installed in the 1930s and consists of the civil works, a penstock and a powerhouse with a turbine. In addition, the turbine is coupled to a 220 V direct current generator and a grinding mill for milling maize (Singh, 2001). Small hydropower is also used to provide motive and shaft power in some countries. In some cases, the shaft power can be used to process agricultural produce and increase its value (Karekezi and Kithyoma, 2002).

Barriers to Development and Implementation of Small Hydro

Growth has been dampened by the high initial costs of setting up a small-hydro scheme (about US$ 2,000 3,000/kW installed) which, while relatively modest in a developed work context, are prohibitive for most rural Africans without access to financial resources (Karekezi et al, 2005) Factors that influence the dissemination of small hydro power can be divided into four categories namely (AFREPREN, 1998):

1) Institutional: - Need of a coherent national energy policy guideline - Monopolistic status of national power utilities - Absence of active participation of the private sector - Emphasis on service and welfare functions instead of production -oriented functions. - Limited information on small hydro sources. 2) Organization, Management and Maintenance - Limited maintenance requirements 3) Human Resource Development - In adequate attention to the training of users,maintenance personnel and manufacture. - Size and level of training 4) Finance and Economic Issues - High Initial cost need low interest credit schemes - Non-involvement of the locals

Case Study of a Country that has Successfully Implemented Small Hydro

Nepal is one of the countries in the developing world that has achieved substantial small hydropower development. Although not in Africa, Nepal has development indicators that are roughly similar to sub-Saharan African countries, and therefore provides useful lessons on small hydro development, for the sub-Saharan African region (Karekezi and Kithyoma, 2002). In Nepal, the harnessing of waterpower is not a new phenomenon: traditional water wells for agroprocessing have been in use for centuries in the rural areas, with the first modern hydropower installed in 1993. Small hydro turbine and electrification schemes have been found to be viable options for meeting the energy needs of the rural population in remote areas of Nepal (Karekezi and Kithyoma, 2002). To date the country has about 25,000 operational small hydro units (Karekezi and Ranja, 1997). The Nepalese government has been instrumental in the promotion of small hydropower. In 1984, it sanctioned privately instituted small hydro projects under 100kW, eliminated licensing requirements and granted approval for charging unrestricted tariffs. This has led to active private sector involvement in SHP development, as well as increased dissemination of the technology (Karekezi and Kithyoma, 2002). Micro-hydro systems provide direct drive which can be used for milling, grinding and to generate electricity. In Nepal, the revenue generated by the provision of a milling service provides the owner with a profit, which can be supplemented, in an increasing number of cases, by the sale of electricity for lighting at night (Hislop, 1992).

References:
AFREPREN (1998), Solar Hydro Power, paper presented at the AFREPREN/FWD/UNESCO Solar Region Training Workshop, Nairobi, AFREPREN AFREPREN (2004) AFREPREN Occasional Paper23: African Energy Data Handbook, Nairobi, Africa Energy Policy Research Network (AFREPREN) Balla, P. (2006) National Study on Small Hydropower Development: Status and Potential of Small Hydropower Development in the Tea Industry in Kenya, unpublished report, Nairobi and Mombasa, UNEP/GEF and East African Tea Trade Association (EATTA)

Cuamba, B. (2006) A Brief Analysis of the Energy Sector in Mozambique, unpublished report, Nairobi and Mombasa, UNEP/GEF and East African Tea Trade Association (EATTA) Hislop, D. (1992) Energy Options - An Introduction to Small Scale Renewable Energy Technologies, Portsmouth, Intermediate Technology Publications Karekezi, S. and Kithyoma, W. (eds) (2005) Sustainable Energy in Africa: Cogeneration and Geothermal in the East and Horn of Africa Status and Prospects, Nairobi, AFREPREN/FWD and Heinrich Boll Foundation (HBF) Karekezi, S. and Kithyoma, W. (2002) Renewable energy strategies for rural Africa: is PV led renewable energy strategy the right approach for providing modern energy to the rural poor of Sub-Saharan Africa?, Energy Policy 30 (11-12), Oxford, Elsevier Science Ltd, pg. 10711086. Karekezi, S., Kithyoma, W., Wangeci, J., Gashie, W., Turyahabwe, E., Onguru, O., Balla, P. and Ochieng, X. (2006) The Potential of Small and Medium-Scale Renewables in Poverty Reduction in Africa, Nairobi, AFREPREN/FWD and Heinrich Boll Foundation (HBF) Kassana, L. (2006) National Study on Small Hydropower Development: Status and Potential of Small Hydropower Development in the Tea Industry in Tanzania, unpublished report, Nairobi and Mombasa, UNEP/GEF and East African Tea Trade Association (EATTA) Mbuthi, P. (2006) Power Sector Reforms and Regulatory Framework; Prospects and Challenges of Small Hydropower Development in Kenya, unpublished report, Nairobi and Mombasa, UNEP/GEF and East African Tea Trade Association (EATTA) Opio, P. (2006) National Study on Small Hydropower Development: Status and Potential of Small Hydropower Development in the Tea Industry in Uganda, unpublished report, Nairobi and Mombasa, UNEP/GEF and East African Tea Trade Association (EATTA) Phiri, I. (2006) Power Sector Reforms and Regulatory Framework: Prospects and Challenges of Small Hydro Development in the Tea Industry in Zambia, unpublished report, Nairobi and Mombasa, UNEP/GEF and East African Tea Trade Association (EATTA) Singh, D. (2001) Small Hydro Technology, AFREPREN Occasional Paper 10: Renewable Energy Technologies in Africa An Energy Training Course Handbook, Nairobi, AFREPREN Tondo, B. (2004) Pico Hydropower and Sustainable Development: The Example of Bakouma in the Central African Republic, ESI Africa, Issue 3, Steenberg, Spintelligent Wertheimer, G.I. (2005) Pico Hydro A Prospect for the Alleviation of the Rural Energy Crisis in subSaharan Africa, Masters Dissertation, Nottingham, University of Nottingham

Useful Websites
FINESSE website - www.finesse-africa.org Website on Small hydro: www.small-hydro.com International Network on Small Hydro Power: http://www.inshp.org/mem/namecard.asp http://www.british-hydro.org/mini-hydro/index.asp - has useful fundamentals section on small hydro http://www.wvic.com/hydro-works.htm - for hydropower basics