Biology Form 4

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Ms. R. Buttigieg

UNIT 1 CHEMICALS OF LIFE

In this unit we shall be by looking at the chemicals that make an essential part of our life and without which we cannot survive. We shall also be investigating the biochemistry (chemicals of life) of these substances and how they work together.
1.1 water (see GSCE Biology pg. 11)

One of the most common substances in the world. Each water molecule is made up of 2 hydrogen atoms and 1 oxygen H2O. Organisms need water in order to survive. Water makes up approximately 65 % of our body weight and cells contain about 75% of water. Water is important to living organisms because: It is a good solvent (substances can dissolve in it) important as many reactions of the body take place in solution. Chemical reactions in our cells take place in water Water takes part in important chemical reactions e.g. photosynthesis. Our blood plasma is mainly water so water helps in transporting substances around the body Water is found in sweat that cools us down H O H

Helps in keeping a constant body temperature due to its high heat capacity
can absorb a lot of heat without changing a lot in temperature.

Has a high heat of vaporization it absorbs a lot of heat before it evaporates. So our body can
cool with only a small quantity of water being lost.

Waste products are removed from our bodies in water It helps plants to remain turgid.
Water boils (becomes a gas) at 100oC and freezes (becomes a solid commonly referred to as ice) at 0oC. So the majority of organisms cannot survive at or above 100oC and at or below 0oC as the cells are damaged due to the water they contain which changes its form.

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Ms. R. Buttigieg

Experiment - The Occurrence of Water in Living Things 1. All living organisms consist mostly of water. 2. The adult human body is about 60% water, by weight, and 75% by volume. 3. As much as 95% of the weight of some plants is due to the water they contain. Experimental Question: Which organic material has the greatest percentage of water: grass, grapes, or carrot? State Your Hypothesis: _________________________________________________________________ Collecting Data 1. Weigh a handful of grass clippings then set them on a newspaper to dry overnight. Record data for before and after weights 2. Measure the weight of a few grapes, then cut them in half and place on newspaper to dry. Record the weight both before and after drying. 3. Measure the weight of a carrot then cut into strips and set out to dry. Record data. Data Table Fresh (g) grass grapes carrot Dried (g) Total water lost (g) Percent Water

Materials Needed balance grass clippings grapes newspaper carrot

Analysis 1. Why was it necessary to cut the items into strips? _____________________________________________________________________________________________ 2. Which material contained the most water (percentage)? _____________________________________________________________________________________________ 3. Grass is a leaf, grapes are fruits, and a carrot is a root. Based on the data of this lab, do different parts of the plant contain more water than others? Suggest a reason for this.

_____________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________

Biology Form 4

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Ms. R. Buttigieg

1.2

Composition and properties of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins

(GCSE Biology Chapter 2 pgs 11-13; Food test experiments pg. 95)

In this section we will be looking at the importance of these food types as: Energy sources Food stores Structural materials.

We shall also be investigating the materials making them up.

A. Carbohydrates

These are organic substances that contain 3 elements: Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen. Hydrogen and oxygen are usually in the ratio of 2:1. Food sources include bread, cereals, sugar. These can be divided into 3 main groups: 1. Monosaccharides - carbohydrates made from a single sugar molecule. a. e.g. glucose, fructose, galactose. b. These are often made of ring structures c. They are soluble in water d. They are important as an energy source e. They serve as building blocks for larger molecules (disaccharides and polysaccharides)

2.

Disaccharides carbohydrates made when two monosaccharides combine together. a. e.g. glucose and glucose combine to form maltose fructose and glucose combine to form sucrose b. When the 2 monosaccharides combine a water molecule (2 hydrogen and 1 oxygen) is lost we call this a condensation

reaction.
c. The bond linking them together is called a glycosidic bond.

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Ms. R. Buttigieg

3.

Polysaccharides (even with 10, 000).

carbohydrates made from many monosaccharides linked together

Three important polysaccharides are: starch, cellulose, glycogen i. Starch is a major food store in plants. ii. Glycogen is a major food store in animals. iii. Cellulose is the main component of cell walls and is very strong. These are made from lots of glucose molecules joined together.
B. Lipids

Like carbohydrates, lipids are compounds that contain the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The only difference is that lipids contain much less oxygen in their molecules. The most common lipids are fats and oils. The difference between them is that fats are solid at room temperature, while oils are liquids. Both fats and oils are insoluble in water. Lipids are made from 3 molecules of fatty acids and 1 molecule of glycerol.

These lipids are known as triglycerides as they consist of 3 fatty acids combined with glycerol. The fatty acids, combine with glycerol in a condensation reaction where water is lost. There are many different fats and oils depending on the fatty acid that combines with glycerol. Examples of fatty acids are: Palmitic acid, oleic acid, stearic acid. We need fat: 1. as a store of energy 2. to make cell membranes 3. for warmth (insulation) 4. as some body organs are surrounded by fat for protection Too much fat can be harmful. Cholesterol is a fatty deposit that can narrow arteries and contribute to heart disease.

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Ms. R. Buttigieg

C. Proteins

These are complex organic substance made up of: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and often sulphur and phosphorus. Our body cells are mostly made of protein. Proteins are made from many amino acids joined together. Amino acids are joined together by peptide bonds. Found in meat, eggs, fish, beans, and nuts.

An amino acid contains an acidic group (COOH) and an amino group (NH2) R* H Amino group N H H C C OH O Acid group

R* is a different element or group for each amino acid. It is what makes amino acids different from each other. Amino acids join together by condensation reactions (water is removed) to form long polypeptide chains.

Amino acid + Amino acid

dipeptide tripeptide polypeptide

Amino acid + Amino acid + Amino acid

Amino acid + Amino acid + Amino acid + Amino acid + Amino acid +

There are 20 different amino acids and these are combined together in different ways to form different proteins each having a different shape. If the shape is changed this can result in a different protein. When temperatures rise above 50oC, proteins lose their shape and so their properties. We say that they have become denatured and their peptide bonds are broken. Even if the protein is cooled again the shape cannot be regained.

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Ms. R. Buttigieg

We need proteins: 1. for growth and to build new cells which replace old ones. 2. as they form part of cell membranes and of some organelles of the cells (e.g. ribosomes) 3. for forming hormones and enzymes (these will be discussed later on)

D. Fibre

Fibre (also called roughage) comes from plants. Fibre is not actually digested; it just keeps food moving smoothly through your system. Fibre provides something for your gut muscles to push against, so prevents constipation. Cereals and vegetables contain a lot of fibre.

Summary

Food substance
Carbohydrate Basic units are monosaccharides consisting of a 6 carbon ring, that join to form disaccharides or polysaccharides.

Elements present
Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H) Oxygen (O) There are always twice as many hydrogen atoms as oxygen e.g. C6H12O6

Use in body
Supply of energy (Glycogen is a store of energy, sugars are a ready supply) 1g yield 17 kJ of energy

Deficiency disease
Often linked to lack of enough food of any type i.e. starvation

Found in
Cane sugar, sucrose, fruit and honey (glucose) Potatoes, rice, cereals (starch) Liver (glycogen)

Protein Basic units amino acids joined together by peptide bonds

Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H) Oxygen (O) Nitrogen (N) Often also Sulphur (S) Phosphorus (P)

Growth and repair of cells and tissues, Making enzymes 1g yield 17 kJ of energy

Kwashiorkor: swollen abdomen, loss of hair

Meat, fish, soya, milk, cheese, peas and beans, eggs

Lipids (Fats & Oils) basic units are fatty acids joined to glycerol

Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H) Oxygen (O)

Store of energy, For insulation 1g yield 39 kJ of energy

Lack of certain fatty acids causes various diseases

Dairy products, milk, fish, nuts, oils, fatty meat

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Ms. R. Buttigieg

Food Tests
Food Substances used for test Iodine solution Drop iodine solution Details of test Sign of a positive result

Starch

into the solution to be tested

Solution turns blue black

Benedicts solution

Add Benedicts solution Solution turns orange too the solution and boil in water bath for red

Glucose

2 minutes

Ethanol

Ethanol is shaken with the substance to be

A milky white emulsion forms in the water

Fat

tested and then a few drops of the ethanol are dropped in the water Sodium hydroxide, copper sulphate (Biuret test) Add several drops of dilute sodium hydroxide solution followed by several drops of copper sulphate solution Solution turns purple.

Protein

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Ms. R. Buttigieg

Junior Lyceum Annual 2000 1 Complete the following table about food tests: Reducing Sugar What are the testing reagent/s? Starch Protein Lipid/Fat

What is the colour of a positive result?

(8 marks) Junior Lyceum Annual 2003 2. A student claims that nuts are rich in oil and protein. Describe two separate simple tests by which the student can show that nuts are rich in these two nutrients. (3, 4) ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 3. Answer the following on a separate paper (or on the back of this page):

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Why are carbohydrates important? Name the two main carbohydrates. What is the chemical test for starch? What is the chemical test for glucose? Why is fat needed in our bodies? How would you test for fat? Why is protein important to our cells? What is the chemical test for protein? Why is fibre important in our diet? 10. Name a food that contains fibre.

Biology Form 4

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Ms. R. Buttigieg

1.3

Vitamins

(see GSCE Biology pg. 13, 88,89)

We only need these in small amounts, but they are important for good health. These can be found in fruit, vegetables and cereals. Deficiency diseases occur if vitamins are lacking.

Sources and functions of vitamins A, C and D in a human diet.

Vitamin A Retinol

Source (Found in) Butter, milk, cheese, liver, margarine, eggs

Function Important for the formation of a substance important in night vision. Helps resist disease.

Deficiency symptoms Poor night vision that may lead to complete night blindness.

C Ascorbic acid

Oranges, lemons, grapefruit, carrots, potatoes, fresh green vegetables, tomatoes

Keeps the skin strong and supple. Helps resistance to infections.

Without it the skin cracks and the gums bleed a condition called scurvy. Wounds fail to heal.

D Calciferol

Butter, milk, cheese, egg-yolk, liver, fish liver oil.

Important in bone and tooth formation. Also helps the bones harden in children

Without it the bones stay soft ( a disease called rickets). In adults causes osteomalacia which may result in fractures.

Natural fats in the skin change to a form of calciferol in sunlight.

Experiment to estimate the amount of vitamin C

DCPIP is a liquid that loses its colour when it comes into contact with vitamin C.
Pour 1cm3 of DCPIP solution into a test tube. Take a 1cm3 syringe of vitamin C and see how many drops it takes to decolorize the DCPIP. Compare the amounts of vitamin C in different fruit juices.

DID YOU K OW THAT: Vegetarians do not eat meat but there are different kinds of vegetarians. Some dont eat meat but eat fish; others eat no meat or fish but eat dairy products. Vegans eat no animal products at all, but it is important they replace the protein, vitamins and minerals (like iron and calcium) with other forms like cereals, seeds, beans and nuts.

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Ms. R. Buttigieg

1.4 Mineral salt requirements

(see GSCE Biology pg. 43-44, 87,88)

Also referred to as: mineral, salts or mineral salts.

Functions of nitrogen and magnesium in plants.

Plants obtain their minerals by absorbing them with the help of their roots from the soil. They pass into the xylem, which then transports them through the plant cells.

Mineral Nitrogen Magnesium

Use in plant For growth as it is important to build amino acids and proteins. Used to make chlorophyll.

Deficiency symptoms Poor growth and yellow leaves Yellow leaves

Note: Nitrogen is obtained in the form of nitrates from the roots.

Sources and functions of calcium, phosphorus and iron in a human diet.

Mineral Iron

Source (Found in) Red meat (liver & kidney), eggs, groundnuts, bread, spinach and gree n vegetables.

Function Needed for the hemoglobin that is found in blood and is important in carrying oxygen round the body.

Deficiency symptoms Anemia not enough red blood cells. Insufficient hemoglobin is made and the oxygen carrying capacity of blood is reduced.

Phosphorus

Present in nearly all food. Mostly found in: cheese, meat and fish Milk, cheese, hard tap water

Needed in bones and in DNA

Usually present so deficiencies dont occur Weak bones, rickets and excess bleeding.

Calcium

1. Deposited in bones and teeth to make them hard. 2. Helps in blood clotting. 3. Helps in transmission of nerve impulses.

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Ms. R. Buttigieg

Work to do:
1. Choose 2 vitamins and 2 minerals and state a) the food in which they can be found, b) their uses in the body and c) their deficiency diseases. (12 marks) 2. Junior Lyceum 2002. Explain why each of the following is needed in the human diet. Name one good source for each. a. Calcium: ___________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________(1) Source: _____________________________________________________________________(1) b. Iron: _______________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________(1) Source: _____________________________________________________________________(1) c. Vitamin C: __________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________(1) Source: _____________________________________________________________________(1) (total 6 marks) 3. Junior Lyceum 2003. The table below shows four different snacks and four statements relevant to different food groups. MEAL A ) scrambled eggs on toast B) glass of milk C) spaghetti D) glass of orange juice STATEMENT a) stops scurvy b) helps towards healthy bones and teeth c) body builders and iron providers d) good energy food

a) Pair up each of the meals above with the most appropriate statement. A ________ B ________ C _________ D ________ (4) b) People who do a lot of physical exercise often believe that they need a large amount of protein. (i) Explain why this belief may be wrong. ___________________________________________________________________________ (2) (ii ) Suggest a more appropriate nutrient and give a good source of the nutrient suggested. Nutrient _______________________ Source _______________________ (2)

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Ms. R. Buttigieg

1.5 Enzymes

(see GSCE Biology pg. 14-18)

Enzymes are PROTEI S that are capable of making reactions happen at a faster rate so are also CATALYSTS. Enzymes work on substances called the substrates. The place on the enzyme where the reaction takes place is called the active site. Each enzyme is specific for one substrate.

Enzymes have 5 important properties: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. They are all proteins Each enzyme controls one particular reaction They can be re-used They are affected by temperature They are affected by pH

There are 2 main types of enzymes Breaker enzymes (catabolic) & Builder enzymes (anabolic) Breaker enzymes called catabolic enzymes help break large molecules into smaller ones. An example where these enzymes are important is in digestion where large food molecules are broken down into small ones that can be used.

In the digestive system 3 of the main substances that need digesting are starch, proteins and fats. They are each broken down with the help of a different enzyme Food Starch Protein Fat Broken into Maltose (a sugar) Amino acids Fatty acids and glycerol Enzyme Amylase Protease Lipase Produced in Mouth, pancreas Stomach, pancreas Pancreas

Answer these: 1. Name the enzyme that digests proteins 2. Explain why lipase does not digest starch. 3. List the 5 properties of enzymes

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Ms. R. Buttigieg

Builder enzymes called anabolic enzymes help small molecules to join together and form bigger ones. These are important in helping to build important molecules in our cells.

An example where builder enzymes are used is in the formation of new proteins from amino acids that are joined together by peptide bonds.

Enzymes and temperature

In many reactions, increasing the temperature results in an increase in the reaction rate, while decreasing them results in a slower rate. The same can be said for enzyme-controlled reactions. However, this is only true up to 50oC for above this temperature, enzymes get

denatured (lose their shape so cannot combine with the

substrates) and cannot continue to carry out their function.

What is the optimum temperature indicated by the graph? _______ Enzymes and pH Most enzymes have a particular pH at which they work best. For example protease enzymes in the stomach work best at pH 2. Amylase (the enzyme in saliva) cannot work at this pH. The pH at which an enzyme works best is called the optimum pH. If an enzyme is placed in an extreme pH it can also get denatured.

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Ms. R. Buttigieg

Intracellular and extracellular enzymes Intra means inside; extra means outside

Intracellular enzymes are those that work inside cells in reactions that take place there; like respiration. Extracellular enzymes are those that are secreted from cells to work outside them, like what happens with fungi that digest food extracellularly by secreting enzymes e.g. on bread. Another example are the enzymes secreted into the digestive system by organs like the pancreas to break down food particles.
Economic uses of enzymes

(see GSCE Biology pg. 18, 330)

Enzymes are cheap to use in industry as: They dont need high temperatures to work so less fuel needed Can be re-used so are only needed in small amounts. They are specific for particular substances so can be controlled more.

Examples of enzyme uses are in: Brewing (making beer) Baking Cheese making Biological washing powders In brewing and baking enzymes present in living yeast change sugar to alcohol and carbon dioxide. In cheese making an enzyme called rennin is extracted from calves stomachs (now produced artificially by genetic engineering called chymosin). It helps in clotting milk in the first stages of cheese making.

Complete the following: a) b) c) Enzymes __________________ up the rate of chemical __________________. Enzymes are __________________ because they only work on one substrate.

(9 marks)

The substrate fits into the __________________ site on the surface of the __________________.

d)

With an increase in __________________, the rate of reaction __________________ but eventually a temperature is reached which __________________ the enzyme.

e)

Enzymes can be re-used, so only __________________ amounts are needed.

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Ms. R. Buttigieg

1.6 A balanced diet in humans

(see GSCE Biology pg. 89-91)

This is a diet containing the right balance of the different foods that meet the needs of individuals. These needs are dependent on the lifestyle, activity and developmental stage of an individual. Basically it must contain: Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins Minerals Vitamins Fibre Water In the right quantities.

Foods like bread, cereal and potatoes they would be very important providing energy, and that would give us the energy for growth, the energy to run round to do normal activities, or the energy to go out and play. Fruit and vegetables would give us lots of important vitamins and minerals which we need and some of these can help protect us against heart disease and cancer. As for milk and diary foods go they would be very important from the point of view of providing enough calcium. Calcium is needed for bone development and growth. Meat and foods like chicken and fish and eggs, they are important for protein and also for some minerals and especially iron. Protein would be very important again for growth and the development of muscles and tissue which makes our body grow and iron is also important for healthy blood.
http://www.bbc.co.uk/northernireland/schools/4_11/uptoyou/healthy/t_cf01.shtml