Index Null instruments, 6566 Numerical approximation errors, 358 Numerical controllers (NCs), 696710 and CAD / CAM,

709710 history / applications of, 696698 input media for, 699 point-to-point / contouring, 701 principles of operation for, 698701 programming of, 702709 Numerical instability, 358 Numerical integration methods, 354 errors in, 357, 358 Euler, 354355 multistep, 356357 predictorcorrector, 357 RungeKutta, 355356 selecting, 359 Nyquist, H., 444 Nyquist plot, 419 Nyquist stability criterion, 481486 Nyquist stability theorem, 419420

895

O
Object systems, 274 Observability, 748752 Observable canonical form, 723724, 727, 728, 733734, 737 Observer algorithms, 412 Observer-based controllers, 783788 Observers, 777783 for LTV continuous-time systems, 777 for LTV discrete-time systems, 778 NN, 806808 optimal, 781783 structure of, 777 ODE (orientation-dependent etching), 868 OEMs (original equipment manufacturers), 680 Off-line programming, 714, 715 Off set error, 400 Ohmmeters, 835 OLCE (open-loop characteristic equation), 469 OLE for prices control (OPC) standard, 233234 One-arm bridge, 86 circuit for manipulating a, 91 color code and wiring designation for, 88

One-phase-on switching, 563 One-port element, 303 One-port element laws, 304307 One-sided test, 29 One-time-programmable device (OTP), 250 Online programming, 714 Onoff controllers, 399, 497, 498 Op amps, see Operational ampliers OPC standard, see OLE for prices control standard Open-loop characteristic equation (OLCE), 469 Open-loop systems, 385 closed-loop frequency response from that of, 514516 closed-loop vs., 445, 446 for PID, 420421 polar plot for, 508, 509 Open-loop transfer function, 469 Open Systems Interconnect (OSI) standard, 232233 Operating point of static systems, 4556 exchange of real power, 4547 fatigue in bolted assemblies, 52 graphical determination of output impedance for nonlinear systems, 5456 input / output impedance at the, 48 and load for maximum transfer of power, 4850 for nonlinear characteristics, 5254 in power / energy exchange, 4648 tension-testing machine, 5052 transforming the, 5761 Operating point transformation, 5761 impedance requirements for mixed systems, 5861 transducer-matched impedances, 5758 Operational ampliers (op amps), 406, 407, 494, 840844 inverting, 841842 noninverting, 842843 schematics of, 843 Operational deployment phase (system design), 292293 Operational environments, 287 Operator hierarchy, 246 Optical encoders, 391, 853854