The results of a program for Quick Determination of antioxidants on 0-160 Helicopter Turbine lubricants by using the RULER Oil

Analysis Instrument

Jo Ameye FLUITEC International Nieuwbrugstraat, 73 B-1830 Brussels - Belgium +32 2 255 76 43 j.ameye@fluitec.com Abstract: This paper presents the results of research program to monitor the Remaining Useful Life (RUL) by means of cyclic voltammetric methods for aircraft turbine lubricants. The cyclic voltammetric method used to monitor the antioxidants of different lubricants was the RULER instrument. The RUL is the length of equipment operating time from the time a lubricant is sampled, until the antioxidants are depleted allowing large changes in the basestocks physical properties to occur (resulting in excessive oil degradation, component wear, and eventual equipment malfunction). Therefore, the ability to predict the RUL of lubricants would eliminate the need for scheduled changes, i.e. oil changes performed based on RUL and not time, contributing to a Condition Monitoring Program. The first part of the program focused on the use of the RULER on laboratory aged fluids, namely 0-160 ester-based aircraft turbine lubricants (Defence Standard 91100/2 & MIL-L-85734), detecting both aromatic amine type of antioxidants and sulphurized amines (Phenothiazine) as antiwear additives. The depletion of both type of additives was evaluated in function of varying temperatures, and then correlated to other widely used analytical methods (viscosity, TAN, etc). Also the catalyst effect of metallic contaminants (copper, iron) on the antioxidants was identified, where additives depletion reactions were different for the contaminants. In the second part, the RUL was monitored (for various antioxidants) on field oil samples obtained from the Royal Netherlands Navy Site Den Helder, where approximately 20 GKN Westland Lynx helicopters are in operation. During a 2-year research program the quality of the 0-160 lubricants, was monitored with the RULER for the remaining antioxidants concentration, and the Naval site could conclude that the RULER instrument allowed them to understand the degradation mechanism of the lubricant. On-line temperature measurements confirmed a difference in operating temperatures between the engine reductiongearbox bearings and the average oil temperature of the engine. As fresh oil is topped up regularly, and the rate of top-up is dependent from engine to engine, it helped the helicopter operator to identify a trend of additive depletion per engine. This would play a major contribution to the proactive condition monitoring program. Results showed that the cyclic voltammetry could be used to accurately measure the RUL, regardless of oil formulation or stressing conditions. Also the results of this research demonstrate that Remaining Useful Life measurements made by the RULER can be used for oil analysis programs to quantify the additive levels of incoming batches of lubricants, as part of the specifications and quality control program. Keywords: antioxidants, Remaining Useful Life, Oxidation, jet turbine lubricants, diesel lubricants

1. Introduction : Jet engine lubricants, based on polyolester

based oil, can degrade or polymerize as a result of oxidation processes. To inhibit this oxidation of the oil, antioxidants are added to the oils basestock. These are mainly primary oxidation inhibitors like phenols, aminophenols, aromatic amines and/or secondary oxidation inhibitors like sulphurised phenols and phosphites. The primary oxidation inhibitors react with free radicals (from ROO to ROOH) to prevent polymerization reactions. Aminic oxidation inhibitors are active at higher temperatures in comparison to phenolic oxidation inhibitors and a combination of both types act synergistically. Secondary oxidation inhibitors eliminate hydroperoxides oxidizing to acids, by reaction of ROOH to the less harmful hydroperoxide (ROH.) degradation reactions, increasing the formation of aldehydes and oxidized into acids. A combination of primary and secondary oxidation inhibitors act synergistically. During use of the fluid in the lubrication systems of aircraft turbine engines, the oxidation inhibitors (antioxidants, AO) will be depleted until a certain critical level is reached at which the fluid start to degrade / polymerize at an accelerated rate. At that moment the fluid reaches a point allowing large changes in the basestocks physical properties to occur, i.e. the end of the Useful Life of the oil (Fig 1). In order to estimate the Remaining Useful Life (RUL) of a fluid it is therefore important to know its critical antioxidant concentration.

Figure 1: Graph of the percent Remaining Useful Life (RUL), viscosity (40C), and total acid
number vs. hours of stressing time and Remaining Useful Life at 175C for a typical aircraft engine oil. 2. Experimental RULER Analyzer: In order to determine the critical antioxidant

level of the fluids the remaining AO concentration was measured with the Remaining Useful Life Evaluation Routine (RULERTM). The RULERTM is a commercially available apparatus, which makes use of a cyclic voltammetric technique (1), for fresh fluids, laboratory-aged fluids and field samples. The RULERTM instrument consists of a three electrode sensing system: a glassy carbon-working electrode, a platinum wire as reference electrode and a platinum wire as auxiliary electrode [1]. The samples (200-400 l) are diluted with a solvent containing a dissolved electrolyte. The instrument applies a controlled voltage ramp through the electrode into the prepared solution at the bottom surface of the electrode. As the potential increases, the AO oxidize at the carbon electrode surface. The oxidation releases electrons to the electrode causing current, which is linearly related to the additive concentration in the solution. The applied voltage ramp and

measured current are recorded as a graph in which seconds (voltage) are plotted against a RULERTM number (current) (Fig. 2). The peak value(s) and the total peak area of the oxidation peak(s) are stored as RULERTM Number(s) and RULERTM Area and indicate the concentration of the AO when compared to a standard reference fluid. The peak value(s) and peak area depends on the type of AO measured in the fluid. Therefore, the reference material should be of a comparable composition as the sample to be measured. The voltage range of the peak value(s) is related to the identity of the AO (Fig. 2). The voltage at which an AO oxidizes depends upon the used electrolyte and of the type of AO. In the case of jet turbine lubricants, a solution based on an acetone/neutral electrolyte mixture is used to mainly detect aromatic amines, hindered phenols and phenothiazine type of AO. Different recent research programs [2]-[6] have demonstrated the suitability of RULER techniques on laboratory-stressed oils, as well field oil samples, e.g. C-130 military aircraft [6].

Figure 2: Cyclic Voltammetry voltage vs. current for different antioxidants. 3. RULER Analysis of Aircraft Turbine aged oils from different oxidation Test

Experimental: In order to understand the oxidation process on 0-160 lubricants and the relation to the RULER analysis of field results for the 2 main additives, different oxidation tests were performed at the UDRI (University of Dayton Research Institute). The O-160 lubricant (Fig. 3a+b) consists of polyol ester base oil, blended mainly with v Additive 1: phenothiazine anti-wear agent v Additive 2: aromatic amine (DOPDA) antioxidants

Figure 3a + b RULER graph O-160 standard (normal used oil vs. abnormal used oil)

The oil is sampled with a volume of 200 l, and prepared in an acetone/electrolytepatented solution, in order to extract the Antioxidants. For this test, sets of 6-12 glass vials

(with each 100l-sample volume) were heated isothermal in a drilled out aluminium block at the following temperatures: 125C 150C 175C 200C 250 C. At prescheduled time intervals (15 minutes up to 1 hour) a glass vial was removed, cooled and diluted with analysis solvent and consequently analysed with the RULER. Oxidation tests were done also in glass vials containing metal discs (copper and iron) to quantify the catalysis effect of metal (wear) surfaces on the oxidation reaction (and the depletion of the Antioxidants). The oxidation tests results are presented in the following graphs (Fig. 4-7) were additive depletion (as RUL%) are expressed vs. the oxidation time.
120

Chart 4 - 175C test on Glass

Chart 5 - 200C test ON GLASS

100 90

100

Remaining Antioxidant %

80

% Remaining Additive

Additive#2
Additive#1

70 60 50 40 30 20 10

80

60

40

Glass #2 Glass #1

20

0 0,25 0,5

TIME (hours)

10

11

12

3 4 TIME (HOURS)

Figure 4: Graph of oxidation tests on 0-160 in glass vials at 175C

100 90 % Remaining Additive 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 0,2 0,4 0,6 TIME (HOURS) 0,8 1 1,2

Figure 5: Graph of oxidation test on 0-160 in glass vials at 200C

Chart7-175CTESTSONGLASS,STEELANDCOPPER 120 100 Glass #2 Glass #1 Steel #2 Steel #1 Copper#2 Copper#1

Chart 6 - 250 C TEST ON GLASS

Additive#2
% Remaining Additive

Additive #1

80 60 40 20 0 0 2 4 6 TIME (HOURS) 8 10

12

14

Figure 6: Graph of oxidation test on 0-160 In glass vials at 250C

Figure 7: Graph of oxidation test on 0-160 in vials in presence of copper & steel at 175C.

The following conclusions can be made from this test: a) The Phenothiazine depletes first and the depletion rate increases with increasing temperature (Fig. 4, 5 and 6) b) The depletion of Phenothiazine is accelerated with the presence of copper (Fig. 7), and less in by the presence of iron. c) The aromatic amine antioxidant has a slower depletion rate than Phenothiazine. It can be seen from the graphs (Fig. 4, 5 & 6) that as soon as the Phenothiazine achieves a low concentration (20%) the aromatic amine start to deplete as well. This conclusion will be important for interpretation of field sample analysis results. This information, is fully in line with the data of a research program performed at the Defence Evaluation and Research Agency (DERA), Fuels and Lubricants Centre.[8]

The oxidation method used was Defence Standard 05-50 Part 61 Method 9 and involves both Temperature Parameters - Oxidative Stabilityas well as Effective Life - Oxidative Stability.The test results show that RUL% initially decreases in these samples, with the increasing test temperature until a minimum at 200C. TAN and viscosity also rise significantly after 200C indicating severe oxidation of the oil. In fact, the temperatures at which most of the parameters (TAN increase etc.) reach their critical limits are in the region of 195 to 200C. Lee concludes the oil when it has less than 20% RUL% then the antioxidant becomes ineffective leaving the base oil open to oxidative degradation. This corresponds with a time of 3.5 hours, as show the results in Figure 8 from an oxidation test performed at 250C, where the TAN and viscosity reached their critical limits between 2.5 and 3.5 hrs.
Figure 8. Aircraft Turbine Oil Effective Life, Ruler No ,Volatility , Viscosity, TAN v Test Duration
70 60 160 140 120 100 40 80 30 60 20 10 0 0 5 10 15 20 40 20 0

RUL (%) / Volatility (%)

50

Area % Add1 % Volatility TAN*10 Viscosity

Time / hrs

Figure 8: Aircraft Turbine Oil Effective Live RUL%, Volatility, Viscosity(@40C), TAN 4. RULER evaluation on helicopter engine & gearbox lubricants (Dutch Navy). Experimental: This case presents the results from an oil condition-monitoring program, on helicopter turbine lubricants at the Royal Netherlands Navy site, Marine Vliegbasis De Kooy (Den Helder Netherlands).This Navy site has in operation approximately 20 GKN Westland Lynx Helicopters since 1980. The Lynx Helicopters are equipped with 2 Rolls Royce GEM-42 turbine engines, which is described in figure 9. A total of 8 litres lubricant, type O-160 (Defence Standard 91-100/2) is circulated over the main shaft bearings, followed by the reductiongearbox of the engine. Fresh oil is topped up regularly, and the rate of top-up is dependent from engine to engine. Table 1 shows the varying top-up rates for 6 engines, which varies between 0.02 and 0.2 l/h. Engine s/n Oil Top-up rate 9058 0.02 0.05 l/h 9020 0.03 0.09 l/h 9071 0.09 0.20 l/h 5020 0.07 0.13 l/h 9063 0.03 0.07 l/h 9012 0.03 - 0.16 l/h Average 0.05 l/h Table 1: Oil top-up rates for 6 engines Figure 9: Schematic RR GEM-42 engine oil flow diagram

Before 1997, the helicopter base was performing an oil condition-monitoring program onsite, based on the Spectrophotometric Oil Analysis Program (SOAP) [7] (wear metal) analysis, with a sampling frequency of every 25 hours. As the JOAP analysis is not focussing on the oxidation control, and that the helicopter base wanted to increase the proactive aspect of oil condition monitoring programs, RULER analysis was introduced, via the Royal Netherlands Navy MOD Chemical Laboratory (Scheikundig Laboratorium) in Den Helder. The Navy site reported earlier single engine situations, which were caused by planetgear bearing failures of the engine reductiongearbox - Module 01. This failure creates a larger oil flow due to a bearing damage, which is than observed by an oilpressure loss (or oil press caption) by the helicopter crew. Objectives: The objective of this research program was mainly to evaluate if the RULER would contribute as a technology, for measuring the quality of the oil during the operating time of the helicopter engines. If the antioxidants level, before and after the planet gear plain bearing failure , could be monitored, this would enable the helicopter operators to detect if there is a relation between the additives depletion and the bearing damages, as the referred Module 01 defect. Also the Navy wanted to evaluate if observations of RUL would help the helicopter operators to perform a more proactive oil condition monitoring program, and saving costs resulting from engine damage. Results: The O-160 lubricant (Fig. 3a+b) consists of polyol ester base oil, blended mainly with phenothiazine as anti-wear agent, and aromatic amine (DOPDA) as antioxidant. The oil is sampled with a volume of 200 l, prepared in an acetone/electrolyte-patented solution, in order to extract the antioxidants. In order to perform oxidation control via trend analysis, the lubricant was sampled every 25 operating hours, for a selection of 20 helicopters. RULER analysis was performed in the laboratory (Scheikundig Laboratorium Den Helder), in combination with SOAP-Analysis. Following trends of the different helicopter lubricants were achieved, where you can see how the Antioxidant depletion is expressed vs. the operating time (See Fig. 10 13).
Engine 5012-9002-9023-9033 Additive #1
105

Engine 5012-9002-9023-9033 Add #2

105

% Remaining Additive

85

% Remaining Additive

65

5012-1 9002-1 9023-1 9033-1

100 95 90 85 80 75 70

45

25

5 0 -15 191 215 239 264 290 314 335 356 380

5012-2 9002-2 9023-2 9033-2

0 191 215 239 264 290 314 335 356 380

Time (Hours)

Time (Hours)

Fig 10-11: Trend analysis for phenothiazine on engines 5012-9002-9023-9033

Engine 5020 - Add #1 & 2
140 120

Engine 9063
Add #1 Add # 2

% Remaining Additive

120 100 80 60 40 20 0

5020-1 5020-2
% Remaining Additive

100 80 60 40 20

15 51 16 19 16 39 16 62 16 88 17 14 17 38 17 62 17 87 18 11 18 33 19 41 19 65 19 86 21 26 21 49

0 450 504 544 566 590 614 637 660 661 685 708 730 752 775 800 824 825

Time (Hours)

Time (Hours)

Fig 12: Trend analysis for engine 5020

Fig.13: Trend analysis for engine 9063

Discussion results: From these trending reports it can be concluded that: a) Global view: All engines show a quick and continuous depletion of the phenothiazine additive (Add # 1), but a clear distinction can be made between the engines with high top-up rate, and the engines with low top-up rate. When we look at the average values (Global Image) we measure a quick depletion of Additive 1 in the first 125 operating hours, followed by a stabilisation between 150 200 hours. If we look at the GEMengine s/n 9058, which has an average oil consumption of 0.03 l/h, we can see that even with low top-up rates, the antioxidants levels remain for a period of 320 operating hours between 30 and 40% for Additive 1 Phenothiazine. b) Low oil consuming engines: The concentration RUL% (Remaining Useful Life %) of the phenothiazine is fluctuating differently for all engines and this phenomenon can be explained by the different top-up rates of fresh oil. If we look at engine s/n 9020, with an average oil consumption of 0.012 l/h, during the first 370 operating hours we see a continuous additive depletion to achieve a minimum level at 964 hrs (RUL% of 9%). Due to top-up of fresh oil the additive level is stabilising at 1100 operating hours till 44% RUL. Meanwhile SOAP analysis showed that Silica concentration had achieved a high level of 30,90 ppm, when Additive #1 is very low. As soon as the Additive #1 increases again, the Si-concentration decreases. Research has proven that Silica has a bad influence on the lubricating characteristics of a fluid. c) High oil consumption: for engine n 5020 (with an average top-up rate of 0.11 l/hr), it can be seen that for a period of 150 operating hours the concentration of both additives are high. Between 1800 and 1900 operating hours the concentration of phenothiazine has decreased to a RUL% of lower than 20%. As a consequence of this low concentration, the aromatic amine (Add #2) starts also to deplete faster (Fig.12). Based on this abnormal additive depletion, this engine was decided to go in maintenance, whereafter it was shown a damage had occurred at the labyrinthseal of one of the main bearings (nr.8) in the hot section of the engine, resulting in hot air suction and contact with the lubricant. Earlier papers [1,2 &6 ] have described these phenomena, where damaged carbon seals on C-130 engines, resulted in a fast depletion of aromatic amines antioxidants, as a direct results of hot air contact with the jet engine lubricant. d) The trend of the aromatic amine antioxidant depletion is also engine dependent. Here we see a differentiation between i) Engines with a RUL% varying between 95 and 105%, which represents a stable and normal oxidation process. (engines with high top-up rate) ii) Engines where the RUL% for the aromatic amine antioxidants is stable in a first phase followed by a second phase where RUL% starts to decrease continuously (engine 5020). (engines with low top-up rate) e) Module 01 Defect: A special attention goes to the engine 9063 (see Fig. 13), which went through a major engine failure (September 1997). From the data available it was concluded that the last sample before (bearing) damage had a RUL% for the phenothiazine of 18% RUL. Metallurgic study showed that metal fatigue was the major reason for this damage, and probably resulting in an increase of metal contact temperature, which presumably affected the antioxidants concentration. The engine 9063 went back into operation in October 1999, showing a normal depletion of additives.

f) Oil Refreshment/replacement: After a total oil refreshment (total volume is 8.0 litres, practically 7.0 litres) the peak of Add #1 increases significantly. Also the RULER analysis results showed very clearly when a total drainage and/or top-up with fresh oil has occurred (see Fig. 11-13). The speed at which the levels of additives are decreasing, are greatly dependent from the condition of the engines, as well the oil consumption rate. In this case, engine s/n 9012, has an average oil consumption of 0.03 l/hr, and at 163 operating hours oil (with a RUL% of 19.3%) was refreshed, wherefore RUL% increases to 66.4%, showing again a good quality of the oil.
5. On-line Temperature Test Results on O-160 jet lubricant

As temperature remains an important stressing parameter on jet engine lubricants, it was important to obtain more specific measurements on the temperature evolutions in one of the vital components of the engine, namely Module MO1. To obtain this data extra measurements have been performed in the oil return line (scavenge line), where the oil returns from the MO1. An on-line temperature sensor has been installed in the scavenge line, and on 10 engines temperature measurements were established (engine test benches). All of the temperature measurements have been related to the overall engine oil temperature, measured after the oil cooler. In Figure 14, all the average temperature data, for engine and MO1, are presented vs. the engine power settings. Air Intake temperature varies between 11,8 and 20.9 C.
G E M -4 2 , M O 1 O il te m p e r a tu r e 1 4 0

Temperature C

1 2 0 1 0 0 8 0 6 0 4 0 2 0 0
10 22 11 00 55 8 70 0 87 0
E n g in e C M O 1 C

11 77

P o w e r s e ttin g

N M

Figure 14: Graph showing average MO1 Oil Temperature vs. Power Settings From the above results it can be seen that the oil temperature, depending from the power setting, can exceed 140C at the MO1 location. Interesting is that the difference between the overall oil temperature, and the MO1 oil temperature is regular for all measuring points, and always approximately 27C. Also it can be seen that the MO1 and the average oil temperature is depending from the Air Intake Temperature, and one can understand that during summer climatically situations, the MO1 temperature will increase even more. Consequently as oil return lines are a mixture of oil returning lines from different engine components, the above measured temperatures are not fully representative for the real temperatures in the MO1 area. Therefore it can be assumed that the realistic oil temperatures in the MO1 area can be approximately 10C higher than the measured values. By correlating the above temperature datapoints of the respective engines, to the RUL%

12 70

data, we see that the hottest engines correspond with the fastest antioxidant depletion rates (engines 9058, 5003, 9063). Conclusions: Simulation Oxidation Test. This test is based on the overall oil temperature, where the total volume of oil comes in contact with the temperature. One can assume that in an engine, only a relatively small amount of the oil is faced with the hot spots; at these hot spots the temperature can elevate to 250C. But taking into account the average oil temperature in the engine (after the oil cooler) at approximately 90C (max. 140C), the depletion of antioxidants will be gradually, and not be so abrupt as shown in the oxidation test. There was good correlation between RUL% results and the degree of oil degradation as shown by more traditional means (TAN increase etc.) for each of the applications described above. This indicates that RUL% measurements are at least complimentary to the more traditional techniques and, in some cases, might obviate the need for such measurements, particularly where a good relationship has been established. Field experiences: This case of field experience with helicopter gasturbine oils, showed significant advantages by controlling oxidation on the turbine oils with the RULER instrument, in order to predict the correct oil change intervals. The structural oil consumption and consequently replenishment allows the Navy to keep the quality (and antioxidant) of the oil at an acceptable level. The quantity of replenishment is directly proportional to the degradation reaction of antioxidants and their stabilisation concentration (RUL%). When the oil flow start to reduce, or the oil is coming in contact with hot air or hot spots, the remaining concentration of antioxidants starts to decrease very fast under the 25% RUL. It is vital to recognise these conditions, in order to perform corrective actions, and help to detect abnormal operating engines. Oil consumption: For the 40 engines, an average oil consumption value of 0.05 l/h can be handled. With this average, it can be concluded that a normal operating engine will have sufficient protection by the lubricant. However if the trend analysis of RUL% (for antioxidants) detects a variation from a normal depletion trend, it is probably a result of higher operating temperatures (hot spots), higher friction, reduced flow of oil, or the lubricant coming in contact with the hot gasses (labyrinth seal defect). All of these factors will be translated into an accelerated depletion trend of antioxidants. Engines with lower oil consumption (less than 0.03 l/h) show for normal operating engines a level of antioxidants above the minimum of 25%. As soon as the operating conditions are varying, the RUL% responds to this change, and drops below the 25%. Engines with higher oil replenishment (due to labyrinth leakage) have a positive effect on the antioxidant level RUL%. But with the RULER instrument, 2 cases were detected where engines with high top-up rates, had RUL% lower than the 25% level. Module 01 defect: This major defect is not only created by a bad oil quality, as the metal fatigue in the bearing material plays also a major role. Here we can conclude that oil with questionable quality would be a significant accelerator of the metal fatigue stress. By monitoring the oxidation stability of the oil, the inherent oil lubricating characteristics will be maintained, and this affects again the life time of bearings. Oil lifetime: Practical experiences in this 2 years have shown that a total oil replacement results in total antioxidant replenishment. For normal operating engines, trend analysis will show normal depletion, and with regular top-up of fresh oil, antioxidants will remain above the 25% RUL%. For engines suffering from operating problems (see point 3), the level of
6.

remaining antioxidants can decrease so fast, that it would be interesting to consider to change out the oil after every 100 operating hours. Quality Control: RULER was used for quality control of incoming oil batches, in addition to the existing MIL-specifications. Oil Operating Temperature: It can be concluded from this program that temperatures in the planet gear bearings (M01) can exceed the 150C, and will have a direct impact on the antioxidants concentration. As the Engine Maintenance Program (EMP) performs every 1000 hrs an extra oil flow test, this risk of abnormal high operating temperatures will be reduced significantly. But, this part of the engine remains a risk of hot spot, resulting in oil degradation, measured and confirmed by the RULER measurements. Recommendations: As periodically replenishment (every 100 hrs) would only lead to higher oil consumption, a combination of periodically RULER measurements with selective monitoring is recommended by the HMC/ME (Health Monitoring Centre/Maintenance Engineering). The regular sampling (50 hrs) would enable to establish a trend analysis of the antioxidants, and indicate when the minimum level of 25% is achieved, in complement to the SOAP and DEBRIS existing program. This monitoring program would enable to determine the correct oil replacement interval, as well follow more closely the operating engines with abnormal working conditions, and consistently reduce wear and damage costs on GEM-42 gas turbine engines. Acknowledgements: We acknowledge Mr. Henk Kuipers, and Rob Van Loghem from the MVK De Kooy Den Helder Netherlands, as well Bob Kauffman from the UDRI, for their valuable support and contribution to this program. References: (1) Kauffman, R.E., Rapid Determination of Remaining Useful Lubricant Life, in CRC Handbook of Lubrication and Tribology, Vol III, Booser, E.R., ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. P 89. (1994) (2) Kauffman, R.E. and Rhine, W.E., Assesment of Remaining Lubricant Life. Report N AFWAL-TR-86-2024, Aero Propulsion Laboratory, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio. (3) Saba, C.S., Smith H.A., Keller, M.A., Kauffman, R.E. and Jain, V.K. Lubricant Performance and Evaluation, Report N AFWAL-TR-89-2008, Aero Propulsion Laboratory, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio. (1989) (4) Kauffman, R.E., Development of a RULLET Part III: Cyclic Voltammetric Methods. Lubrication Engineering, 45.11.pp 709-716 (1989) (5) Kauffman, R.E., Method for Evaluating the Remaining Useful Life of a Lubricant;, U.S. Patent N. 4.744.870 (1988). (6) Kauffman, R.E., On-line and Off-line Techniques for Monitoring the Thermal and Oxidative Degradations of Aircraft Turbine Engine Oils Part I: Laboratory Evaluations Lubrication Engineering, 51.11.pp 914-921 (1995) (7) U.S.Natl.Bur. Std. Tech. News Bulletin 57(6), 135 (1973) (8) Steve Lee, Dera Fuels & Lubricants Centre UK, Experiences with RULER Oil Analysis Instrument for Quick Determination of Remaining Useful Life on Jet and Diesel Engine Lubricants, Condition Monitoring 99, University of Swansea, p 51-63