A thesis in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Communications Design School of Art and

Design Pratt Institute May 2013

Received and Approved by

Antonio DiSpigna, Thesis Advisor Date

Jeff Bellantoni, Chairperson

Date

Research, writing and design : Sarah Elizabeth S. Greene Typefaces : FuturaICG, ITC Caslon 224

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION CHAPTER I Too Big to Succeed? Success and Failure of the American Food Industry Birth of the American Food Industry Politics of Food Price of Progress CHAPTER II Lost in the Supermarket: The Dissociation of Consumers from Daily Food Items A Star Is Born: History of the American Supermarket Price of Convenience CHAPTER III Building a Solution, Online Opportunities for Consumers and Small Business Direction for Visual Solution Case Studies CONCLUSION

I-IV 2

3 7 11 20

21 27 42

43 51 79

INTRODUCTION

I struggle to make decisions every day. Shopping in the supermarket is a major source of my indecision. Are these garlic cloves fresh, how far did they travel to reach the shelf? Which bag of frozen peas is cheaper per volume, the half-pound or full-pound? Which sorts of pesticides were used on these beefsteak tomatoes, how much is the person paid who picked them, is he or she treated well during the workday? The supermarket is a physical manifestation of information overload and, in our digital era, this overload has become prevalent.
My indecision is rooted in an odd coupling of knowing too much and knowing too little. Over the years I have learned a great deal about how to make sustainable, healthy, and humane food choices. With all this knowledge, I still find myself lost in the supermarket aisles. Many important questions are
I

left unanswered, as there is little transparency in food production. We live in an incomplete system, one that does not utilize the best features made possible by digital platforms. Through interactive design, we can harness the overwhelming sea of information, and direct consumers to more transparent methods of food production. Over the years I have also struggled with what to eat. Experimenting with a variety of diets, Ive been an omnivore, vegan, vegetarian, flexitarian, and pescatarian. Recently, I made my way back to vegetarianism and from there I went back, full circle to become a vegan that eats bivalves. Through the years Ive been overweight, underweight, and everywhere in between. Ive been anemic, protein deprived, and have felt run down and lousy. Today I take great care to choose delicious and healthy meals as often as possible. My main aim is satisfaction. I work to get complete proteins, iron, calcium, and B12. Physically, I feel the best I have in memory and I owe it all to educated decisions. My diet is not healthy because of its ore, an, or ism, it is healthy because of my vigilant goal to eat balanced meals. This balance can
II

HYPOTHESIS HYPOTHESIS

The average American has become disassociated from the food they consume. Through the use of innovative design, new and powerful connections can be forged with our food.
which developing countries strive to emulate. These behaviors must be reversed as soon as possible before these issues of sustainability, public health, and animal welfare are pushed to the breaking point. Through the use of innovative design, Americans can be reintroduced to the food they consume. There must be transparency in production and this is made possible through a thoughtful and direct connection between vendors and purchasers. Through study of the past, present, and desired conditions of the current food industry and the supermarket construct, a fun, easy to use, and informative network can be developed for online and mobile use. This tool will allow the user to connect directly with food products. Todays consumer increasingly strives to be more conscious of the products they purchase and there is a great demand for commercial transparency. Creating a large network of local food producers will also support a grassroots structure of small businessesa vital part of the American economy. Providing a local food network that facilitates access to products outside of the supermarketthe point of most food purchases will pave the way for more sustainable, healthy, and humane food choices. This network will support the change that must bloom across the United States and, hopefully, around the globe.
IV

come from a wide range of sources. Single notes or individual ingredients do not have long lasting effects on your body, what truly matters is the way these notes harmonize with one another and whether they work to create a symphony of good, lifelong food choices. The importance of this balance makes understanding what we eat an essential part of our daily decisions. Todays consumer is disassociated from the food they purchase. When buying items in the supermarket, the narrative behind the production of various options can often be misleading and even nonexistent. The supermarket shopper is left with an end product and their imagination. This disassociation is problematic because Americans food habits have deep impacts on sustainability, public health, and animal welfare. Modern changes to the American food industry have greatly contributed to global climate change, deforestation, and water contamination. Over nutrition has caused epidemic rates of obesity and type-II diabetes as well as other chronic diet-related health problems such as heart conditions and stroke. The standard treatment of animals as commodities has led to inhumane conditions in the mass confinement, transportation, and slaughter of livestock. By developing these food habits, Americans have not only caused damage nationwide, a standard has been set
III

TOO BIG TO SUCCEED? THE SUCCESSES AND FAILURES OF THE AMERICAN FOOD INDUSTRY

SECTION A BIRTH OF THE AMERICAN FOOD INDUSTRY

solution and while able to stave off hunger, it proved to be another temporary fix. Once again, population has risen, surging to new levels, and we face an additional breaking point. From the 1960s to the start of the 21st Century, the global population has doubled, rising from approximately 3 billion to more than 6 billion (Mosier, 4). It is clear that while generations have managed to side step Malthusian results, this possible consequence continues to loom increasingly closer. If new, long lasting, and sustainable solutions are not developed, this end will become a reality. The origin of chemical fertilizer, which was so integral to the aversion of previous food crises, can be credited to work completed by the chemist Justus von Liebig in 19th Century. The basis behind his development is rooted in the concept that agricultural practices are able to deplete nutrients in the soil. Liebig made a twofold discoveryfirst, nitrogen is essential for plant growth; second, when fertilizer is Justus von Liebig infused with nitrogen, it transforms soil that was once depleted of nutrients and unable to support crops into soil that supports the quick and hearty growth of crops. While these developments supported food production during the 19th Century, the Green Revolution required more advanced fertilizer in order to accommodate an even larger demand. According to Agriculture and the Nitrogen Cycle, The principal
4

Food production is a simple matter of arithmetic; total population must equal less than the total amount Earth can support. Malthusian theory proposes that population growth, if left unrestrained, will exceed our ability to produce food and other means necessary for survival. So, if these matters of balance are so simple, why do food crises occur time and time again?
At the turn of the 19th Century, Thomas Malthus addressed the potential for population to grow exponentially. A rapidly increasing population that correlated with the beginning of the Industrial Revolution inspired his theory. Through the combined use of fossil fuels, streamlined methods of production, and chemical fertilizer, the increasing demands on food production were met. Industrialism continued to flourish and the growth of population kept pace until another breaking point was reached after WWII. Science and advances in technology were once again sought after to find a solution. The Green Revolution was this
3

technology used to produce nitrogen (N) fertilizer today is traced to the HaberBosch synthesis of ammonia. The first ammonia plant using this technology began operating in 1913, but inorganic N fertilizer use did not begin to expand dramatically until after World War II (Mosier, 233). Without these advancements made during the beginning of the 20th Century, the increased demand for food following WWII would not have been able to be met. The Green Revolution was also made possible through the combined use of the hybridization of corn and other crops. According to a journal article recently featured in Science Magazine, Food Security: The Challenge of Feeding 9 Billion People, the Green Revolution also succeeded by using conventional breeding to develop F1 hybrid varieties of maize and semi-dwarf, disease-resistant varieties of wheat and rice. These varieties could be provided with more irrigation and fertilizer without the risk of major crop losses due to lodging (falling over) or severe rust epidemics (Godfray, 815). The advances in fertilizer and the hybridization of crops worked symbiotically to fill demands made by a rapidly growing population. Both were necessary for success and without these discoveries, the increased need for food would not have been met.

SECTION B POLITICS OF FOOD

Migrant worker in 1939

Herbert Clark Hoover

Franklin D. Roosevelt

The current state of the American food industry is largely influenced by subsidies provided to farmers by the federal government. According to historian Burton Folsom, the very concept of the federal government providing support to the farming industry was alien to the nation until the 20th Century. At the onset of the Great Depression, President Hoover instituted the Farm Board via the Agriculture Marketing Act of 1929. President Roosevelt then followed suit by continuing support for farmers through the Agricultural Adjustment Act made possible by the New Deal in 1933.
Folsoms stance is based on the lack of provisions in the Constitution for the federal government to oversee farming practices. He explains American farmers dominated world markets under the free-enterprise system. They were ever creative in figuring out how to gain larger yields of crops through mechanization or
7

through improving crop strains, such as hybrid corn (Folsom, 34). He also asserts that during previous times of financial austerity, the federal government largely stayed out of the farm business, going on to state that subsidies were used neither to support farmers during the recession of the 1890s nor following WWI, both of which were times marked by economic difficulty. (Folsom, 34).

HAD DISASTROUS CONSEQUENCES FOR ALMOST EVERYONE

The federal government changed its position following the Stock Market crash at the end of the 1920s. Spurred further by the Great Depression and the Dust Bowl, support generated from subsides continued to increase. Folsom describes that Hoovers Farm
8

HOOVERS FARM BOARD

Farm during the Dust Bowl

Agriculture equipment buried in the Dust Bowl

Board had disastrous unintended consequences for almost everyone. For example, many farmers who typically grew other crops shifted to wheat or cotton because they were protected and now provided a secure income (Folsom, 35). This caused a glut of production and the government was forced to buy the surplus. He continues to say After about two years of buying surpluses, the government finally just gave them away or sold them on the world market at huge losses (Folsom, 35). These trends continued into the 21st Century and the US government and farming industry continue to lock in a confusing tangle of surplus, losses, and an increasing burden on taxpayers. Folsom describes this development stating, American politicians, under pressure during hard times, sacrificed the
9

Constitution and economic sense for votes at the ballot box (Folsom, 35). Politicians remain under pressure to support subsidies that benefit factory farms, agribusiness, and other results of the industrialization of food production. Subsidies in the farm industry, in turn, have a large impact on American politics. Not only do politicians receive large contributions from lobbies related to factory farms and agribusiness, a plethora of legislation protects current food production practices, preventing quick and effective action from taking place.

10

SECTION C PRICE OF PROGRESS

Maryland pig farm in 1939

The mass confinement of pigs

Agribusiness, a popular term for current industrial farming practices, has roots in the Green Revolution. With the surplus of grains and other crops in the US, it became possible to support larger amounts of livestock. This led to the development of factory farms. Currently, about one-third of global cereal production is fed to animals (Godfray, 816) . Battery cages, a device used to collect eggs from mass populations of chickens, were developed as early as the 1930s. The majority of chickens in America are raised in these cages, a structure which has been developed to pack more and more chickens into an excruciatingly small space.

Agribusiness has spread to more than just the production of eggs. Increasing amounts of beef originate from cows crammed into desolate feedlots and most pork products come from pigs that spend the vast majority of their lives in gestation crates, a space so small they are unable to even turn around. It is well known that Americans are faced with an obesity epidemic and other diet related diseases. When these trends in public health are compared to national patterns of rising meat consumption, the parallels are alarming. In Bittmans recent New York Times article he states, grain-fed animalsare contributing to health problems among the worlds wealthier citizens heart disease, some types of cancer, diabetes. He continues to disclose that the large portions of meat, which are so predominant in the American diet, are a
Laying hens in battery cages

11

12

lead contributor to these health issues. The Center for Disease Control, CDC, also agrees that typical portion sizes are excessively large and are increasing over time. Larger portions lead to more consumption. In their recent online publication, The New (Ab)Normal, the CDC claims that the average restaurant meal is four times larger than in the 1950s.

BILLION SPENT ANNUALLY ON

147

OUT OF

OBESE
It is clear that consumption of meat and other animal products has become severely off balance. The intake of meat has increased rapidly between the 1960s and today. Century of Meata visual study by Jonathan Corum for the New York Timesillustrates that the average Americans annual consumption of beef, per capita, increased 10 pounds from 1960 to 2000 (Yoon). Chicken consumption rose even more drastically, from 20 to 60 pounds (Yoon). Levels of obesity and diabetes have also risen sharply during a similar time period. According to the CDC in another online publication, Adult Obesity Facts, more than one third of Americans are obese. Not only does this cause a number of health risks for the individual, including heart disease, stroke, type 2 diabetes and certain types of cancer, the CDC also notes that medical costs associated with obesity were estimated at $147 billion which creates a huge financial drain on the country.
13

AMERICANS ARE

OBESITY RELATED ILLNESSES

Aside from public health concerns, the issue of livestock suffering in the production of meat and other animal products has become increasingly popular in America. Rollin discusses this concern in his keynote address to the annual meeting of the Journal of Animal Science, asserting, 20 [years] ago one would have found no bills pending in the US Congress relating to animal welfare. After the late 1990s and into the early 2000s, there have been 50 to 60 such bills annually, with even more proliferating at the state level. Rollin goes on to define the aspects of suffering into different categories, Production diseases which arise from the new ways the animals are produced, the physical and psychological deprivation for animals in confinement, and finally, the producers inability to afford or provide one-on-one, specialized care for the animal. Rollin goes on to discuss the current state of animal suffering as having roots in the dramatic change from the practice of animal husbandry to animal science. He states, For virtually all of human history, animal agriculture was basedin animal husbandry. Husbandrymeant taking great pains to put ones animals into the best possible environment one could find to meet their physical and psychological natures. He places the moment of this change after WWII at which
14

Cattle in a CAFO (concentrated animal feeding operation)

Maryland cow in 1935

time the Departments of Animal Husbandry became Departments of Animal Science. The change went beyond language and became a shift in thought process. Unfortunately, so-called animal science does not strive to care for the animal, instead it employs industrial methods for the purpose of the mass production of animals, displacing them into environments where they [suffer] for the purpose of higher yields. Through the mechanization, technological advancement, and the consequent capability of confining large numbers of animals in highly capitalized facilities significant changes were possible. While most livestock were once kept in environments for which they had evolved they were now being kept in environments that are contrary to their natures but beneficial to increased productivity. Such drastic changes in environment were made possible through the use of antibiotics and severe changes in diet. With more and more industrial methods in use, the rates of agricultural production increased, doubling
15

between 1820 and 1920 and again between 1920 and 1950, and then doubling yet once more from 1965 to 1975. While production increased, the amount of farmers decreased and smaller amounts of workers were producing far more food. Each of these factors relate to the commodification and mass production of animals and have contributed to the now-commonplace suffering of livestock in these industrial settings. (Rollin). Without thinking of public health or animal suffering, we find ourselves, once again, with a matter of arithmetic. The increase in population over the centuries is clear, but following Malthusian theory, the Earths capacity to support items needed for human subsistence is also integral to the equation. Unfortunately, demands made by the current population are close to exceeding this capacity and many projections find that a breaking point is near. Agribusiness and factory farms are a massive drain on natural resources, an integral factor to the happiness and health of Americans.
16

NEARLY

WATER QUALITY PROBLEMS IN AMERICA SPRING FROM

75%

OF

AGRICULTURE
The murky waters of an algae bloom

According to Bittman, The environmental impact of growing so much grain for animal feed is profound. Agriculture in the United Statesmuch of which now serves the demand for meatcontributes to nearly threequarters of all water-quality problems in the nations rivers and streams. Demand for this grain increases as rapidly as the population itself. Between the 1960s and start of the 21st Century, grain production has more than doubled yet the amount of land devoted to arable agriculture globally has increased less than 10 percent. The development of new arable land is unlikely because, as Bittman states, it has been lost to urbanization and other human uses, as well as to desertification, salinization, soil erosion, and other consequences of unsustainable land management and it is foreseen that not only is the gain of land unlikely, continued and profound loss is probable. In terms of seeking additional sustenance from fishing and sea life, a possible alternative to food yielded from agriculture, Virtually all capture fisheries are fully exploited, and most are overexploited (Godfray, 812-3). Clearly, we are standing at the brink of a breaking point. Damage to our natural recourses is also caused from the nitrogen infused fertilizer that was developed to solve
17

our previous food crises. According to Mosier Excessive use of [nitrogen] can lead to numerous problems directly related to human health including respiratory diseases induced by exposure to high concentrations of ozone and fine particulate matter (Mosier, 3). Too much nitrogen can also increase ecosystem vulnerability including the acidification of soils and algae blooms (Mosier, 3). He elaborates on nitrogens effect on water quality stating that the excessive growth of algae leads to oxygen depletion, and the production of a range of substances toxic to fish, cattle, and humans (Mosier, 6). While advances in food technology allowed Americans and many other countries to stave off starvation, it is clear that these methods are detrimental for numerous reasons. Increased consumption of meat and other animal products correlates to epidemic rates of obesity, diabetes, and other diet related diseases. In addition, inhumane treatment of animals has become an insidious part of the food industry. Finally, the system of production is unsustainable and has caused severe damage to the environment on all levels. It is clear that healthier, more humane, and sustainable methods are essential for the future of food production.
18

LOST IN THE SUPERMARKET DISASSOCIATION OF CONSUMERS FROM DAILY FOOD ITEMS

GENERAL STORES
SECTION A A STAR IS BORN: THE HISTORY OF THE AMERICAN SUPERMARKET
American life, the business itself is a relatively new construct. Sara Wimberley investigates the origins of this unique commercial setting and its relation to the industrialism of America in her article, Supermarket Savvy, featured in A Journal of History. Before the rise of the supermarket, the general store was the main point of purchase for food items. These small shops provided a wildly different experience than the megastores today and carried dramatically fewer products in comparison, selling a variety of household and personal items and only the most basic food staples such as salt, flour, and sugar (Wimberley, 179). There was little demand for agricultural items due to the fact that the majority of families grew and preserved their own
Norman Rockwells Freedom from Want

AMERICANS FIRST SHOPPED AT

THAT SOLD CHOICE STAPLES

A&P storefront in 1938

Eating is both a personal and powerful experience. We consume foodtaking it into our bodies, breaking down the material, and transforming it into essential nourishment. Food is an imperative part of many spiritual rituals and plays great importance in a vast array of traditions across the globe. The phrase dinner table conjures unique and intimate images to mind, inviting us to recall times spent with family and friends. Eating itself is a social and uniting act. The term breaking bread, which literally means to share a meal, has come to mean much more, describing camaraderie and togetherness.
Eating is also an extremely common experience. We feed ourselves multiple times a day and the majority of this food is purchased in the supermarket. As the main source of these personal, powerful, and necessary purchases, the space itself takes on great importance. While the supermarket has become ubiquitous to
21

22

General store still standing in 1942

1921 packaging

Butcher with customer in 1943

vegetables and meats (Wimberley, 179). As discussed in the previous section on the American food industry, this once widespread practice of families maintaining their own means of production of food did not last long into the 20th Century and has become nearly obsolete. During the Industrial Revolution, waves of mechanization swelled through many vocational fields. The practice of agricultural was greatly affected. Food production became more industrialized and removed from human labor. In addition, communities became more urban. This combination meant that food culture changed and general stores, the place food items were purchased,

changed as well. In its place rose the grocery store, which began to offer farm produce and canned food products, which became a primary food source for families (Wimberley, 179). Americans in turn started to become disassociated from the food they consumed and most households no longer produced agricultural products. The most successful grocery stores, which can still be visited today, began as specialty stores thatgrew over time to include numerous products, from staple items and canned and processed foods to luxury items. (Wimberley, 178). Some of the these stores include Giant Foods, H-E-B, and Piggly Wiggly, and the Great American Tea Company which later became the Great Atlantic & Pacific Tea Company and is now, simply, A&P (Wimberley, 178). Each one of these stores has remained relevant due to their ability to adapt. The grocery store was also redefined when faced with advances in industry. As the general store gave way to the grocery store through the mechanization of agriculture, the food sellers were revolutionized by the introduction of the car. Wimberley explains the change, stating that, at the beginning of 20th Century, grocery stores operated under a charge-and-delivery system which
24

AUTOMOBILES PAVED THE

GROCERY STORE
23

WAY FOR THE BIRTH OF THE

means that the shopper requested goods by bringing a list of needs to the store or by calling in an order (Wimberley, 181). Employees then gathered and delivered items to customers homes (Wimberley, 181). As the request and receipt of each item was often separate, customers usually charged their groceries. Bills were delivered with the selected items and were due at the end of the month (Wimberley, 181). In essence, the consumers gratification through making the purchase was delayed, as they had to wait for receipt of the product. This delay remained in effect until the introduction of the car. After the advent of the automobile, greater access to further distances became possible and by the 1920s, more families owned automobiles and grocery store followed suit to match the changing desires of the customer. No longer burdened by the need to deliver items to each customers home, businesses were free to let shoppers roam the store, select items from the shelves, pay cash up front, and carry purchases home themselves (Wimberley, 181). With the instant receipt of items, bills were no longer necessary and within a few years, grocers across the nation had converted to the economical cashand-carry format (Wimberley, 182). In many ways, the automobile allowed for the mechanization of the domestic American lifestyle and allowed the consumer to receive instant gratification from their purchases. The grocery store ultimately lost its prominence following WWII. Events leading up to and during the Great Depression as well as events during the war caused a Lack of domestic resources [that] all but shut down small, locally operated food producers (Wimberley, 183). This meant the loss of many grocery stores. After a post-war period of strict fiscal restraint and belt-tightening, the American economy experienced rapid growth. Wimberley attributes this growth to conspicuous consumption and a booming population (Wimberley, 183). During this period of expansion, wages increased, the birth rate skyrocketed,
25

INCREASED USE OF CARS LED TO THE CREATION OF THE

SUPERMARKET

and new products were introduced to the market at an exponentially increasing rate. With many small, local grocery stores now closed, larger businesses were able to increase in number and size. In addition, international trade also increased dramatically which allowed for a deluge of new commercial items. According to Wimberley, the market was flooded with approximately [200] new food products each year. In 1962 an estimated [6,000] food products were available for purchase, about one-third of which had come into existence in the 1950s (Wimberley, 183). This swift increase had a dramatic effect on food sellers. In order to keep up with the flood of products, stores expanded rapidly in size and number and the grocery store transformed into the supermarket. While the shifts from general store to the grocery store and grocery store to supermarket have roots in American historical events, these commercial spaces also had massive impacts on American culture over time. Gigantic increases in store size and product availability, the decrease in variety between stores, rise of the chain, and development of in-store advertising and marketing strategies have all had major effects on the American home. While the story of the supermarket was molded by circumstances, it has also shaped future events, simultaneously reacting to present states and actively forming future conditions.
26

is not without consequence, however. While much has been gainedbenefits from consolidating food into one commercial space, increased access to food varieties, and prevalence of nutritional supplementsa great deal has been lost in terms of sustainability and public health.

SECTION B PRICE OF CONVENIENCE

1 OUT OF 3 AMERICANS
WILL DEVELOP DIABETES
What we eat has changed over the years and much of this relates products sold in the supermarket. This change is connected to an explosion of diet related health problems including obesity, heart disease and stroke, high blood pressure, diabetes, and some forms of cancer. Lee Fulkersons documentary, Forks Over Knives, addresses concerns regarding changes in American food consumption and public health. An increasing amount of Americans suffer from these problems linked to food and an astounding 40% of Americans are obese and 1 out of 3 people born in the US today will develop diabetes (Fulkerson). Both of these illnesses directly connect with

Condiment aisle in a contemporary supermarket

The supermarket epitomizes convenience. Each aisle provides a plethora of products all year round regardless of local agricultural limitations or the current season. Preservatives allow for slues of well-stocked shelves and products are able to withstand exceedingly long durations of delivery. Dietary supplements and other added nutritional elements make it easier for consumers to obtain essential nutrients from snacks and meals.
The most distinguishing characteristic of the supermarket, however, is its ability to provide the consumer with an enormous variety of products. This is made possible by the mass transportation of items that have been grown and manufactured at distances far and wide. These items are moved to a single point of access, the supermarket, having been driven on truck beds along interstate highways as well as shipped aboard freighters puttering across vast expanses of ocean. This convenience
27

BYPASS SURGERY
EACH YEAR
28

500,000 RECEIVE

PORTIONS
HAVE GROWN

TIMES IN SIZE

2-5

White Trash Fast Food , a Berlin take on American food

diet. Other illnesses, such as heart disease and some forms of cancer can coincide with food choices. Every 60 seconds, 1 person diesfrom heart disease and more than 1,500 people die each day from cancer (Fulkerson). Again, while not always related to diet, these illnesses are associated with food choices and a great deal of Americans may benefit by making changes to their diet. High levels of cholesterol are a matter that directly coincides with food. Bypass surgery is performed on patients with life threatening levels of cholesterol. According to Forks Over Knives, more than 500,000 Americans receive bypass surgery each year putting many Americans in a possibly fatal situation as they go under the knife. This surgery moves beyond mortality and comes at a high monetary cost as well, adding up to approximately $100,000 per surgery for a total cost of $50 billion annually. Other diet related health concerns come at a high monetary cost with $120 billion spent annually on diet related health issues. Clearly, both the individual and the state of the nation suffer from illnesses linked to food consumption. (Fulkerson).
29

Many of these diet related issues correlate to the growing size of portions sold to consumers. The packaging of processed food available at the supermarket has increased in both weight and volume over the years. Whole foods including fruits and vegetables have also grown in girth, sometimes doubling or tripling in size. Increased portions are not solely appearing in products sold in the supermarket, however. Portions have grown in restaurant servings and the amount of food prepared in the home during mealtime as well (Crane). According to nutrition professor at NYU, Lisa Young, Portion sizes for foods across the board have gotten two to five times

FOOD PRODUCTS ARE INCREASINGLY PACKED WITH

FAT AND SUGAR

30

larger and when added to the fact that there is an increasing abundance of cheap, sugar-loaded, fat filled foods, Americans are ingesting more calories than ever before (Crane). This increase in consumption is a direct and profound contributor to the increase in diet related illnesses. In his article for Science World, Plumped up Portions, Cody Crane illuminates the trend of increased portions and food consumption. Americansconsume hundreds more calories per day than they did only a generation or two ago. At the same time, most people havent increased their daily activity to burn off that extra energy. It is a simple matter of math: people are taking in many more calories than they expel during the day and they are left a glut and a growing gut. At the root cause of this development sits basic human psychology and consumer behavior. Crane interviewed Brian Wansink, the director of the Food and Brand Lab at Cornell University in New York regarding his investigations on consumption patterns. Wansink found that participants who were given bottomless soup bowls ate 73% more than those given regular bowls of soup. So, individuals that received limitless portions consumed exceptionally more than those that received limited portions. Wansink also conducted a study that found serv[ing] larger portions actually increases peoples appetites. He studied this by inviting test subjects to watch a movie and offering them

a free snack. He gave individuals either a medium or large size and those given larger containers consumed much more. Food production companies are no stranger to this behavior. They utilize these tendencies of basic psychology to drive sales and increase consumption. With increased sales, American waistlines have also increased and public health has suffered. Portion size is just one factor of current diet related health concerns. Where food comes from is also essential to the problem and contributes to the state of the environment as well. Yvona Fast discusses the importance of eating seasonally in her article, Whats In Season? While we have a wide range of products within arms reach along the aisles of the supermarket, this convenience comes at a price. Fast weighs the benefits of the supermarket with impacts on the environment, proposing the availability of cheap food from around the world has created an unsustainable system that has had deeply negative effects on the environment. She supports eating seasonally in order to lower ramifications on the environment and reduce pollution and packaging waste. She goes on to use produce as an example, stating imported tomatoes travel an average 1,569 miles to the supermarket, whereas a tomato from your farmers market travels less than 60 miles and needs no packaging. She also cites author Anna Lapp, stating from seed to plate to landfill, the food sector accounts for 18% of greenhouse gases, one-third of methane and two-thirds of nitrous oxide emissions. Essentially, the

STUDIES SHOW WHEN CONSUMERS EAT MORE

31

GIVEN LARGER PORTIONS,

32

UNRIPE
PRODUCE HAS LESS

NUTRITIONAL VALUE THAN

RIPE PRODUCE

practice of crossing long distances to transport food is damaging yet required in our current food distribution system. Eating both seasonally and locally can dramatically reduce this damage. Eating out of season also has negative effects on quality of taste, nutritional content, and public health. Fast cites author and nutritionist Jackie Newgent who claims eating seasonally means produce was picked when ripe and that this yields nutritionally dense and more delicious food. The longer an item is transported or stored, the more opportunity arises for the loss of nutrients, especially vitamin C. A study found that after eight days of storage, spinach lost most of its vitamin C, folate and carotenoids. Loss of vitamins is not the only point of concern; risk of contamination is also a factor when food travels great distances. There are many opportunities for food contamination even for so-called fresh produce. In the past few years, Americans have seen many recalls, most notably spinach in 2006, peanuts in 2009, eggs in 2010 and cantaloupe in 2011. Each of these recalls was required due to the contamination
33

of food during preparation or transportation of the individual product. (Fast). There is need for concern outside environmental and consumer issues as well and it is also essential to consider the small farmer. Through agribusiness practices, consumers have become disconnected from the food they eat. Fast proposes that by eat[ing] seasonally, your food dollar goes directly to the farmer who raised the crop, not a large national corporation and that through local food purchases, the consumer can reconnect to the food producer and therefore the food itself. (Fast). It is impossible to discuss eating seasonally without also looking into the relationship between local and organic foods. Damien Adams compares the local movement to the organic movement in his article, Local Versus Organic, written for the Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems Journal. The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) defines organic as a labeling term that indicates product has been produced through approved methods. These labeling practices strive to combine cultural, biological, and mechanical practices
34

in order to foster cycling of resources, promote ecological balance, and conserve biodiversity. The USDA goes on to define what practices are not organic, stating, synthetic fertilizers, sewage sludge, irradiation, and genetic engineering may not be used (ams.usda.gov). In a sense, the term is defined by a strict standardization of production steps. The act of standardizing was a slow process that took over a decade to fully develop. The USDA spent two years working to adopt national standards for the production, processing and marketing of organically labeled food under the Organic Food Production Act of 1990 and it was not until October 2002 that the USDA officially adopted the federal organic standards also known as The Organic Rule. At first glance, the concept of organic food may seem simple, but the standards are complex. The Organic Rule defines the minimum production, processing and input standards however, these are much lower than many organic advocates strive for. There is also a fourtier organic labeling scheme which includes 100% organic, organic, made with organic ingredients and product contains some organic ingredients. So, while a product may appear to be entirely organic, it may very likely be only partially so. In 2002, when the federal government set its organic standards, the term was defined as an input-driven technical process rather than

ORGANIC PRODUCTS
GENERATE BILLIONS AND GREW

21% BY 2006

a concept based in sustainability. This definition led to the dissatisfaction of many who once saw organic food production as a method for producing sustainable, healthy, and safe food options for American consumers. (Adams). This dissatisfaction led to the pursuit of other means of food production, the most successful being the local movement. The term local in reference to food is much newer than the organic label. Local has been assigned to neither federal standards nor regulation. While The Organic Rule was established to help consumers clearly define whether a product is or is not organic, local food has not been defined in such a way. Adam states Many define local to be within a certain geographical distance, such as 100 miles and others define it to mean some political boundary, such as a state border. Local can also be defined as dealing with matters of ethics, community and other factors not directly corresponding to food miles. (Adams). After the inception of The Organic Rule, organic food as a business increased rapidly. This was due in part to the involvement of agribusinesses which was attracted to the market because of large price premiums and public demand. With the addition of big business practices, revenue skyrocketed and by 2006, sales of organic products reached $16.7 billion and comprised an annual growth rate of 20.9%. When compared to
36

FEDERAL STANDARDS

2002
35

ADOPTED IN

Farmers market post 1980

2001s revenue of $7.4 billion, this was a significant jump. The rise in profitability has also come with a price and many ideals associated with organic production have fallen to the wayside as big business benefits. In 2002, after the adoption of The Organic Rule, the movement fundamentally changed due to marketing campaigns which co-opted the central themes of the organic movement to increase profits while the products were largely grown on farms that either abandoned the sustainable agronomic practices or employed methods of conventional agriculture. In addition to this, with the introduction of large corporationsand the consolidation of food retail outletssmall farmers were essentially removed from the benefits of the boom in demand for organic foods. After the adoption of The Organic Rules, the organic market now operates with just a small number of very powerfulorganic giants who limit farmer income with approximately 80% of the organic food market now being handled by just two national distributors. This imbalance has resulted in a dramatic shift from the movements ideals, pushing small farmers out and embracing big business. (Adams).

The popularity of local food movement is growing quickly as well. The number of farmers markets has increased dramatically, the USDAs Agricultural Marketing Service, found that in 1994 there were 1,755 registered farmers markets and this number grew to 4,685 in 2008. Revenue made from farmers markets has also increased and the Total value of sales at farmers markets in 2007 was $1.2 billion, up from $404 million in 1992. The overall value of local food in the US market has also increased drastically, leaping from an estimated $4 billion in

1994 TO 4,685 IN 2008

FARMERS MARKETS EXPLODED FROM 1,755 IN 1

37

38

2002 to about $5 billion in 2007 and was projected to increase to $7 billion by 2012. So, not only are more and more markets springing up, consumers are willing to pay more for the local products. Clearly, demand is high. (Adams). When compared to the organic movement, the local trend has many similar driving ambitions and it may cause one to wonder whether the local movement will follow a similar path. This is very unlikely as the essential concept of local food hinders the takeover of large agribusinesses that now dominate the market for organic foods. Local food leave[s] no room for industrial farming, organic or otherwise and the movement stress[es] the importance of eating close to home. (Adams). While the supermarket provides a great deal of convenience, this comes at a price. Increasing cases of diet related illness have skyrocketed as portions increase. As waistlines also expand, more Americans suffer and the nation is forced to spend taxpayers money on medical expenses. In order to provide such a vast selection, the supermarket must ship products from far and wide without consideration for natural limitations such as season. This contributes to pollution related from mass transportation and

excessive packaging waste. Failure to eat seasonally also results in lost quality of taste, nutritional content, and opens the door to possible contamination. In addition to this, the organic movements takeover by big business has resulted in the industrialization of organic food production. In reaction, more and more consumers have been supporting the local food movement and farmers markets have increased in both scale of operation and sales. Clearly, the dominant system of the supermarket is in need of change. Through the use of interactive design, an online network of local food providers can be formed to help connect consumers with alternative food options, opening to door to fresher, healthier, and more sustainable diets.

FARMERS MARKETS
WERE PROJECTED TO MAKE

7BILLION IN 2012

Maryland supermarket in 1964

Seeds for sale in 1939

39

40

BUILDING A SOLUTION ONLINE OPPORTUNITIES FOR CONSUMERS AND SMALL BUSINESS

SECTION A DIRECTION FOR VISUAL SOLUTION

Fred Myer in 2004

There is a growing demand for food education and advances in technology facilitate connection between small businesses and the consumer. It is now possible to provide an online and mobile service that connects interested customers with locally produced food while also providing many of the conveniences once held solely by supermarkets and food delivery services. My visual solution will establish a new online networkone which caters both to the needs of the farmer (a small business owner requiring help to brand products) as well as the customer (a savvy shopper interested in getting a bargain as well as getting to know their food).
Chapter I established that the American food system is bloated. It has grown to gargantuan proportions through technological advances, corporate savvy, and government support. But this Behemoth has highly

WHO, WHERE, & WHAT

OFTEN GO ANSWERED IN

SUPERMARKET AISLES
negative effects on a global, national, and individual level. Chapter II established that the supermarket, the location of most food purchases, fails to tell the story behind various items for sale. The narrative of how food makes it to supermarket shelfthe many steps between production and shippingis not told. Once the shopper passes through the markets automatic doors, they are presented with aisle after aisle of end products. The questions of who made the food, where it came from, and what impact it can have are rarely asked or answered. In the instances these questions are posed,

43

44

can scan listed items barcodes and display additional information not visible on the packaging. These tools help consumers make more insightful decisions inside the walls of the supermarket but they fail to completely drain the food industry bloat that continues to stock our shelves. The items that can be scanned are often processed, manufactured foods. Meat, produce, and other whole foods continue to slip under the radar and the consumer remains deaf to the narrative of their origins. The questions of who, where, and what continue to go unanswered. Addressing these questions is also time consuming and, often, food shoppers want to get in, out, and back to their day. This is why the major theme of the supermarket, and they main factor that attracts shoppers to each mega store, is convenience. Hours of operation tend to range across each day of the week, from early morning into the evening, making it easy to fit into most customers schedules. Some markets are even open 24-hours a day, seven days a week, but this depends on consumer demand and tends to occur only in densely urban areas. Delivery services such as Peapod and FreshDirect cater to an even increased degree of convenience when it comes to accessing merchandise. Shoppers dont even have to leave their homethey are able to make selections online and have items delivered as soon as the following day. Founded in 1989, Peapod claims to be the first online home delivery services. According to their website, they operate 24 U.S. markets in the states of Illinois, Wisconsin, Indiana,

it is difficult to discern the validity of claims made by labels and packaging. Recently, consumers have called out for new methods of commerce and there is growing demand for food education. Consumer aids such as mobile apps help shoppers uncover steps of production as well as decode nutritional content. This is made possible by programs that users download to compatible smart phones. Once set-up, the phone

FOOD DELIVERY SYSTEMS

HAVE YET TO FULLY COMPETE WITH THE SUPERMARKET
45 46

Haul from a CSA

FARMERS MARKETS & CSAS OFFER EVEN

LESS CONVENIENCE
Maryland, District of Columbia, Virginia, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New Hampshire, New York, New Jersey and Pennsylvania. FreshDirectfounded later in 2002has a smaller market, delivering food to the five boroughs of New York City, the entirety of Long Island, New Jersey, and parts of Pennsylvania. While supermarkets and food delivery services focus primarily on convenience, these food merchants are also attracted to the popular and increasingly profitable organic and local food movements. Corporate entities are following suit and organic labels are proudly brandished on packaging. Advertising for organic and local traits has also become so commonplace that the shopper must be careful and alert to distinguish between false claims known as green washing and the real deal. Many supermarkets have even established organic sections in their stores to allow consumers easy access to the products they crave. Delivery services are adapting to the demand as well. Peapod claims to be working towards more local as well as organic options. FreshDirect, on the other hand, has established both in their online services, going so far as to provide users with profiles of the local farms they work with. However, neither supermarket nor food delivery service connect the consumer directly to the farmer, a relationship that a growing number of Americans are seeking out. Farmers markets and CSAs (Consumer Supported Agriculture) are two alternative food sources that allow

47

48

Americans to more deeply connect with the origins of their food short of growing it themselves! Farmers markets allow the consumer to speak directly to a representative of the farm. As shoppers continue to patronize the specific market, they have the opportunity to build a relationship with the vendor. These alternatives are beneficial for small farmers as well. The typical path food follows to make its way into the consumers home is from farm to food distributor and then from food distributor to supermarket. These middlemen pocket large portions of the profit of each sale. By connecting farmers directly to the consumer, these middlemen are side stepped and farmers are able to hold onto larger profits. Farmers markets are the primary source of locally produced food. They connect farmers directly to the consumer and vice versa. But they also allow the shopper to handle and pick items, which is not possible in online shopping services. Farmers markets offer other positives such as the opportunity to host community building activities. The farmers market is no replacement for the supermarket, however. There is limited availability; they tend to operate one day a week for a set period of time. There is also limited product variety and comparison shopping opportunities when compared to supermarket and food delivery services. CSAs are becoming increasingly popular, and, like farmers markets, target consumers who are interested in locally produced food. Just as with farmers markets, they too connect the producer of the food directly to the consumer and vice versa. In contrast, they offer the benefit of more flexible and customized hours to receive goods. CSAs operate off the funds (shares) paid by a group of customers (investors). These shares are bought during the farms off-season and once crops are harvested, baskets of food are delivered directly to the

investor. Instead of setting up shop and once a week, and waiting for customers as with a farmers market, CSAs have the security benefit of already knowing their audience as well as having received advanced payment. On the other hand, investors also have the benefit of picking the date and time they want to receive the product and are not forced to adapt to a predetermined set of hours. Unfortunately, this model means that the consumer is not able to pick individual items essentially, you get what you are given. It is important to note that there is selectivity between which farms the CSA chooses to operate with. It is also essential to underscore that farms and investors predetermine what sorts of products will be delivered. While offering many benefits, it is clear that farmers markets and CSAs fail to make up for all the features made possible by supermarkets and food delivery services. Supermarkets were designed to increase the ease of shopping and encourage as many purchases as possible. People are also extremely accustomed and attached to this method of shopping. With online stores that deliver, this convenience is amplified. Another selling point of the supermarket model is the ability to compare price and value between similar items. Competing products often stand side-by-side on market shelves. Again, this comparative shopping is also present in online models. However, in a farmers market, items are displayed on a farm-by-farm basis and it is more difficult to compare price and overall value of purchases. Understandably, the conveniences and useful services offered by supermarkets and online services hard to pass up. My visual solution will strive to bring the consumer the best of both worlds. I will create an online and mobile network that looks to the benefits of both pre-existing systems steering clear of the negatives.

49

50

related to weight loss or general health concerns. It is as if we can wield hand-held nutritionists, dieticians, and health professionals as we navigate the increasingly complex aisles of the supermarket.

SECTION B CASE STUDIES

FOOD IS TRENDY WITH OVER

8000 APPS UNDER APPLES

FOOD & DRINK CATEGORY

Shoppers are ravenous for information about food. This hunger is most visible in the rapidly growing number of products that facilitate food education. There is such high demand that by the summer of 2012, Apple added a special genre to their iTunes app store titled Food & Drink. Mere months later, there were more than 2,500 apps for the iPad and an astonishing 8,400 apps for the iPhone. Consumer interest is high and developers are racing to meet the needs of this new market.
A growing sea of web browsers and mobile devices strive to instantly answer diet and health related questions, providing valuable food education. Consumers are able to augment their shopping experience by scanning items with smartphone and corresponding appsinstantly retrieving detailed nutritional information as well as content regarding allergens and potentially dangerous ingredients. Many apps even tailor to specific dietary needs whether
51

Nutrition may be the largest draw for those interested in food education. FoodFacts is an extensive online database equipped with detailed information for a variety of food products. Material on allergens, additives, and up to date listings of recalled food are also available. Products are given an overall letter-grade based on variables of health. A color-coded system for ingredients is also used to quickly and clearly call attention to controversial and harmful ingredients. In addition, FoodFacts provides tailored dietary information. A section is devoted to making healthy choices for children and provides kid-friendly recipes. There is also specialized attention for individuals looking to lose weight and many low calorie recipes are available as well as health and diet related articles. While there is a membership feature to augment the users experience, it is not an interactive service. Users can benefit from the features that track product and food choices; however, an opportunity is lost. Users do not interact and cannot learn from one another and or motivate each other to learn more and act healthier.

52

Locavore, the easiest way to find local, in-season food.

Pinpoint nearby farmers markets & farms.

Local Dirt, your place to find and buy fresh, local food directly from the family farm. In partnership with Localdirt.

A slew of apps also deliver extremely targeted, niche services. Many developers are striving to satisfy a growing demand for local, ethical, and sustainable foods. Eating seasonally and locally are very popular themes. Locavore and Seasons are two of the most used apps that cater to local food. Both connect interested consumers to seasonal items as well as point towards nearby farmers markets which are a major source of locally produced food. Locavore has a unique recipe feature which helps the user easily add freshly bought items to home cooked meals. While Seasons does not have a recipe feature, it sets itself apart by pointing towards imported food that is seasonal within its region of origin, expanding its base of products. Both apps help the consumer locate farmers markets with map features. Neither allow for user interaction within the platform itself. Mobile apps can also be tailored to a specific demographic. One example is AgLocal that aims to provide users the ability to trace cuts of meat back to the originating farm. The companys mission is to reconnect consumers with smaller farmers and pasture-raised livestock. AgLocal will build on user generated content from the farmers themselves, food service providers, and customers. Seafood Watch is another company that strives to educate the ethically minded foodie about the animals they eat. Through a combination of their app and website, they are able to connect consumers to sustainable seafood. Two major services are available. One is an updated database that provides recommendations for ocean-friendly seafood. The other is a user-generated map called FishMap that is built from user logs regarding locations they have been able to purchase sustainable seafood. While both apps are built on user-generated content, neither allows much interaction between the users themselves. Good Guide is perhaps the most complete location for consumer education. Not only does the site feature an impressive set of food categoriesranging from the
54

Seasons brings all the information you need to make the right
decisions when choosing your [local, seasonal] food.

AgLocal, an exchange platform for the buying and selling of

responsibly raised meats.

Seafood Watchs recommendations help you choose ocean-friendly seafood at your favorite restaurants & stores.

Find safe, healthy, green & ethical products based on scientific ratings.

points of additional information. Online shopping is also augmented. The guide creates a log of bought items as well as automatically providing ratings for items you are interested in purchasing, all within your web browser. In terms of design, the site is clear and easy to use. The Good Guide logo is a made with a friendly, round sans serif. Devoid of right angles, it appears approachable, human, and safe. The color palette is comprised of crisp cyan and dark blues on a bright white background. Pops of color such as violet, emerald, and marigold are used throughout the site as a highlight for buttons and features. By avoiding the clich of green hues to illustrate a green service, it appears new and its blue hues evoke fresh, clear and overall clean effect. As a whole, Good Guide works to cast light on methods of production and aims to force industries to become more transparent by creating a single source of information for a wide range of product types. It is important to note that while Good Guide provides the user with a great deal of information, its scope of service is limited to the consumer who chooses to seek it out. Even as it continues to add to its lengthy list of rated products, the service does little to reach out to the disinterested or apathetic shopper. While Good Guide members are able to make their purchases public to the online community, non-members are not exposed to the site. The service could benefit greatly by opening up to new demographics and connecting potential users that just need a little nudge. It is clear that there is a plethora of mobile apps and web tools available to interested consumers. This does not address, however, a wide variety of people who do not have a preexisting investment in making healthy, sustainable, and ethical food purchasing decisions but would be interested in food education if introduced. In order to truly impact current consumer trends, it is imperative to increase visibility and transform the apathetic shoppers into consumers that want to learn more and believe that their actions can have an impact.
56

nutritional content of whole foods and vegetables to additives and harmful chemicals in processed food many other products outside of the food-world have been reviewed including household items, apparel, electronics and more. Good Guide has rated more than 100,000 items and grows everyday. The rating system is scaled from 1 to 10 and breaks down into three categories, Health, Sustainability, and Society. The system uses a spectrum of color to indicate the different levels. It starts with a dark red for the lowest rated items, moves towards yellow as products reach more neutral ratings, and settles on a dark green for the safest, most sustainable, and kindest products. The user is also able to tailor their experience by marking a list of points by personal importance. In addition, the site provides a variety of methods of service, traveling with the consumer to the store by way of mobile app. The user can scan an items barcode with their smartphone and Good Guide displays a rating of the product as well as many

AS A HOLISTIC CONSUMER AID, GOOD GUIDE GOES

BEYOND FOOD EDUCATION

55

A. Farmigo Case Study

Farmigo combines benefits of new, digital features with the pre-existing CSA system. The service is growing quickly and, according to their site, currently works with more than 300 farms in 25 states. The company began by focusing on two distinct locations: San Francisco and
Figure 1

Brooklyn. From this starting point, they collected a user base as well as a network of local farmers. This has allowed them to branch out and continue expanding their service, collecting more users and farmers along the way. Marketed as an online farmers market, Farmigo supports both the consumer and the vendor. Following the same model as a CSA, consumers create community-based groups and, as the site suggests, groups can range from work-based to friends or even vary by school district. Farmigo then assists groups to communicate with local farmers and other small food producers. Once a relationship is established, the group can make an online market that displays various items which range from whole to prepared foods depending on the farmer or small business.

57

58

Figure 2

The benefit of having a group of customers with the CSA model is twofold. First, the small business owner has guaranteed payment for items before investments are made in the production and transportation of goods. In a farmers market model, there is no assurance that any
59

item will be purchased once it has been brought to the market. In the food distribution and grocers model, while purchase is guaranteed, a large percentage of the profits are lost to the distributor/store. According to a recent article on Farmigo by Bonnie Cha featured in the Wall
60

Street Journals All Things D, the groups of customers allow farmers to scale production as well as provide support for small operations that only specialize in one or two products. With Farmigos model, Farms receive 80 percent of the sales, compared to the 9 to 20 percent they get when going through a traditional grocer. This assistance comes with a price, though, and Farmigo receives 10 percent for each transaction. (Cha). A second benefit to having groups and following the CSA model is that a single delivery point for many goods is established. After consumers make their weekly orders the Farmers then deliver orders toselected drop-off point within 48 hours of harvest (Cha). This means that the vendor is solely responsible for making trips on a group-to-group basis, eliminating the need for time consuming and costly deliveries to be made to individual customers. However, even with these benefits, Farmigo fails to address two essential consumer needsvariety and flexibility. When compared to pre-existing CSA models, Farmigo is vastly improved. They have a large network of farms that spans 25 states, they provide support for the small business needs of farmers, and offer many useful features for customers. One such feature is an online farmers market that allows members of a group to view products posted by the farms they have invested in. However, groups may only view products that are offered by these select few farms that were chosen in advance. This limits the breadth of products a user can compare. In addition, the matter of delivery, which is beneficial to the vendor, can be negative for the consumer. Delivery to a single point of access for a large group limits the access to the receipt of goods. It is important to investigate alternative methods and seek out more delivery options that are prove fruitful for customers.

Figure 3

61

62

customer base on Pick-a-Pepper is relatively small. With such a small base, new vendors are less likely to become part of the site. In turn, the lack of customer growth is directly related to this absence of vendors. This cycle has left the site in a plateau. It has been nearly 18 months since launch and there is still a small user base: only 66 farms and other small business in total.

B. Pick-a-Pepper Case Study

The website Pick-a-Pepper follows a model of direct access between the consumer and vendor. The site acts as a meeting point for the two entities to find one another. On the About section of their site, the service markets itself as a user friendly website that connects local farmers, gardeners, and food artisans with local consumers, restaurants, and institutions. Premiering in the fall of 2011, the site currently works to build a network of local farmers and other small business owners. By expanding this network, they hope to fulfill their mission which is to allow users to easily purchase seasonal, local goods in small or large quantities at fair prices. While the founders of Pick-a-Pepper have a wholesome mission, there is large deficit of business acumen. There are little to no criteria as to who can become a vendor. In the words of the founders themselves, they describe possible sellers as follows on their Frequently Asked Questions page: anyone who has a bounty to share can join, no matter how large or smallbe it a backyard garden, a home kitchen operation, or a hundred acre farm. This lack of quality control is problematic for two reasons. First, potential customers are attracted to high quality products from a reliable source; this is neither guaranteed nor supported by the Pick-a-Pepper staff. Thus, potential customers are left wanting more and fail to sign up. The second problem of quality control springs from the fact that vendors are attracted to services that boast large numbers of customers who make reliable purchases. The
63

Pick-a-Pepper does offer some features in hopes of attracting vendors from competing services. Similar sites make profits by claiming a percentage of the sale. Pick-a-Pepper, on the other hand, claims that they will never charge vendors a commission or a membership fee. The service makes money by providing a premium feature with a price tag. At the cost of $15 per month vendors are able to share a rotating spot with up to 10 other farmers on select pages. This allows the site to make a maximum profit of $150 per month and $1,800 annually. This income likely supports the domain name and hosting of the website, but beyond that, there is little reward. (FAQ).
Figure 1

64

Figure 2

Visitors to the site are greeted by an effective landing page (Fig. 1). Pick-a-Pepper immediately separates its user base, sorting out customers from vendors. This effectively manages traffic and helps the user move quickly and efficiently through the site. This traffic management is continued as new and returning vendors are also separated. The landing page makes sure to target prospective sellers and invites them to join the website. It also welcomes returning users and provides a highly visible, accessible login. This ease of use is also translated to prospective and returning customers. In this case, however, customers are not separated. Both are directed right to the online store and are prompted to search via vendor or product type. Users that opt to search by vendor are greeted by a list (Fig. 2) displaying various farms and small business sorted by location. The approximate distance between
65

you and the vendor is posted and the closest vendor is at the top. Two key pieces of information are provided herea short description of the farm and a brief list of the products sold. Once a user makes a selection, they are brought to the Farm Profile (Fig. 3). This provides prospective customers with additional information on each vendor. Unfortunately, these profiles do not go into much detail. Vendors may only post a business name, location (limited to city and state), description, website, and contact information. Aside from the specific items sold, these are the only parameters that distinguish one vendor profile from another. Important identifying material such as a logo or marketing materials (photos, a short film of the grounds, and so on) are nowhere to be found. A powerful opportunity to present effective marketing has been missed.
66

In addition to searching by vendor, users are also able to browse by product types (Fig. 4). This is the portion of the site that should allow comparison shopping but due to two flaws in data, this is nearly impossible. The first is lack of content. There are simply not enough vendors to display a wide range of products to compare. In addition, there is also a flaw in the input of information. There is no apparent structure for data entry as it is posted to the site. The first instance is the process of naming products. Pick-a-Pepper has not established a set of guidelines for naming or categorizing items. This hampers the user as they search for a specific item and forces them to guess what sort of keywords the vendor used to name a product. Pick-a-Pepper would highly benefit from a more thought out system, one which first prompts the vendor to select a category (e.g. produce, dairy, baked goods) and then provide a system for secondary characteristics. The second flaw is the pricing of products. As Fig. 4 illustrates, there is a wide range of pricing per volume options (10 lbs., 1 lb., each). A better system establish
Figure 3

a more intelligent pricing structure, one which limits the vendor as they post items and in return facilitates prospective buyers as they compare products and search for bargains. In terms of design, the landing page is most successful. It directs traffic well and features an unsophisticated yet welcoming design. The quality of subsequent pages, however, is much lower in comparison. Farm profile and product pages are poorly designed. There is no hierarchy of information. The service would be much improved if more planning went into the design of how data is entered into the site. This would allow users to find information more easily and provide more visual variety as they searched. Other points of interest are the methods Pick-a-Pepper uses to work out delivery and payment of items. According to the site, each vendor chooses to either deliver (sets the date and time range of delivery) or designates a pick-up location (sets a time and pick-up location). These options are available for the customer

67

68

Figure 3

to view prior to purchase. Pick-a-Pepper does not act as a middle man and does not address concerns over delivery, pickup, or receipt of items. This methodology is also used in the payment of itemseach customer and vendor is expected to maintain a Paypal account. This allows Picka-Pepper to stand clear of liability issues. (FAQ). Finally, customers are told they have the option to leave and/or view feedback for various vendors and specific items. The website states that users may leave feedback about your purchases from a particular vendor for the vendor and others to read but I was unable to find comments on any of the profile or product pages that I surveyed (FAQ). Either its not in effect or no content has been generated. In either case, there is no system for rating in place which would complement this supposed feedback feature. Comments as well as an overall rating system allow potential customers to see, at a glance, whether it is worth doing
69

business with a potential vendor. This is especially important because, as established above, Pick-a-Pepper neither supports nor guarantees the receipt of goods that have been paid for and the customer must be extra savvy to ensure receipt of goods. Overall, this direct access services has a great deal of potential but, in the end, leaves much to be desired. While the site manages traffic well, directing customers and vendors effectively, the content users find is mediocre at best. After investigation, I found only one farm within 50 miles of my home address and as little as five farms within 200 miles. This is not a service I, or anyone in the New York-Metropolitan area, would be able to use. These areas of inadequacy lack of content, lack of quality control, and lack of a structured system for data entrythat hold Pick-aPepper back and prevent it from establishing a large network of farms and customers.
70

neither. In addition, the cheese icon, which is an orange wedge, looks far too similar to the vegetable counterpart, which is a carrot. Again, aside from this map, users are also able to view a list of food producers. As of January 2013, FreshDirect featured a total of 49 local producers. Many of these include vendors that I am able to purchase at my local supermarkets such as Bread Alone, Brooklyn Brewery, Cabot Creamery, Ronnybrook Dairy, and Sixpoint Brewery. Once the user has entered the producer portal (Fig.3), they are prompted to select from the list of local affiliates. When users click various links, a profile (Fig. 4) appears featuring the producers logo, a short tagline, and the various products that are available. There is also the option to Click here to learn more which opens a new, smaller page for the user (Fig.5). This page features a longer description as well as the option for the vendor to display promotional photos as well as list Featured Items.
Figure 1

C. FreshDirect Case Study

FreshDirect follows a food delivery model. Customers shop online and purchases are delivered as soon as the following day. FreshDirect has a limited scope of services and, as of now, only delivers to the New YorkMetropolitan area. In addition to their wide selection of food products, the online delivery company also provides specialty foods on their main page which include organic and all natural, Kosher, gluten-free, and locally produced options. Users are able to select the local portal and are then able to choose to search by type of food or by state. Local sources are limited to the states of New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Vermont. The foods themselves are broken into nine categories (Fig. 1) including Vegetables, Fruit, Dairy & Juice, Cheese, Seafood, Meat, Specialties & Beer, Baked Goods, Wine. Each of these categories are broken into subcategories, for example Vegetables contains four sections: Lettuce & Micro Greens, Cucumbers, Corn & Herbs, Roots & Onions, Tomatoes. FreshDirect also allows the user to jump directly to a list of the local food providers as well as to view a Google map marking surrounding food. On the map, icons (Fig. 2) illustrate the nine categories of food. While the essence of this service is helpful and informative, there are a few problems with the icons themselves. As you can see, an egg has been used to symbolize the dairy and juice icon while eggs are
71

72

These producer profiles are effective in many ways. First, they allow FreshDirect affiliates to promote themselves with potential customers. They also provide consumers with more details about the food producer than is found in tradition food shopping methods. This thirst for knowledge behind production is characteristic of the local movement, so by introducing the user to additional details is a smart move on FreshDirects part. There are a few missed opportunities, however. More marketing information for each producer could be provided. The physical address is also omitted. In addition, the web address of each producer is also left out. These are pieces of information that would be valuable to both the producers and the consumer. In regards to the shopping experience itself, FreshDirect goes far and beyond Pick-a-Pepper and Farmigo. There is a level of selectivity that is visibly lacking in the other models. Users have access to a wider range of selection between food type. Pick-aPeppers food vendor pool is miniscule in comparison while Farmigo limits customers to a select few vendors upon setup. Additional options which FreshDirect features relate to comparison shopping. A sophisticated system to compare prices is available as well as a feature to view products based on user rating. These additional options are not surprising as the company was founded on principles of convenience.

As Fig. 6 displays, all of additional features are evident on each product page. In the smaller column to the left, the following information is displayed: producers logo, product name, product weight, and price and volume indicator. These are the key pieces of information that assist the user in determining a selection. Additional information is also displayed in this column, including user ratings (above) and the ability to add an item to the cart (below). The first helps the user to solidify their choice while the second facilitates the user in making a quick and easy purchase. The larger column on the right serves as the information a user would encounter if shopping at an actual store. First, a prominent image of the product is displayed to give the viewer a clear sense of the purchase. Below is an about or Nutrition Facts display. The default view is About which provides a product description. Once the user clicks Nutrition Facts, however, the recognizable black and white table expands on the page. If the user chooses to view the description again, they just have to click About and the blurb reappears, replacing the Nutrition Facts label. Again, these are pieces of information that the user would encounter in a store and help them to make smart purchases. Two additional services are located at the bottom of the page. One is a link to relevant recipes the other is a You May Also Like feature.

Figure 2

73

74

To help you more easily compare apples to apples, weve added approximate pricing. This means youll see an about price on the category page which relates to the approximate weight of the 4-piece pack. Click into any apple product page to see the exact price per pack. Click here to learn about Red Jacket Orchards.

Figure 3

Figure 4

Both encourage the user to continue shopping and push them to view more products. This encouragement is vital in an online food store and will be important elements in my visual solution. FreshDirect was built to provide users access to food without the need to leave their home computer. Access to local foods as well as other specialty items such as organic and gluten free are reactions to popular demand. However, it is this very fact that an alternative model is necessary, one that supports connectivity between smaller food producers and nearby, potential customers. FreshDirect works with larger food producers, many of which are already available at many supermarket across the US. My proposed visual solution will work to directly connect
75

local farm and other small food production businesses with a nearby customer base. Online and mobile services have yet to be fully tapped in this commercial area. The market is sorely in need of a complete network of local food providers and shoppers.

MY SOLUTION WILL CONNECT

LOCAL VENDORS AND CONSUMERS

76

Figure 5

77

78

CONCLUSION

It was a shock the morning of November 17, 2012 as I puttered around my room preparing for the day to hear National Public Radio announce that Hostess Brands, the creator of Wonder Bead and other edible Americana for the past 85 years,(Feintzeig) was liquidating the company. While a new, more recent announcement has been made that Apollo Global Management, the company who bought a major portion of defunct brands assets, is rolling out the Twinkie once again, (Chumley) the root of the matter remains the same. There is a strong change in the food-world wind.
Shortly after the initial liquidation of Hostess was announced, the Wall Street Journal crafted a fairly detailed article on the subject, explaining the companys financial woes. According to the article, employees in [Hostess] bakers union went on strike Nov. 9 in protest of a court-imposed labor contract that cut wages, commissions, and health care benefits and changed
79

the structure of pension plans. The article goes on to claim that the union strike affected roughly two thirds of Hostesss 36 plants, and made it impossible for the company to continue producing its baked goods. While many decry so-called union busting as the culprit and have called out the Bakery, Confectionery, Tobacco Workers & Grain Millers Union (BCTGM) for the demise of American staple, it is important to note that Hostess was experiencing extreme hardship prior to the strike. Events surrounding the union were likely the straw that broke the camels back and while the company could have extended its lifespan a few years by keeping employees in less than ideal working conditions, the end was neigh. The real center of the issue here is that demand for these products is at an all time low. Wonder Bread is a symbol of the shift in the post-war American food industry. The product boasts enriched ingredients to appeal to moms, a staggering shelf-life for extended shipping, and a convenient, easy-to-use, pre-sliced form. While not the first of its kind, Wonder Bread became one of the most recognizable industrial foodsa product of Americans desire to simplify and improve daily life through
80

mechanized practice and science. As Wonder Bread rose in popularity a new era was ushered in, an era devoid of freshness and whole ingredients. What once seemed endless is now, at last, perhaps coming to pass. The Twinkie, another iconic Hostess product, has been the butt of jokes for decades. Studies have been made on the dessert that illustrate the products entirely unnatural qualities. The ingredients list is so long and difficult to pronounce that a linguist major would get tongue-tied trying to orate the Nutrition Facts. While existing as a guilty pleasure for many years, it seems American culture has shifted enough to sink the Hostess ship. I grew up in a home that barred Wonder Bread from the pantry. There were many trips to the organic food store, holding my mothers hand as she scooped whole grains, nuts, and dried fruit into small paper baggies. My brother and I jumped to join her on voyages to Colls Farm, nestled on the outskirts of bucolic Jaffrey, New Hampshire. Colls Farm feature a large store with many items stocking their shelves with grown directly on site. Our excitement was not in seeing the sprawling beauty of local produce (which I long for now as I squeeze through the compact aisles of the prototypical New York City supermarket), it was the flavored honey sticks and fruit leather that awaited us at check-out if we behaved. We were a product of my mothers shopping ethic, something which has obviously fueled my interest as I began and completed work on this very important topicreconnecting Americans to the food they consume. Growth of the American food industry along with the dissociative properties of the supermarket of lead to consumers that do not know where their food comes from. Food awareness is trendy and consumers are ravenous for more information and connection to what they eat. The most practical outlet for this connection is through the promotion of local food purchases. While sites like FreshDirect offer convenience to the consumer, there is a limited selection of local food providers. Farmigo
81

provides both access to local food for consumers and support for small vendors, it applies the CSA model and denies shoppers the luxury of variety. It limits consumers to consumers to a small range of providers and large batches of picked-for-you goods. The system as it stands cannot support a network of diversity products or comparison-shopping. Sites that do offer these services like Pick-a-Pepper or Local Dirt do so in a poorly designed and unattractive manner making it difficult to view the very products that are the lifeblood of online stores. While customers can shop comparatively and access a wider range of vendors, the user experience is cumbersome and difficult to navigate. It can be unclear what is exactly for sale and how to get it from the online store to the users kitchen. From my survey of local food providers, there is a clear and immediate need for design and marketing support. A hodgepodge of haves and have nots exists on all fronts. Some vendors have a website (often poorly executed) while others have solely utilize social media. Some may employ neither but utilize third-party food services. None in this swirling hodgepodge feature innovative design. It is as if the small food vendor has been left behind in the most recent wave of web and mobile-based developments. Undoubtedly, all would benefit from an increased online presence as well a access to a network of buyers. These two features are integral to Greenhorn, my proposed online food network. Greenhorn serves to connect local farmers and small food producers with a wide, nearby consumerbase. By assisting the vendor with an easy to use interface that can be accessed online or mobile, it helps the busy business owner establish an attractive store as well as post products on the go.

82

REFERENCES

Adams, Damian C. Local Versus Organic: A Turn in Consumer Preferences and Willingness-to-pay. Ed. Matthew J Salois. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems 25.4 (2010): 331331. Print. Adult Obesity Facts. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 13 Aug. 2012. Web. 12 Oct. 2012. <http://www.cdc.gov/ obesity/data/adult.html>. 22 Sep. 2012. Bittman, Mark. Rethinking the Meat-Guzzler. The New York Times 27 Jan. 2008. NYTimes.com. Web. 18 Sept. 2012. Cha, Bonnie. Farmigo Opens Doors to Online Farmers Market. AllThingsD. Web. 7 Jan. 2013. Chumley, Cheryl K. The Twinkies Back! Snack to Reappear in Stores This Summer. The Washingtion Times. Web. 16 Apr. 2013. Crane, Cody. Plumped up Portions. Science World 9 Nov. 2009 : 811. Print.
83

Crofts, Linda. Crofts Homestead. Personal interview. 31 Mar. 2013. Godfray, H. Charles J. et al. Food Security: The Challenge of Feeding 9 Billion People. Science 327.5967 (2010): 812818. www.sciencemag.org. ezproxy.cul.columbia.edu. Web. 20 Sept. 2012. [Farmigo:] About. Farmigo. <http://www.farmigo.com/ about>. 2013. Web. Farmigo.com. 1 Jan. 13. Fast, Yvona. Whats In Season? E: the Environmental Magazine Feb. 2012 : 35. Print. Feintzeig, Rachel, Mike Spector, and Julie Jargon. Twinkie Maker Hostess to Close. Wall Street Journal 16 Nov. 2012. Wall Street Journal. Web. 16 Apr. 2013. Folsom, Burton. The Origin of American Farm Subsidies. Freeman Apr. 2006 : 3435. Print. [FreshDirect:] About. FreshDirect. <https://www. freshdirect.com/category.jsp?catId=about_overview>. 2013. FreshDirect.com. Web. 1 Jan. 13.
84

Fulkerson, Lee, dir. Forks Over Knives. Monica Beach Media, 2011. Film. 1 Oct. 2012. Houck, Lee. Deep Mountain Maple. Personal interview. 6 Apr. 2013. New (Ab)Normal, The. MakingHealthEasier.org. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, n.d. Web. 12 Oct. 2012. <http://makinghealtheasier.org/newabnormal>. 22 Sep. 2012. Leubkeman, Karen. Stone Broke Creek. Personal interview. 7 Apr. 2013. Louise, Mary. Violet Hill Farm. Personal interview. 6 Apr. 2013. Mosier, Arvin R.; John John Keith Syers; John Raymond Freney: Editors. Agriculture and the Nitrogen Cycle: Assessing the Impacts of Fertilizer Use on Food Production and the Environment. Island Press, 2004. 296 p. Book. [Peapod:] Our Company. Peapod. <http://www. peapod.com/site/companyPages/our-company-overview.
85

jsp>. 2013. Peapod.com. Web. 1 Jan. 13. Pick-a-Pepper, About. Pick-a-Pepper. <https://pick-apepper.com/about.php>. 2013. Web. Pick-a-Pepper.com. 4 Feb. 13. [Pick-a-Pepper:] Frequently asked Questions. Pick-aPepper. <https://pick-a-pepper.com/faq.php>. 2013. Web. Pick-a-Pepper.com. 4 Feb. 13. Rollin, B E. Annual Meeting Keynote Address: Animal Agriculture and Emerging Social Ethics for Animals. Journal of Animal Science 82.3 (2004): 955955. Print. Tonjes, Tim. Tones Dairy. Personal interview. 6 Apr. 2013. Wimberley, Sara L., and Jessica L. McClean. Supermarket Savvy: The Everyday InformationSeeking Behavior of Grocery Shoppers. Information & Culture: A Journal of History 47.2 (2012): 176205. Print. Yoon, Carol Kaesuk. No Face, but Plants Like Life Too. The New York Times. 14 Mar. 2011. NYTimes.com. Web. 13 Apr. 2013.

86

IMAGE GUIDE

Page Address and Date Accessed

1, left 1, right http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/ fsa1997000063/PP, 3/22/13. http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/ fsa1998003413/PP, 3/22/13.

Page Address and Date Accessed

12 http://discovermagazine.com/2013/janfeb/71-pig-farms-breed-resistant-staph#. UWjQPit35Z8, 3/21/13. http://www.farmsanctuary.org/wp-content / gallery/eggs/batthens10_300_1.jpg, 3/21/13. http://img2.etsystatic.com/000/ `0/5640084 / il_570xN.337911510.jpg, 3/20/13. Crabbs, Gary. Cattle Holding Facility. Enlightened Images. www.enlightphoto.com. 1998., 3/21/13. http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/ fsa1997000024/PP, 3/22/13. http://nwsportsmanmag.com/wp-content/ uploads/2012/02/trout-2.jpg, 4/10/13. http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/ fsa1998020973/PP, 3/22/13. http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3c31530, 3/22/13. http://www.flickr.com/photos/lyza/ 49545547/ sizes/o/in/photostream, 2/20/13. http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/ fsa1997018360/PP, 3/22/13.

1112 1415 1516

12 http://www.vycc.org/about/programs/farmand-food, 2/20/13. 3, 6 4 7 8, left 8, right 9 10 11 http://img0.etsystatic.com/000/0/5663576/ il_fullxfull.285664764.jpg?ref=l2, 3/26/13. http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/File:PSM_ V03_D243_Justus_von_Liebig.jpg, 3/20/13. http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/ fsa1997026391/PP, 3/22/13. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ File:HerbertHoover.jpg , 3/20/13. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FDR_ in_1933.jpg, 3/20/13. http://www-tc.pbs.org/kenburns/dustbowl/ media/photos/s4383-lg.jpg, 3/21/13. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dust_Bowl__ Dallas,_South_Dakota_1936.jpg, 3/21/13. http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/ fsa1997000016/PP, 3/22/13.

16, center 17 18, left 19, right 1920, 4344 21

87

88

Page Address and Date

22 23 24, upper left http://www.artrenewal.org/pages/artwork. php?artworkid=3301, 4/01/13. http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/ owi2001040247/PP, 3/33/13. http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3b45365, 3/22/13

Page Address and Date

3940 The Super Giant supermarket in Rockville, Maryland 1964. http://www.shorpy.com/ node/4959?size=_original, 4/01/13. http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/ fsa1997026521/PP, 3/22/13. http://www.loc.gov/pictures/ item/2011633038 , 3/22/13. http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/fsa.8c28812, 3/22/13. http://www.greenerpackage.com/sites/ default/files/Peapod.jpg 4/11/13.

40 42, left 42, right 45

24, upper right http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/ oem2002007833/PP, 3/22/13. 24, lower right http://www.madviolinist.com/myblog/wpcontent/uploads/2010/03/ford-model-t.gif, 4/01/13. 25 27 2930 http://www.curbsideclassic.com/wp-content/ uploads/2012/05/56-Capri-sedan.jpg, 4/01/13. http://kansasgrains.files.wordpress. com/2012/03/aisle.jpg , 4/01/13. http://andberlin.files.wordpress. com/2012/11/table-of-food-at-white-trashfast-food.jpg , 4/01/13. http://bronxbanter.arneson.name/ wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2010/02/ heinz.jpg , 4/01/13. http://www.cheeriosandlattes.com/wpcontent/uploads/2013/01/cherry-tomatoeson-the-vine-pre-pack.jpeg, 4/01/13. http://turmericandtwine.files.wordpress. com/2012/11/green-tomatoes.jpg , 4/01/13. http://ketchuptochutney.files.wordpress. com/2009/07/tomatosams_tomatoes.jpg, 4/01/13. http://www.macalester.edu/academics/ environmentalstudies/students/projects/ citizenscience2010/organiclabeling/usda%20 copy.gif, 4/01/13.

46 http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-lQnJ1RoKuHs /T2ebIxuvO0I/AAAAAAAAAE8/977X3 aMOJkA/s1600/Over%2Bpackaging.JPG, 4/11/13. 47 5561 6370 7178 http://www.neighborhoodfoods.org/assets/ img/produce-share.jpg , 4/11/13. Screenshots captured from farmigo.com, 1/28/13. Screenshots captured from pick-a-pepper. com, 1/28/13. Screenshots capututed from freshdirect. com, 1/28/13.

3031

3132

3334 34

35

3738 http://lcweb2.loc.gov/master/pnp/highsm /13500/13500u.tif, http://www.loc.gov/ pictures/item/2011631694, 3/22/13.

89

90