Modeling Hydrostatic Transmission in Forest Vehicle PDF

Examensarbete
Modeling Hydrostatic Transmission in Forest Vehicle Erik Carlsson

LITH - ISY - EX - - 06/3801 - - SE
Modeling Hydrostatic Transmission in Forest Vehicle

Department of Electrical Engineering, Link opings Universitet Erik Carlsson LITH - ISY - EX - - 06/3801 - - SE
Examensarbete: 20 p Level: D Supervisors: Anton Shiriaev, Deparment of Applied Physics and Electronics Ume a Universitet Johan Sj oberg, Control & Communication, Department of Electrical Engineering, Link opings Universitet Examiner: Svante Gunnarsson, Control & Communication, Department of Electrical Engineering, Link opings Universitet Link oping: May 2006
Avdelning, Institution Division, Department Institutionen f or systemteknik 581 83 LINKOPING SWEDEN

Spr ak Language
Svenska/Swedish
Datum Date May 2006
Rapporttyp Report category

Licentiatavhandling
ISBN ISRN
Engelska/English
Examensarbete C-uppsats D-uppsats Ovrig rapport
LITH - ISY - EX - - 06/3801 - - SE

Serietitel och serienummer Title of series, numbering
ISSN
URL f or elektronisk version

http://www.divaportal.org/liu/undergraduate/index.xsql?lang=en
Titel Title
Modeling Hydrostatic Transmission in Forest Vehicle
F orfattare Author
Erik Carlsson
Sammanfattning Abstract
Hydrostatic transmission is used in many applications where high torque at low speed is demanded. For this project a forest vehicle is at focus. Komatsu Forest would like to have a model for the pressure in the hose between the hydraulic pump and the hydraulic motor. Pressure peaks can arise when the vehicle changes speed or hit a bump in the road, but if a good model is achieved some control action can be developed to reduce the pressure peaks. For simulation purposes a model has been developed in Matlab-Simulink. The aim has been to get the simulated values to agree as well as possible with the measured values of the pressure and also for the rotations of the pump and the motor. The greatest challenge has been due to the fact that the pressure is a sum of two ows, if one of these simulated ows is too big the pressure will tend to plus or minus innity. Therefore it is necessary to develop models for the rotations of the pump and the motor that stabilize the simulated pressure. Dierent kinds of models and methods have been tested to achieve the present model. Physical modeling together with a black box model are used. The black box model is used to estimate the torque from the diesel engine. The probable torque from the ground has been calculated. With this setup the simulated and measured values for the pressure agrees well, but the t for the rotations are not as good.
Nyckelord Keyword
Hydrostatic transmission, Forest Vehicle, Model, Pressure, Simulation
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Abstract
Hydrostatic transmission is used in many applications where high torque at low speed is demanded. For this project a forest vehicle is at focus. Komatsu Forest would like to have a model for the pressure in the hose between the hydraulic pump and the hydraulic motor. Pressure peaks can arise when the vehicle changes speed or hit a bump in the road, but if a good model is achieved some control action can be developed to reduce the pressure peaks. For simulation purposes a model has been developed in Matlab-Simulink. The aim has been to get the simulated values to agree as well as possible with the measured values of the pressure and also for the rotations of the pump and the motor. The greatest challenge has been due to the fact that the pressure is a sum of two ows, if one of these simulated ows is too big the pressure will tend to plus or minus innity. Therefore it is necessary to develop models for the rotations of the pump and the motor that stabilize the simulated pressure. Dierent kinds of models and methods have been tested to achieve the present model. Physical modeling together with a black box model are used. The black box model is used to estimate the torque from the diesel engine. The probable torque from the ground has been calculated. With this setup the simulated and measured values for the pressure agrees well, but the t for the rotations are not as good.
Keywords: Hydrostatic transmission, Forest Vehicle, Model, Pressure, Simulation
Carlsson, 2006.
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Acknowledgements
I would like to thank several people that have supported me during the work on my thesis: My examiner Svante Gunnarsson for valuable opinions on the report, my supervisor at Ume a University Anton Shiriaev for letting me be a part of this project and my supervisor at Link oping University Johan Sj oberg who has helped me very much with both knowledge and encouragement during the creation of this report. Komatsu Forest for putting forward this very interesting project and a special thanks to G oran Blomberg and Joakim Johansson for the practical help during our experimentation with the forwarder.
A Rebecka Domeij B ackryd for her help with L TEX.
My coworkers at the institution of Applied Physics and Electronics, Pedro, Anders, Ian, Leonid and Uwe for making my spare time here in Ume a more interesting with squash and lunches. I would also like to thank my family for their support and especially my girlfriend Maria for her love and invaluable help.
Carlsson, 2006.
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Nomenclature
Symbols and abbreviations are described here. SI units are used throughout the report.
Symbols
p preturn p V C TL Td Tp Tm e Qv Ql p Jp Jd Jpd Qp Dp ip Bp vp tp Tf p p Kp charge pressure in the hose [Pa] pressure in the return hose [Pa] dierence between charge and return pressure [Pa] volume of the hose [m3 ] bulks modulus [Pa] leakage coecient [Nm5 /s] torque from the wheels [Nm] torque produced by the diesel engine [Nm] torque from the pump to the engine [Nm] torque from the motor to the wheels [Nm] angular velocity of the engine [rad/s] ow through the safety valve [m3 /s] leakage out from the hose [m3 /s] m Jm J Jwm Qm Dm im Bm vm tm Tf m m Kp angular velocity [rad/s] moment of inertia [Nms2 ] m.o.i. of the wheels [Nms2 ] Jm + J ow to the motor [m3 /s] displacement [m3 /rad] current to the motor [A] friction coecient [Nms] volumetric eciency [-] torque eciency [-] friction torque [Nm] friction coecient [Nms] friction coecient [Nm]
xi
angular velocity [rad/s] moment of inertia [Nms2 ] m.o.i. of the engine [Nms2 ] Jp + Jd ow from the pump [m3 /s] displacement [m3 /rad] current to the pump [A] friction coecient [Nms] volumetric eciency [-] torque eciency [-] friction torque [Nm] friction coecient [Nms] friction coecient [Nm]
Carlsson, 2006.
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Abbreviations
MS5050 CVT SITB EVPS Multi-System 5050 Continuously Variable Transmission System Identication toolbox Earthmoving Vehicle Powertrain Simulator
Contents
1 Introduction 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Delimitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Outline of the Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 4 5 7 9 9 10 12 13 13 14 15 19 19 20 20 22 22 23
xiii
2 System overview 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Forest vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Transmission line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Previous work, modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Previous work, identication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3 Physical model of the hydrostatic transmission 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 Introduction model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Diesel engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hydraulic Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hydraulic Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Traction model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Complete model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4 Identication 4.1 4.2 4.3 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Linear identication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.1 4.3.1 4.3.2
Carlsson, 2006.
Linear black box modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Non-linear black box modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Neural Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Non-Linear identication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
xiv
Contents
5 Data collection 5.1 5.2 Multi-System 5050 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.1 5.2.1 5.2.2 5.2.3 Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sensor locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Performed tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Modications of the data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Test day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25 25 25 27 27 27 29 31 31 31 32 32 33 34 35 36 39 41 41 44 46 51 51 52 53 55 59 61 65 65 66 67
6 Model modications, Simulations and Results 6.1 Modications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.1 6.1.2 6.1.3 6.1.4 6.2 6.3 Swashplate angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Flows from valve and leakage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Return pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Eciencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Simulations for the pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Black box models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.1 6.3.2 Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4
Grey box models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4.1 6.4.2
6.5
Complete model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7 Discussion and Conclusions 7.1 7.2 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8 Future work Bibliography A Data sheet B Simulink models C .m-les C.1 ltrera.m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C.2 umu fetch matrix.m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C.3 Hydrostatic transmission.m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 1
Introduction
In this thesis, a model of the hydrostatic transmission in a forest vehicle will be developed. The introduction chapter presents the background, purpose and delimitations, the method used to solve the problem and an outline of the report.
1.1
Background
Komatsu Forest develops and manufactures forest vehicles. The production in Ume a started 1961 in a small family-owned company. Since then there have been some dierent owners. 2004 Komatsu Ltd bought the company and Komatsu Forest was founded. The development and production have changed course from Slash-bundler Skruven to todays high technology forest machines. The development and production for Komatsu is in Ume a and Wisconsin. In Ume a, the production mainly consists of wheel-based machines and harvester heads. Some of the research projects in Ume a have been placed at Ume a University where extra time and knowledge can be found. This thesis is a part of one of these projects. [1] A forest vehicle needs much more torque in comparison to for example a road truck. Because of that a hydrostatic transmission is used. Komatsu wants a model of this transmission. One of the motivations for the detailed modeling comes from the fact that shifting speed usually results in a peak of pressure that has an undesirable eect on the system and should be avoided. Such rise (drop) in pressure cannot be explained by simple static models and dynamical modeling is therefore needed. If a model that matches the real values in a good way is obtained then hopefully a controller that signicantly reduces this pressure peak can be developed.
1.2
Purpose
The main purpose of this thesis will be to build a model for the hydrostatic transmission in a forest vehicle using available measurement signals. If this
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Chapter 1. Introduction
model agrees well with reality and there still is time left, then the next task will be to control the input signals to reduce the pressure peak.
1.3
Method
To achieve the objectives of this thesis a mathematical description of the system has been developed. For simulation purposes this model is implemented in Matlab-Simulink. Experiments were needed to estimate unknown parameters. These experiments have been done together with Komatsu Forest on one of their test vehicles. Adjustments of the model and estimation of the parameters have been made to obtain a better model.
1.4
Delimitations
When developing the model six measurement signals were used. One of them was the rotation for the pump, which in opposite to the others also is available online. This signal could be used when simulating the model, but that approach has not been tested in this thesis. A model for the pressure of the return ow is not oered, but instead measured values are used. Another restriction made in this thesis is to only consider rotation of the hydraulic pump and motor in one direction. This has simplied the equations describing the system and made it easier to understand. The report has been written to suit students from an engineering program with some experience of modeling systems.
1.5
Outline of the Report
The main topics dealt with are presented in the chapters below. Chapter 2: A forest vehicle and the transmission line are shortly described. Chapter 3: The theoretical model for the hydrostatic transmission is presented. Chapter 4: Some identication methods are explained. Chapter 5: The experiments and the data collection are described. Chapter 6: Simulations are performed and the results are given. Chapter 7: Discussions and conclusions of the work are presented. Chapter 8: Describes possible ideas for future work.
Chapter 2
System overview
In this chapter, an overview of both a forest vehicle and its transmission will be given. The intention of this chapter is to give the reader a better understanding of how a hydrostatic transmission works and why it is used in a forest vehicle.
2.1
Forest vehicle
In Sweden two types of forest vehicles are used, harvesters and forwarders. They are usually wheel based. The harvester is used to take trees down, remove twigs and cut the trees in logs of suitable length. The task of the forwarder is to move the logs from the harvester area to the road where a truck will come and pick them up. The focus of this thesis will be to build a model for a forwarder although the dierence to other vehicles is small so an extension to these vehicles will be possible.
Figure 2.1: The forwarder used in this project: Valmet 840.2 The forwarder considered in this project has model number 840.2, see Figure 2.1. The weight is almost 14 tons and the payload 11 tons. The source of power is a 6.6 liter diesel engine, developing 170 hp. The forwarder is using energy in
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Chapter 2. System overview
two ways. One way is to move the crane and the other is to move the vehicle forward. Usually these two cases do not occur at the same time, but if this is the case there will be a problem with power supply for both of them. That problem is outside the scope of this thesis. [1]
2.2
Transmission line
As mentioned above it is the diesel engine that delivers the power for the machine. The diesel engine is connected to a hydraulic pump via a drive shaft. Inside the pump there is a swashplate that determines whether the vehicle is moving forward, backwards or is stationary. The angle of the swashplate also controls how much oil that ows out from the pump. A short description how this works will be oered below. To the swashplate a number of pistons are attached. An angle of the swashplate will make the pistons go back and forward with the rotation. An increase of the angle makes the stroke of the pistons longer which results in larger ow of oil of the pump. Figure 2.2 shows how it works in a simplied way.
Figure 2.2: Simplied diagram of the transformation from swashplate angle to an high pressure ow into the hose. The ow out of the pump is a product of the rotation of the pump and the volume/displacement of the pump, where the displacement is determined by the swashplate angle. The ow created by the pump passes through a security valve that ensures that the pressure is not too high. After that it is connected to the hydraulic motor. A hydraulic motor is basically the same thing as a hydraulic pump, but it works in the opposite way. Consequently the hydraulic motor is converting the ow back into rotation of the wheels. The motor as well as the pump has a swashplate. These two swashplates are used to achieve the demanded speed from the driver. If really high speed is desired then the swashplate angle as well as the volume of the motor decreases, and the ow passes through a smaller volume and the rotation increases. To transform the rotation of the motor to lower speeds the motor shaft is connected to a gearbox with two gears. From the gearbox there is a connection to the wheels. The ow from the hydraulic motor is connected to the input of the pump, which means that it is a closed loop system. A possible problem would then be that there is a lack in the oil supply to the pump. To ensure that oil always is available there is an extra pump called charge pump connected to the same
2.3. Previous work, modeling
shaft as the rst one. The charge pump guarantees that the pressure on the inlet side of the pump is around 30 bar. To avoid damage a safety valve is placed on the high-pressure side, and it opens when the pressure becomes too high. A simple schematic overview of the hydrostatic transmission is given in Figure 2.3.
Figure 2.3: Schematic overview of the hydrostatic transmission. A hydrostatic transmission has advantages compared to a normal mechanical transmission line, and some of them will now be presented. Hydrostatic transmission is generally used in low-speed and high-torque applications. The reason is the continuously variable transmission, CVT, which makes it possible to achieve desired torque. A CVT is a little bit less ecient than a mechanical transmission but the possibility to drive at an optimal combination of torque and speed makes the diesel engine to work in an more ecient range, and therefore the whole vehicle becomes more ecient [2, 3]. The choice of torque and speed can be reached with high accuracy [4]. Another motive is that a hydraulic motor produces up to ten times more power compared to an electrical motor with the same dimensions [5].
2.3
Previous work, modeling
The nal goal for this project is to control the pressure in the hose between the hydraulic- pump and motor. To do this, a model of the hydrostatic transmission is needed. Development of models for the hydrostatic transmission started in the late 1940s. Huge progress was made by Merritt in the 1960s [6]. His work has then later been updated by Manring [7]. Both Merritt and Manring focused on theoretical issues. However, I will mostly describe what has been done for physical machines. More specically, the discussion will be focused at the work done by Prasetiawan et al. [8] at the University of Illinois and Lennevi et al. [9] at Link oping University. For more details see [8, 9] and references therein. The work done at Illinois [10, 11, 12] and Link oping [13, 14] has resulted in many theses and articles. In Illinois, a laboratory setup with an Earthmoving Vehicle Powertrain Simulator (EVPS) has been used. The EVPS has an induction motor as its prime mover for the system and three hydraulic motors. A variable displacement pump then provides ow for the three motors. The hydraulic motors have xed
displacement and are connected to valves that determine which one to use. A load simulator is connected to each hydraulic motor. The setup used at Link oping university is very similar to the one used in Illinois. The largest dierence is that the group in Link oping has used a variable displacement motor instead of three xed displacement motors. An induction motor controlled by a servo-valve has been used to simulate a diesel engine and a load simulator is connected to the hydraulic motor. Figure 2.4 shows the setup used in both Illinois and Link oping.
Figure 2.4: The setup used by the groups in Illinois and Link oping. To the authors knowledge no detailed modeling using data from a machine, driven in a realistic situation, has been done. Nevala et al. [15] have developed an antislip control for a forest vehicle. Fuzzy control was used to minimize the slip and therefore no model of the hydrostatic transmission was needed. A Matlab-Simulink package with a model of a hydrostatic transmission has been developed by Jedrzykiewicz et al. [16]. This model has many similarities with the models developed in Illinois and Link oping. These three models are the basis for the mathematical model presented in Chapter 3. In that chapter, a simplied model for the transmission given by Egeland and Gravdahl [4] will also be presented. A phenomenon described in the literature is the inuence of the uid properties on the eciency of the hydrostatic transmission. This has been investigated by Dahl en [17]. Another issue that needs to be considered if a more detailed model is desired is the propagation of pressure. This has briey been described by Egeland and Gravdahl [4] and more carefully by Weddfelt [18]. Weddfelt has also approached the problem with pressure ripple. However, I have had no immediate use of the information found in these references. Of the references presented in this section the references from Illinois and Link oping are most closely related to this project, but there are some major dierences in the basic conditions. First, the diesel engine in this project is not very well known. This would not have been a problem if it was possible to measure the torque from the engine, but unfortunately this is not the case. The setups in both Illinois and Link oping use induction motors for which the control signal is the delivered torque. Moreover, a torque sensor is used in Link oping. Another important dierence is also due to sensor signals. The other setups have measurement signals for the swashplate angles of the pump and the motor. That is not possible to get from the forest vehicle used in this project. It is
2.4. Previous work, identication
however still possible to measure the control signal to the hydraulic pump and the motor which controls the swashplate angels. The problem is to determine the dynamics of the swashplate. In this thesis, the swashplate dynamics will be neglected and hopefully this assumption will not aect the model too much. If the eect would be large it would most likely only cause a small delay in the pressure. The last bigger dierence is that the Illinois and Link oping approaches use load simulators. Load simulators produce a stable torque which is rather easy to adjust to a desired level. The Link oping group does also have a torque sensor connected. In our case, a forest vehicle without a torque sensor is connected. The load torque when driving will be quite unpredictable. It may seem like the dierence between this project and those projects above is very big. Therefore, it is necessary to stress that the main part of the transmission line is very similar for all three setups. The hydrostatic transmission consisting of a hydraulic pump and a hydraulic motor is basically the same. Therefore the models will approximately be the same.
2.4
Previous work, identication
A model of the hydrostatic transmission will contain a lot of parameters. The values for some of them can be found in dierent documents from manufactures, and some are more or less known from experiments etc. However, some parameters are unknown and need to be estimated. An electro-hydraulic servo system (EHSS) as well as a hydrostatic transmission contains nonlinear hydraulic dynamics. Therefore, it is reasonable to see what has been presented in the literature on identication of an EHSS. An EHSS consists of a hydraulic valve, a hydraulic cylinder and a mass. The valve receives a control signal determining which side of the cylinder that should receive the oil ow. The pressure in the receiving side rises and the mass starts to move. See gure 2.5.
Figure 2.5: Overview of the electro-hydraulic servo system. To model the EHSS, Reuter [19] has used bilinear canonical forms. Recursive prediction error methods are then used to identify the parameters in the bilinear
canonical forms. This concept can cause problems with convergence if the initial values are not good enough. To avoid this diculty Jelali and Schwarz [20] have used a modied recursive instrumental variables algorithm. Linear integral lters were used to handle derivatives of measurement. The nal model for the EHSS is represented in observer canonical form. Another way to approach the problem with identication of a nonlinear system is to use neural networks. This has been done by Anyi et al. [21]. During the training of the network backpropagation was used. A problem that can occur when identifying parameters in a model is hysteresis eects. This has been approached by Park and Lee [22] when modeling a singlerod cylinder. To avoid these eects they used a modied signal compression method to estimate dierent dynamics during expansion and retraction. In this project a hydrostatic transmission should be modeled and identied. As described in Section 2.3 this problem has previously been approached by Prasetiawan in Illinois and he has used frequency and time responses to identify the system. Instead of estimating the parameters in the developed model, transfer functions were shaped using system identication toolbox (SITB) in Matlab. For example, transfer functions from the reference signal for the swashplate angle to the pressure and to the speed of the motor were derived. The model that had been created before provided information about which order the transfer functions should have. An observation made by Prasetiawan was that the model before improvements had good agreement between simulated and measured values for the speed of the motor but the simulated and measured values for the pressure did not have the same accuracy. This shows that it is important to build and identify a model that is adapted to the goal of the project. In [23], Lennevi and Palmgren have created a controller for the speed of the motor. Therefore, a good model for the speed of the motor was needed but the pressure simulations were less important. In our case, the goal is to control the pressure in the hose. In [24], Cidr as and Carrillo describe their model of a hydrostatic transmission. To estimate the unknown parameters a method based on the Melder-Mead simplex algorithm was used. Cidr as and Carrillo evaluated if the rotation of the motor in the hydrostatic transmission could be kept constant. The reason to build such a controller was that an electrical generator should be attached to the hydrostatic transmission. Another, not so successful approach was tested by Luigi del Re [25]. He developed a controller based on a model derived by using black box identication of the hydrostatic transmission.
Chapter 3
Physical model of the hydrostatic transmission

In this chapter a model describing the hydrostatic transmission will be presented. The model will consist of smaller blocks where each block is a model for a part of the system. This will make it easy to exchange parts of the model, for example, the pump without changing the other elements. It will also give a ne overview of the system.
3.1
Introduction model
In [4] Egeland and Gravdahl present a simple model of the hydrostatic transmission. To get an introduction to the system the model is described in detail below by (3.1) (3.3). The model has three variables that describe the rotation of the pump p , the rotation of the motor m , and the pressure in the hose between the pump and the motor p respectively. Figure 3.1 shows an overview of the system. The equation for the pump is Jp w p = Td Bp p Dp p, (3.1)
where Td is the torque from the diesel engine, Jp is the moment of inertia of the pump, Bp is a friction coecient for the pump and Dp is the displacement of the pump. The displacement depends linearly of the swashplate angle. Equation (3.1) shows that the pump starts to rotate when a torque from the diesel engine is present. The hydraulic motor is described by Jm w m = Bm m + Dm p TL , (3.2)
where TL is the load torque from the wheels, Jm is the moment of inertia of the motor, Bm is the friction coecient of the motor and Dm is the displacement of the motor. The two equations above demonstrate the similarity between the pump and the motor. The pressure in the hose between the pump and the motor is described by
Carlsson, 2006. 9
10
Chapter 3. Physical model of the hydrostatic transmission
V p = Dm m + Dp p Cp,
(3.3)
where V is the volume of the pump, is the bulk modulus and C is a leakage coecient. This equation illustrates that the pressure goes up when the ow from the pump is greater than the ow into the motor plus the leakage.
Figure 3.1: Egeland and Gravdahls model.
Now when the basics are presented a deeper exploration of the dierent parts of the system will be oered.
3.2
Diesel engine
The engine was not included in the introduction model described in Section 3.1. When trying to include the diesel engine in the model it is important to consider that the engine and the pump are connected by a shaft. This means that they have the same rotation speed. Prasetiawan et.al. in [10] approach the modeling problem by assuming that the rotation produced by the engine is aected by the torque from the pump, see Figure 3.2.
Figure 3.2: Connection between the diesel engine and the pump.
In Figure 3.2 the control signal to the engine is left out. In a private car the control signal is represented by the gas pedal that aects the throttle which controls the air ow into the motor. As a response the control-box for the engine injects more or less fuel to keep the air/fuel-mixture constant. This is not the case with Komatsus forest machines. Instead of controlling airow the gas pedal is input to the control-box that aects the swashplate angles of the pump and the motor. Komatsus control-box also sends a reference to the engines control-box which rotation speed is desired. The control-box of the engine then controls air and fuel input to match the desired rotation speed. See Figure 3.3 for an illustration. The result of the control system described is that a drop in speed will make the engine work harder to regain the reference speed given by Komatsus control-box.
3.2. Diesel engine
11
Figure 3.3: Overview of the dierent control signals in the transmission that aect the nal speed of the vehicle.
To describe the rotation of the engine and the pump an equation similar to (3.1) is used, (Jp + Jd )w e = Td Tf p Tp , (3.4)
where Jd is the moment of inertia of the diesel engine, e is the angular velocity of the engine, Td is the torque produced by the engine, Tf p is the friction aecting the engine and the pump and Tp is the torque from the pump to the engine. The relation e = p holds because of the connection between the two units. Tf p is the joint friction of the engine and the pump, and a reasonable assumption is to approximate it with a coulomb and a viscous friction. Then Tf p can be expressed as Tf p = p e + Kp sign(e ), (3.5)
where p and Kp need to be estimated from measurements. The term sign(e ) delivers the correct sign depending on the rotation of the diesel engine, but the engine will only rotate in one direction, and therefore this term can be removed. It will not be necessary to take special care and model the charge pump since the estimate of Jd and Tf p will include the charge pump without extra eort. One way to get an accurate value for Td is to create a good model, that requires a lot of information about the engine. Another option is to measure the motors internal signals. Unfortunately, neither of these options are available. This means that some kind of black/grey-box model needs to be developed for Td , see Chapter 6. Until that problem is solved, Td will be treated as an input signal to the system.
12
3.3
Hydraulic Pump
The rotation of the pump is generated by the diesel engine, but more modeling for the hydraulic pump is necessary. The torque Tp represents the torque which the diesel engine senses from the pump and it will be a function of displacement and dierence between charge- and return-pressure. Sauer Danfoss, the developer of the hydrostatic system, provides a formula for Tp in the documentation for the pump [26] Dp p , tp
Tp =
(3.6)
where tp is the mechanical eciency for the pump. This is basically the same as the term Dp p in (3.1). The big dierence is the eciency tp that makes the formula more accurate. An intuitive argumentation for (3.6) is that, when the pressure rises in the hose it is harder to rotate the pump. This means that Tp goes up and the rotation initially goes down. It also happens when the displacement of the pump Dp increases, then the pump should provide more ow and therefore decreases in speed. The initial drop in speed will be counteracted by the diesel engine that increases the torque Td in order to try to keep the speed constant. Equation 3.7 that describes the ow out of the pump is oered by Sauer Danfoss in [26] and in almost the same shape by Jedrzykiewicz et al in [16]. The dierence between the two equations is mainly notational. The equation looks like
Qp = Dp p vp ,
(3.7)
where Qp is the ow out from the hydraulic pump and vp is the volumetric eciency of the pump. One big advantage with the Sauer Danfoss representation of the pump is the existence of the eciencies in a datasheet, see Appendix A. That will give extra information about the behavior of the pump. Modeling the pump contains a problem which has not been addressed so far. The displacement Dp is linearly dependent on the swashplate angle but to control the angle of the swashplate a current is used. The relationship between the current and the angle is approximately known but small errors in the estimate of Dp can result in large errors in the pressure. Also the displacement of the motor Dm is controlled by a current. More about the relation between the currents and the angles can be found in Section 6.1.1.
3.4. Hose
13
3.4
Hose
The ows of oil into and out from the hose will determine its pressure. There are four ows to consider. The pressure in the hose is determined by the ow from the pump Qp , the ow into the motor Qm , the leakage Ql , and the ow through the valve Qv . See Figure 3.4 for a sketch of the ows.
Figure 3.4: The signals to and from the hose. Changes in pressure propagate in the hose with the speed of sound1 . Therefore, it is realistic to assume the same pressure in the 1.2 meter long hose. Expansion of the hose is another phenomenon that will not be encountered for in this thesis. High pressures will aect the rubber hose but hopefully not enough to make signicant changes in the volume of the hose. With these two assumptions made, the physics behind pressure changes can be described by V
t
p=
(Qp Qm Qv Ql ) d ,
0
(3.8)
where V is the volume of the hose, is the bulk modulus and p is the pressure in the hose. This is basically the same equation as (3.3) with some small modications. As explained in Section 6.1.2, Qv and Ql can be set to zero. It could be important to stress one property of (3.8). If the pressure in the hose is constant it means that the ow out of the hose is equal to the ow into the hose. This is of course true in the opposite way, if the ows are equal the pressure will be constant.
3.5
Hydraulic Motor
The equations describing the hydraulic pump can almost without changes be used for the motor as well. The ow Qm looks like Qm =
1 Speed
m Dm , vm
(3.9)
of sound in oil 1000 m/s.
14
where vm is the volumetric eciency of the motor. The reason to have vm in the denominator instead of the numerator is that the ow is the input to the motor contrary to the pump where it is the output. An analogous discussion can be used for tm in the equation that express Tm Tm = Dm ptm , (3.10)
where tm is the mechanical eciency for the motor and Tm is the torque that the motor delivers to the traction model. An overview of the signals into and out from the motor can be found in Figure 3.5.
Figure 3.5: Connections with the hydraulic motor.
3.6
Traction model
A torque from the motor is delivered to the traction model, and that torque should be used to calculate a rotation for both the wheels and the motor. The torque TL stands for the torque from the wheels and J is moment of inertia for the wheels. An equation for the angular velocity m can be written (Jm + J ) w m = Tm Tf m TL , where Tf m describes the friction and could be assumed to look like Tf m = m m + Km sign(m ), (3.12) (3.11)
e.g. a Coulomb friction and a viscous friction. The coecients m and Km need to be estimated. The hydraulic motor together with the wheels can rotate in both directions, and therefore the term sign(m ) is needed. The problem left to handle is then TL . Unfortunately TL causes a lot of trouble. It depends on several parameters that possibly could be found. It also depends on how slippery the ground is, whether it is a slope or not and if there are holes or stumps. Therefore, it is necessary to treat TL as an immeasurable input to the system or possibly use a blackbox/greybox model, see Chapter 6.
3.7. Complete model
15
3.7
Complete model
To sum up, the full set of equations that constitute the model are presented below. Some modications will be presented later because Td and TL are unknown. The pump related equations are
(Jp + Jd )w p = Td T f p T p , Tf p = p p + Kp , Dp p Tp = . tp The motor related equations are
(3.13)
(Jm + J ) w m = T m Tf m T L , Tm = Dm ptm , Tf m = m m + Km sign(m ). The equations describing the pressure are
(3.14)
t (Qp Qm ) d , V 0 p = p preturn , Qp = Dp p vp , p Dm Qm = . vm p=
(3.15)
How signals and sub-models are connected for the full model are shown in Figure 3.6.
Figure 3.6: Input signals to the system together with the signals that connect dierent subsystems.
No model has been developed for the return pressure. Instead, the return pressure is seen as a input to the system. The torques Td and TL will at this time be
16
treated as disturbances. The two last signals into the system are Dp and Dm . These are the two controllable signals primary used to avoid pressure peaks. The equations presented above represent the model for the hydrostatic transmission. This model can be rewritten in a better way. Introducing two new variables Jpd = Jp + Jd and Jmw = Jm + J together with substitutions of Td , Tf p , Tm , Tf m , Qp , Qm and p gives p p Kp Dp p Td , Jpd Jpd Jpd Jpd tp TL m m Km sign(m ) Dm ptm w m = + , Jmw Jmw Jmw Jmw p = Dp p vp m Dm p return . V V vm w p =
(3.16)
The goal is to rewrite (3.16) in state space form to more clearly show the structures of the model. It will also make it easier to apply identication methods. Before a state space form can be given some dependencies need to be claried. The controllable input signals to the model (3.16) are the displacement of the pump and the displacement of the motor. These displacements are determined by electrical signals. The functions from current to displacement are approximately known, see Section 6.1.1, and will therefore not render more unknown parameters. Still Dz , where z is either p or m, will be written Dz (iz ) in the following state space representation to keep in mind that the displacements are functions of the currents. In this thesis the dynamics of the swashplates have been neglected, otherwise a model from iz to Dz would be necessary. Hopefully this assumption is reasonable when no measurements for the angles of the swashplates are available. As mentioned before the values for the eciencies are given in a data sheet provided by Sauer Danfoss. These values are probably not totally reliable and therefore it can be of interest to see them as unknown parameters. It could happen that the eciencies are dependent on velocities, pressures and displacements. Therefore, the following notation will be used,
tp = tp (p , p, Dp ), tm = tm (m , p, Dm ),
vp = vp (p , p, Dp ), vm = vw (m , p, Dm ).
The pressure in the return hose is not modeled but it is measured in the tests, and therefore it will be used as input signal to the system. The following vectors are now introduced wp Dp (ip ) x = wm , u = Dm (im ) , d = p p return = p m Kp Km Jpd Jmw tp
Td TL
, tm vm
T
vp
3.7. Complete model
17
where x represents the states, u are the input signals, d are the disturbances and contains the unknown parameters. Because tp is not constant it is parameterized using tm which can be a vector. The model can now be expressed as
x = f (x; ) + g (x; )u + ()d, Kp p x1 Jpd J pd f (x; ) = m x2 Km sign(x2 ) , Jmw Jmw 0 x3 Jpd tp (x,u; ) 0 tp x ( x,u ;tm ) 3 tm 0 g (x; ) = Jmw x1 vp (x,u;vp ) 2 V vm (x V x,u;vm ) 1
1 . () = Jmw 0 Jpd
0 , 1 (3.17)
To simplify this representation some assumptions has been done. The two torque eciencies are rather constant when the speed of the vehcile is above 0.2 km/h. Therefore, they will be approximated by a constant. The two volumetric eciencies are probably most dependent of the speed of the pump and the speed of the motor, respectively. Because of that the pressures and displacements will be neglected in the function. A delimitation made in this thesis is that the rotation of the wheels will only be considered in one direction, and therefore sign(x2 ) can be removed. As a result of the discussion above new , f (x; ) and g (x; ) can be formed as
= p f (x; ) = g (x; ) =
Kp 0
p x1 J pd m x2 Jmw
Kp Jpd Km Jmw
Km Jpd , 0
Jmw
tp
vp
tm
vm
x3 Jpd tp 0 x1 vp (x1 ;vp ) V
x3 tm Jmw x2 V vm ( x2 ;vm )
0 0 , 1
(3.18)
As we can see there are a lot of unknown parameters in . Estimation of these are necessary, and therefore an introduction to identication will be given in the next chapter.
18
Chapter 4
Identication
In this chapter an introduction to linear and non-linear identication will be given.
4.1
Introduction
A lot of research has been done on identication of systems and parameters. An introduction to the aspects of identication is given by Ljung and Glad [27]. Further information can be found in [28] by Ljung and for non-linear identication in [29] by Sj oberg. The information presented in this chapter is found in this literature. Dierent kinds of models can be developed for a system. These can be categorized into three dierent groups. - White Box models - Grey Box models - Black Box models A white box model is used when all the information about the system structure is available. This is almost never the case when it comes to modeling in the real world. Even with good knowledge about the system there will be unknown parameters that need to be estimated in some way. This kind of model is called grey box model. Another type of model that also falls under the category of grey box models is when some physical information about the system is available and that knowledge is used to estimate a model of black box nature. A black box model is used when no information and knowledge about the system exist. Which kind of model that should be used depends on the knowledge of the system, how much time one has and what the model should be used for. Maybe it is enough to use a black box identied model and then there is no need to
Carlsson, 2006. 19
20
Chapter 4. Identication
spend more time to determine the physical relations of the system. If one has some physical insight it should probably be used when developing the model. Then a more realistic model can be achieved and fewer parameters need to be estimated.
4.2
Linear identication
If the developed model for the system is linear but have some unknown parameters it could be written as
x (t) = A()x(t) + B ()u(t) + d(t) y (t) = C ()x(t) + D()u(t) + h(t),
(4.1)
where u(t) stands for the inputs to the system, y (t) for the outputs, x(t) are the states of the system, d(t) and h(t) are disturbances and is a vector containing the unknown parameters. The task is to estimate these parameters through different experiments. How this should be done depends on the system and which measurements that can be collected. If less knowledge about the system is available, then black box modeling could be used to approach the problem, this will be presented below.
4.2.1
Linear black box modeling
When using an identication program to estimate a black box model, for example SITB [30], the model structure needs to be chosen. Some of the possible structures will be presented below and an example will be given for one of them. For the rest of this chapter discrete time models with q as the shift operator will be used, where q works as qy (t) = y (t + 1), q 1 y (t) = y (t 1). A general model can be described by A(q )y (t) = B (q ) C (q ) u(t) + e(t), F (q ) D(q ) (4.3) (4.2)
where y (t) is the output, u(t) is the input and e(t) is a white noise disturbance. As can be seen in (4.3) this general model will result in some special cases. If an OE (output error) model is desired, B and F are used and A, C and D is set to one. Other examples are: the ARX model (C=F=D=1), the ARMAX model (F=D=1) and the BJ (Box-Jenkins) model (A=1). Which model structure that should be chosen depends a lot on the behavior of the disturbances on the system. The question is how the disturbances enter to
4.2. Linear identication
21
the system. If for example a measurement sensor is aected by a white noise disturbance a good choice of model would be an OE model. This is because an OE model has dynamics for the input signal u(t) while the disturbance e(t) directly aects y (t). An ARX model can be a good alternative when the disturbance probably enters the system in the same way as the control signal. Then both u(t) and e(t) will have the same pole dynamics. A problem can then be that A(q ) needs to describe the properties of disturbance as well. An ARMAX model can be used if some extra exibility for the estimate of the disturbance is desired. In an BJ model the dynamics for u(t) and e(t) to y(t) are separate. Therefore, a BJ model can be good to use when the disturbances enter late in the process. A deeper investigation of how to estimate the parameters in an ARX model will now be performed. The polynomials A and B look like A(q ) = 1 + a1 q 1 + a2 q 2 + + am q m B (q ) = b1 q 1 + b2 q 2 + + bn q n (4.4)
where a1 to am and b1 to bn are unknown parameters and will therefore be our , which can be written as = [a1 a2 am b1 b2 bn ]T . (4.5)
Using (4.3) and (4.4) the model can be written as a dierence equation
y (t) + a1 y (t 1) + + am y (t m) = b1 u(t 1) + b2 u(t 2) + + bn u(t n) + e(t) or as y (t) = a1 y (t 1) am y (t m)+ b1 u(t 1) + b2 u(t 2) + + bn u(t n) + e(t). Introducing (t) makes it possible to write (4.7) as y (t) = T (t) + e(t) with (t) = [y (t 1) y (t m) u(t 1) u(t n)]T .
(4.6)
(4.7)
(4.8) (4.9)
Because e(t) directly aects y (t) and e(t) is unpredictable white noise the best prediction y (t|) for y (t) is y (t|) = T (t). (4.10)
From (4.8) it is possible to get an estimate for using linear regression. Terms in (t) are called regressors and (t) is the regression vector.
22
will converge to the true value of when the number of samples The estimate approaches innity. This is true if the system could be completely modeled by an ARX model. Another restriction is that the dynamics of the system are excited by the input signal. When estimating a black box this is a really important issue. If the identication should have a chance to be successful it is necessary that the system dynamics is available in the output signal. To ensure that large variations of the input signal should be performed.
4.3
Non-Linear identication
The goal when it comes to non-linear models is the same as for linear model, that means the prediction should be as close to the real values as possible. To achieve that a cost function is formed 1 Vn () = n
n
y (tk ) y (tk |)
k=1
(4.11)
This cost function will be large when our prediction for y (t) is bad. It is now possible to optimize using Vn () as a measurement of how good y (tk |) is. The minimization of Vn () by improving could be performed using (i+1) = (i) (i) [V ( (i) )]1 V ( (i) ), n n (4.12)
where is the step length, Vn () is the derivative of Vn () with respect to and Vn () is the second derivative. Calculation of (4.12) is not trivial but the actual problem is to dene y (t|). It could be done using either a physical model or a black box approach (for example neural networks).
4.3.1
Non-linear black box modeling
The prediction y (t|) is now a function of and (t), (4.10) will therefore look like y (t|) = g ((t), ). Also (t) can be a function (t) = (y (t 1), , y (t m), u(t), u(t 1), , u(t n). (4.14) (4.13)
As before, dierent choices for the regression vector (t) will result in dierent kinds of models, for example NARX (Non-linear ARX), NOE and NARMAX. Another choice that needs to be considered is how the nonlinear mapping function g ((t), ) should look like. To illustrate this problem and give an introduction to a nowadays popular method, neural networks will be explained.
4.3. Non-Linear identication
23
4.3.2
Neural Networks
The problem that will be dealt with is how g (, ) should take us from regressor space to output space. A reasonable assumption is that it will work well to use parameterized functions to describe g (, )
n
g (, ) =
k=1
k gk (), n ]T ,
(4.15)
= [1
where 1 to n are parameters in the expansion and gk are called basis functions. A good choice is to use the same function for all gk but to use two parameters and to make each gk individual. Equation (4.15) can then be written as
n
g (, ) =
k=1
k (k ( k )), n 1 n 1 n ]T ,
(4.16)
= [1
The parameter locates the function and is a scale parameter. A short example of a function approximation using (4.16) will now be given. Assume that is a scalar and is chosen to be a unit pulse, then our prediction y will be approximated with a piece-wise constant function. The parameters will determine the level of each step, the position and 1/ the length. Figure 4.1 shows an example.
1.6
1.4
1.2
0.8
1.5
2.5
3.5
Figure 4.1: Approximation of a function using a neural network.
If a smoother function is desirable can be set to be for example a Gaussian bell,

2 1 (x) = ex /2 . 2
(4.17)
In this scalar example it is relatively easy to realize that the approximation can be arbitrary good, but this is also true for higher dimensions. This is the main reason why neural networks are so popular.
24
Chapter 5
Data collection
In this chapter the experiments and the method to collect the data will be described. There are some important issues to consider before tests can be performed. Which signals should be measured, which signals are even possible to measure, if a signal is not measurable can it be estimated from other signals and in that case which tests are good for achieving unknown parameters and verifying the model?
5.1
Multi-System 5050
Development of the model and estimation of the parameters assume measurements from a real forest vehicle. These measurements need to be collected somehow. In this thesis Komatsus measurement tool, Multi-System 5050 [31], has been used, but in the future DSpace will probably be used. MS5050 is a product from the German company Hydrotechnik. Multi-System 5050 is a hand held computer with a graphical interface, see Figure 5.1. It is possible to connect up to six measurement signals. Channel one to channel four should have analogue input. Channel ve and six should have pulses as input, which will be converted to the corresponding frequency of the pulses by MS5050. If all six inputs are used with the frequency 1000 Hz (e.g. storing one value every ms) the memory can store values for approximately 2 minutes. A USB-interface is available in order to get the stored values from MS5050 into a PC. The data les are then converted to excel les which are easily accessible from Matlab. [31]
5.1.1
Sensors
Komatsu has sensors for measuring rotation speed, pressure, and electrical signals. The rotation sensor uses an infrared signal to measure the rotation. The signal is sent out from the sensor, then it bounces on a reex attached to the rotating part, and is then detected by the sensor. It is possible to attach more reexes on equal distances on the rotating part to pick up changes in the rotation quicker. The sensor is placed on a magnet that makes it possible to put
Carlsson, 2006. 25
26
Chapter 5. Data collection
Figure 5.1: Multi-System 5050, the measurement tool used in this project.
the sensor close to the rotating part.
The forest machine has several positions where it is possible to connect pressure sensors. The cap is unscrewed and replaced by the sensor, see Figure 5.2. The sensor delivers an analogue current signal to the MS5050 unit.
Figure 5.2: One of the possible positions where a pressure sensor can be placed. In this case it is on the hydraulic motor.
The interface of the electrical sensor has many similarities with the pressure sensor. The electrical sensor is also analogue and has contacts on the vehicle where it can be connected.
5.2. Test day
27
5.2
Test day
The test area was located in J amteb ole, forty kilometers northwest of Ume a.
5.2.1
Sensor locations
As mentioned in Section 5.1 there are two frequency inputs on a MS5050-unit, which were used for rotation sensors. One sensor measured the rotation of the diesel engine, although that one is connected to the hydraulic pump, which means they have the same speed. The other rotation sensor measured the speed of the drive shaft. The rotation ratio between the hydraulic motor and the drive shaft is 5.17:1 when the low gear is used and 1.67:1 for the high gear. These are all the interesting rotations in the forest vehicle, so there would not have been any use for more rotation sensors. Two electrical sensors were used. They were placed to measure the signals to the pump and the motor that command which angle the swashplates should have. The two last positions were used for pressure sensors. One should of course be placed to measure the charge pressure to the motor. The other was placed after the motor to measure the pressure of the return ow. This setup has one big advantage; the pressure drop over the motor is available. Some other pressures could also have been of interest, for example to see if a valve is open or closed. If there had been more time available for testing, the other interesting pressures could have been measured by replacing the pressure sensor for the return ow.
5.2.2
Performed tests
A test plan was made before the day of testing. Unfortunately it was not possible to keep to the plan. One reason was the lack of time. Another unexpected circumstance was that the vehicle had snow chains on the rear tires which made it impossible to test on an asphalt road. Not even a forest road was used because it would have made it hard for the trucks to drive there later. Instead the tests were performed in a track that had been made by other forest vehicles. This track was not straight and had some badly located stumps, see Figure 5.3. These conditions made it hard for the driver to make the preferred inputs with the gas pedal. He did succeed well at constant velocities but had a harder time with steps. In all, 12 test runs where made. Test 1-7: Repetitive tests at three dierent speeds were performed, three for the middle speed and two for the other speeds. The reason was to check if the same signals were obtained when the test was repeated. One further motive for these tests was that it hopefully would be easier to achieve the eciencies for the hydraulic transmission. One example of a test is shown in Figure 5.4.
28
Figure 5.3: The track at which the tests where performed.
Test 8-9: In test 8 the goal was to perform velocity steps up and in test 9 steps down. These tests were made to get dynamic information. Previously described steps were not easily performed, but hopefully they are good enough. Test 10-12: These tests were done on the second gear and at the same speeds as tests 1-7. Under ideal circumstances this would give the relationship for the friction in the motor under dierent rotation speeds.
Return pressure [Bar]
35 30 25 20 15 10 15 Time [s] 20
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 10 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 10 15 Time [s] 20
Rotation speed pump [rpm]
Current to the pump [mA]
1420 1400 1380 1360 1340 10 1200 1150 1100 1050 1000 10 15 Time [s] 20 15 Time [s] 20
15 Time [s]
20
Charge pressure [Bar]
150 100 50 0 10
15 Time [s]
20
Figure 5.4: Example of the data collected.
Current to the motor [mA]
5.2. Test day
29
5.2.3
Modications of the data
In some of the measuring points the rotation sensor on the drive shaft missed the reex resulting in that the rotation value was too low. In these cases the incorrect value has been replaced with the value of the previous sample. This will not aect the data because the sampling frequency 10 Hz is used and the rotation of the motor is pretty constant most of the time. Because of the rough road, some of the data can be hard to get good estimates from. However, it can be interesting to see what happens in the signals when for example a stump is hit. As can be seen in Figure 5.4, the pressures and currents are measured with high frequency, 1000 Hz. The rotations are measured with 10 Hz. The current signals look pretty messy, and the reason for that is that they are pulse width modulated. To make the signals smoother and more useful they have to be ltered. Dierent Butterworth lters have been used for this purpose. Figure 5.5 shows the same data as in Figure 5.4 but ltered.
27 26.5 26 25.5 25 10 150 15 Time [s] 20 0.66 0.64 0.62 0.6 10 0.45 0.44 0.43 0.42 0.41 10 15 Time [s] 20 Rotation speed pump [rpm] Current to the pump [mA] 1420 1400 1380 1360 1340 10 1200 1150 1100 1050 1000 10 15 Time [s] 20 15 Time [s] 20
Return pressure [Bar]
15 Time [s]
20
100
50 10
15 Time [s]
20
Figure 5.5: Example of ltered data (Same data as in Figure 5.4).
Current to the motor [mA]
Charge pressure [Bar]
30
Chapter 6
Model modications, Simulations and Results

The essence of the work done in this thesis will be presented in this chapter. First some adjustments of the mathematical model in Chapter 3 will be done, and after that dierent ways to simulate the model will be explained.
6.1
Modications
This section will add some extra information about the forest vehicle that aects the model. It will also explain some previous statements.
6.1.1
Swashplate angle
The amount of oil owing into and out from the hydraulic pump and motor is determined by the displacement. The displacement is a linearly function of the swashplate angle. As seen in Section 5.2.1 neither the displacements nor the swashplate angles are measured. Instead the electrical control signals to the pump and the motor are measured. Because of this, the relationship between the current and the displacement is needed. The swashplate angle does not only depend on the current but also on the pressure dierence over the pump and the rotation of the pump. For the experiments in this thesis the hydrostatic transmission was a new prototype with a new pump. This new setup was pretty tolerant to changes in the rotation speed making it possible to neglect the inuence of the pump rotation on the swashplate angle. A hydraulic override exists in the system. It exists to avoid damage on the transmission in case the pressure goes up. When the pressure is over 300 bar the override decreases the angle of the pump. In test run 1-9 the pressure is almost always under 300 bar but in test run 10-12 it is sometimes over. Since this hydraulic override is not included in the model, the time periods with several pressure peaks well over 300 bar have been excluded. Changes in displacement
Carlsson, 2006. 31
32
Chapter 6. Model modications, Simulations and Results
due to changes in pressure will therefore be disregarded. Now to the displacements function of the currents. The discussion is based on the experience available at Komatsu. The pump starts to move the angle of the swashplate from zero when the current exceeds 300 mA. The function is linear to the pumps maximum displacement at 147 cm3 which is reached at 800 mA. Contrary to the pump the motor starts with maximum displacement, 160 cm3 , when the current is less then 330 mA. Minimum displacement for the motor, 68 cm3 , is achieved at 560 mA. However, this function is not linear. The displacements function of the currents are shown in Figure 6.1.
150 Displacement in motor [cm3] 0.4 0.6 0.8 Current to pump [A] 1 Displacement in pump [cm3] 160
140
100
120
100
50
80
0 0.2
60 0.2
0.3
0.4 0.5 0.6 Current to motor [A]
0.7
Figure 6.1: Illustration of the functions from currents to displacements for the pump respectively the motor. Note that the two have contrary reactions to a rise in current.
6.1.2
Flows from valve and leakage
As written in Section 3.4 the ow through the security valve Qv and the leakage Ql can be set to zero. The leakage Ql is really small, and denitely negligible in comparison to the normal ow through the hose. In contrast to Ql , Qv can be large. The security valve is there to make sure that the hydrostatic transmission does not break if something happens. The valve opens at 415 bar and therefore Qv can be set to zero because the high pressure starts to aect the swashplate angles before the security valve opens. Therefore that data have already been excluded as explained in Section 6.1.1.
6.1.3
Return pressure
A model for the charge pressure (3.8) was built in Chapter 3, but we have no dynamic model for the pressure in the return hose. One reason for this is that the charge pump is dicult to model and would result in more unknown parameters since much information about the charge pump and the valves are missing. The most important reason to skip a model for the return pressure is however in this thesis that the pressure is quite constant. The pressure will have very small variations over time and will not be noticed in comparison to the forward pressure. Still, it happens that the return pressure makes a peak,
6.1. Modications
33
which probably is when the forwarder hit a stump in the track. For this reason the measurements of the return pressure will be used directly as input instead.
6.1.4
Eciencies
The model developed in Chapter 3 uses eciencies. The eciencies are provided by Sauer Danfoss in a data sheet that is attached in Appendix A. These eciencies are given for the old system, although it is reasonable to assume that the dierent systems have quite similar structure. Even so it must be kept in mind that this new pump has a bigger volume then the old one. There are two kinds of eciencies, volumetric eciencies and torque eciencies. The parameters tp and tm represent the torque eciency for the pump and for the motor respectively. From the data sheet in Appendix A it is seen that the torque eciencies have fairly constant levels over the working range of the pump and the motor and will therefore be set to constants
tp = 0.92, tm = 0.97. The volumetric eciencies render larger problems. The variations of the eciencies are larger and the eciencies given for the pump and the motor are not perfectly covering all driving cases. For the pump the eciency is given as a function of displacement, but just for the rotation speed 2100 rpm. Most of the time the pump rotation is in the range of 1100 - 1600 rpm. For the motor it is the opposite situation, then the displacement is xed and the function of the rotation speed is given. This is true except for really high speeds, because then the displacement decreases at the same time as the rotation increases. To get around this problem the rotation dependency of the motor will be used to adjust the volumetric eciency for the pump. This concept is used the other way around as well. To implement this, two dimensional lookup-tables are used. The tables for the pump and the motor have the same structure and only the values dier. Three levels for the displacement are used: minimum, maximum and an appropriate level in between. The rotation has ve levels. The lowest level is zero rotation and the highest is higher than any measured rotation. That will ensure that no values are outside the range of the table. The other three levels are set to cover most of the driving cases. The eciency values for the highest rotation level are set equal to the eciency values for the second highest rotation level. This is also done for the eciency values for the lowest and second lowest rotation levels. The reason is to make it easier to optimize the eciency values later on. The discussion above has resulted in two Tables, 6.1 and 6.2.
34
Pump, Rotation speed [rpm] Displacement, 0 cm3 Displacement, 85 cm

3
0 0.56 0.84 0.90
1100 0.56 0.84 0.90
1350 0.58 0.86 0.92
1600 0.59 0.87 0.93
2500 0.59 0.87 0.93
Displacement, 147 cm3
Table 6.1: Volumetric eciency for the pump, vp , given in a table.
Motor, Rotation speed [rpm] Displacement, 68 cm3 Displacement, 105 cm3 Displacement, 160 cm3
0 0.77 0.81 0.85
600 0.77 0.81 0.85
1200 0.88 0.91 0.94
2000 0.97 0.97 0.97
4000 0.97 0.97 0.97
Table 6.2: Volumetric eciency for the motor, vm , given in a table.
6.2
Simulations for the pressure
A simulation model for the charge pressure in the hose was the main goal of this project. Measurements of rotations and currents that can be transformed to displacements of the pump and the motor are available. Using this information it should be possible to simulate the pressure using
Qp = Dp p vp , p Dm Qm = , vm t p= (Qp Qm ) d , V 0 where the volume of the hose V can be calculated as V =L D2 600cm3 . 4 (6.1)
The parameter L stands for the length of the hose and D is the diameter of the hose. All parameters are known with more or less accuracy except for . The bulk modulus depends on which oil that is used. The range of the bulk modulus is 107 -1010 Bar. The ows are not aected by , only the rate of change in pressure. An estimate of should make it possible to simulate the pressure for the system. Unfortunately it does not. The simulated pressure can be in the same range as the measured pressure in one or a couple of the test runs, but for the
6.3. Black box models
35
rest of the test runs the simulated pressure goes to either plus or minus innity. The problem is that the simulated ow out from the pump is not equal to the simulated ow into the motor when the measured pressure is constant and the measurement values for the rotations are used for the calculations. One idea that could improve the simulation results would be to use some identication method from Chapter 4 to estimate better values for the parameters. The two eciency parameters vp and vm are the most uncertain ones, but also the functions from currents to displacements are uncertain. There are two problems when the eciencies should be estimated, as seen in (3.17). The efciencies probably depend on many variables and are non-linear. Some linear models have been tested but with negative result. Non-linear identication is necessary to get a better estimate for the eciencies. Due to time limits nonlinear identication has not been tested in this thesis, instead the eciencies from Section 6.1.4 have been used. Even if the parameters would be improved the simulated pressure will not be accurate for all test runs. This statement may seem strange, but when considering that the pressure is an integral over time of two ows it is quite obvious why it will not work. These ows are only dependent on parameters and measurements and there is no feedback involved in this part of the system. Consequently, if a stationary error is present, for example the simulated input ow is larger than it is supposed to be, then the pressure will go to innity. Therefore, this approach is unrealistic since perfect models are not possible to build. To continue it is necessary to realize that the problem is that there is no feedback from the simulated pressure. One idea to solve the problem is to add the models for the pump and the motor. If the pressure in the hose goes up the resistance for the pump will increase and it will therefore rotate slower. This in turn will result in a decreased ow as well as a lower pressure. On the motor side the same thing will happen, the higher pressure will rotate the motor faster and the ow out of the hose increases, with lower pressure as a result. To summarize, it can be realized that if only a model for the hose is used, it will make the simulations unbounded. Hopefully models on the sides of the hose will create that necessary feedback to make the simulated pressure stable.
6.3
Black box models
The advantage with a black box model is that no knowledge about the system is necessary. Instead the computer has the freedom to adjust a model to t measurement data. Still there are choices that need to be considered; what kind of model should be used, what the model order should be and which data the model should be based on. In this thesis the graphical interface for system identication toolbox in Matlab [32] has been used to create the black box models. SITB uses signal processing to estimate the black box models with the
36
conditions given by the user. As previously mentioned a data set that will be used by SITB to estimate the model is needed. The data set used should have large variations in both input and output signals so the behavior of the system can be captured by the black box model. Test run nine has fairly big variations and is therefore used in all identication.
6.3.1
Pump
A good start is to estimate a model for the rotation of the pump. To begin with we need to decide which regression vector that should be used. Available measurement signals are: p , m , ip , im , p and preturn . It is reasonable to assume that im and m do not directly aect the rotation for pump. Another assumption is that the dierence p between p and preturn is more important then the individual values. The function from ip to Dp will be used, even though this function is linear it is unnecessary to estimate it. The arguments above have resulted in the following conclusion; the displacement Dp and the pressure dierence over the pump will be used as inputs and the rotation for the pump p will be used as output, see Figure 6.2.
Figure 6.2: Input and output signals for the black box model for the rotation of the hydraulic pump. The next decision that needs to be taken is which kind of model that should be used. Because the sensors are fairly accurate it seems logical that most noise will enter at the input side of the system. Therefore, ARX and ARMAX models are preferable. An ARMAX model will be used because it contains more dynamics for the noise. Dierent number of poles in the ARMAX model have been tested. Two poles have been found to give good agreement between measured and simulated values, see Figure 6.3. If higher model order is used no greater improvement is visible. The reason for modeling the rotation of the pump was that it would hopefully stabilize the simulations for the pressure in the hose. If this setup works it will demand that the black box model for the rotation of the pump will react reasonable to an input change. To test this, steps in both Dp and p were performed. In Figure 6.4 the measured p is input but at the 20th second a step of 200 bar is added to the input. The models reaction to the step is a lower rotation speed. This is logical because higher pressure in the hose will make it harder for the pump to press oil into the hose and therefore the speed will decrease. However, it seems that the response in rotation speed is too low. A 200 bar step would probably slower the rotation a lot more.
37
1550 1500 1450 1400 1350 1300 10
Measured values Simulated values
Rotation pump [rpm]
11
12
13
14
15 Time [s]
16
17
18
19
20
Figure 6.3: Simulated and measured values for a black box model for the pumps rotation.
Rotation pump [rpm]
1500 1450 1400 1350 18 18.5 19 19.5 20 Time [s] 20.5 21 21.5 22 Measured values Simulated values
Delta pressure [Bar]
400 300 200 100 0 18 18.5 19 19.5 20 Time [s] 20.5 21 21.5 22
Figure 6.4: Simulated rotation of the pump reacting to a step in p.
38
The response to a step in the displacement of the pump Dp is shown in Figure 6.5. The step is positive because the displacement of the pump increases. A larger displacement should result in lower rotation speed because the pump needs to provide more ow into the hose. As seen in Figure 6.5 this it is not the case for this model of the rotation of the pump.
1900 1800 1700 1600 1500 1400 18 Displacement pump [cm3] 110 100 90 80 18 18.5 19 19.5 20 Time [s] 20.5 21 21.5 22 Measured values Simulated values
Rotation pump [rpm]
18.5
19
19.5
20 Time [s]
20.5
21
21.5
22
Figure 6.5: Simulated rotation of the pump reacting to a step in Dp .
The estimated model for the rotation of the pump is not that good. Even if it can describe the estimation data well the model will be useless when it does not react in a physical way to changes in input. However, it is possible that a model which reacts in an accurate way could be found if SITB did not use the ARMAX model. As explained in Section 4.2.1 an ARMAX model has the restriction that the same poles are used for both the input signal and the noise. To test this hypothesis a lot of dierent test runs and models (for example BJ, State space and process models) have been tried without any success. All of them reacts incorrectly to a step in Dp . Another hypothesis was to use dierent input signals. As can be seen in (3.17) Dp and p aect the rotation of the pump as a combination. Therefore, the term Dp p has been tested as input. Unfortunately this did not turn out well either. If only Dp p was used as a input signal the agreement between simulated and measured values became poor. This is not so surprising since there are probably variables inside the engine and the pump that depend on Dp and p as separate components. An idea then would be to use Dp , p and Dp p as input. Approximately the same t as in Figure 6.3 was then achieved but when step responses were tested the model did not react correctly. The problem could be that the function from ip to Dp is not correct. To see if that was the case the tests above have been made with ip as input instead of Dp . Unfortunately this did not help. To get the explanation why no good model for the rotation of the pump has been found a closer look at (3.17) is motivated. The description for the rotation
39
of the pump contains nonlinear part such as: t p(p , p, Dp ; tp ) and Dp p. In (3.18) t p(p , p, Dp ; tp ) has been approximated with a constant. Even if this approximation is correct the term Dp p is present. Because of the large working range it is not so strange that a linear model has problems to describe the behavior of the system. There is also another reason why it is so hard to estimate a model for the rotation of the pump. The model has to include dynamics for the diesel engine. As described in Section 3.2 the diesel engine has a feedback control to ensure a certain rotation speed for the pump. This internal control will try to keep the rotation for the pump at a constant level. As discussed before, large variations of input and output signals are necessary to estimate a good model. The diesel engines internal control will counteract the excitation of the system.
6.3.2
Motor
On the other side of the hose a model for the rotation of the hydraulic motor might be able to stabilize the pressure in the hose. To develop a model for the motor the same procedure as for the pump has been used. Displacement of the motor Dm and the pressure dierence p are input signals and the rotation of the motor m is output. These signals correspond to the signals that worked best for the pump. When choosing which kind of model structure that should be used the noise must be considered. When developing a model for the rotation of the motor it is quite obvious that the dominating disturbance is from the ground. A non at surface enters as a torque disturbance to the motor, which means in the beginning of the process. Therefore, an ARMAX structure has been used when estimating a model for the rotation of the motor. When using model order two the result can be seen in Figure 6.6.
2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0
Rotation motor [rpm]
10
15
20 Time [s]
25
30
35
40
Figure 6.6: Simulated and measured values for a black box model for the motors rotation. The model for the pump did not react correctly when the input signals were changed. To see if the model for the motor has a better physical relevance steps
40
in both Dm and p were performed. In gures 6.7 and 6.8 the responses are shown. When a step up in p is made the model reacts by rotating faster. This is reasonable for two reasons, rst the equation for the rotation of the motor in (3.18) would predict an increased rotation speed when p is higher. Second, with everything else unchanged an increased pressure delivers more energy and should therefore make the vehicle go faster. In Figure 6.8 the response of an increased displacement of the motor is visible. When the displacement goes up the motor demands more oil for each revolution. The same amount of oil still reaches the motor, therefore it is logical that the rotation of the motor decreases when Dm increases.
Rotation motor [rpm] Measured values Simulated values
2500 2000 1500 1000 500 14 400 300 200 100 0 14 16 18 20 22 Time [s] 24 26 16 18 20 22 Time [s] 24 26
28
30
Delta pressure [Bar]
28
30
Figure 6.7: Simulated rotation of the motor reacting to a step in p.
2000 1000 0 14 16 18 20 22 Time [s] 24 26
28
30
Displacement motor [cm3]
200 150 100 50 14
16
18
20
22 Time [s]
24
26
28
30
Figure 6.8: Simulated rotation of the motor reacting to a step in Dm . The black box model for the motors rotation seems good so far. The problem is that validation only has been made on the same data as the model has been estimated. To do a better test the model has been applied to test run number
6.4. Grey box models
41
ve. Figure 6.9 shows that the simulated values do not correspond to the measured values. Consequently, the model does not work well enough because it can not handle new data sets. There are two reasons why it does not work. The rst one is the same as for the pump, a nonlinear system is approximated by a linear model. That approach can work if the variations are small, but in our case the model should handle very large variations in both input and output signals. The second reason for the poor behavior of the model is due to the bumpy ground. A simulation model for the rotation speed of the motor is desired, but the motor is connected to the wheels which are aected by the ground. Therefore, the model needs to consider how large the torque from the ground is. This could maybe be possible if the tests had been performed at a at surface but with a rather messy road it is very hard.
1200 1000 Rotation motor [rpm] 800 600 400 200 0 Measured values Simulated values 0 5 10 15 Time [s] 20 25 30
Figure 6.9: Test of the black box model for the motors rotation with test run ve. The black box model is estimated with test run nine.
6.4
Grey box models
The problem with unbounded simulated pressure is still present. Some kind of models for the pump and the motor are necessary. Using black box models did not work. One way to get around this problem would be to use the information about the system that is presented in Chapter 3.
6.4.1
Pump
As described in Section 6.3.1 there were two reasons why the black box model did not work. The system is non-linear and the internal control for the engine counteracted the variations. Therefore, the equation that describes the rotation for the pump in (3.18) will be used (Jp + Jd )w p = Td p p Kp Dp p . tp (6.2)
42
The problem is that the dynamics behind Td are unknown. Therefore a black box model for Td will be estimated. With this approach the black box approximation Dp p . The problem with the does not have to consider the non-linear term tp internal control of the engine will also disappear because the information about the internal control that previously was hidden is now available when Td is used as output from the black box model. When using this approach a better model for the rotation of the pump will be available because Dp and p have entered in a more realistic way, see Figure 6.10 for an illustration of the model.
Figure 6.10: The model used in this section with a black box model representing the diesel engine.
To estimate a black box model for the torque it is necessary to know the values for Td . Therefore, probable values for Td will be calculated using a modied version of (6.2). The reason to call them probable is that no measurement for Td is available. An investigation of (6.2) gives that p and p are available from measurements. The displacement Dp can be determined from ip as described in Section 6.1.1. The torque eciency tp is available in Section 6.1.4 and Jp can be found in [26]. The time derivative w p of p can cause some trouble to compute from measurement data but with a low pass lter it should be possible. Even so the term (Jp + Jd )w p has been set to zero when Td is calculated because (Jp + Jd )w p is small compared to Td and will therefore not aect much. That leaves four terms that are unknown namely Jd , Td , p and Kp . To simplify, the friction coecient Kp is set to zero, this coecient should maybe be included later. From (6.2) Td can be obtained Td = p p + Dp p . tp (6.3)
An assumption for p , makes it possible to calculate probable values of Td . When the values for Td are available a black box model for Td can be estimated. An ARMAX model with model order two and Dp and p as input signals, is used to reproduce Td . The black box model has been estimated with data from test run nine. Figure 6.11 illustrates this concept.
Figure 6.11: How to generate a black box model for Td .
43
The black box model for Td together with (6.2) should be able to simulate the rotation of the pump. To do this an initial guess for Jd is necessary. The values for Jd and p have been modied so the model agrees better with reality. The numerical values for Jd and p are Jd = 0.17 Nms2 , p = 10 Nms.
Figure 6.12: The model for the rotation of the pump. To validate if this model for the rotation of the pump is accurate, the data from test run ve have been used. The model can be seen in Figure 6.12. When this model will be connected to the other models the measured values for p will be exchanged to the simulated values. Two properties need to be checked, how good is the estimate of Td and how well does the simulation result for p agree with the measured values. The result of these two test are shown in Figure 6.13.
Torque from diesel engine [Nm] 2500 2000 1500 1000 5 1400 1300 1200 1100 1000 900 5 6 7 8 9 10 Time [s] 11 12 Measured values Simulated values 13 14 15 6 7 8 9 10 Time [s] 11 12 Probable values Simulated values 13 14 15
Figure 6.13: Results of a grey box simulation for the pump. Simulated values for Td and p are compared to the probable/real values.
The simulation of Td is surprisingly good, keeping in mind that the estimate and validation are done on completely dierent data sets. The agreement between simulated and real values for the rotation of the pump p is a little bit worse but not bad. The constant level is good but the variations are not matching entirely. Other test runs give approximately the same results. However, the constant level is the most important part and the variations are probably small compared to those that will occur because of changes in p when connecting this model to the model for the hose.
Rotation pump [rpm]
44
This method to develop a model for the rotation of the pump has a drawback. Problems can occur if (6.2) is a bad model for the rotation of the pump. Then the measured values for the system will be forced to fulll (6.2). Because Td is calculated the values for Td can contain system dynamics that have not been modeled. However that is probably not the case because a black box estimated model could describe Td well. If Td had some strange dynamics the black box estimation would not have been that accurate.
6.4.2
Motor
The grey box method seemed to work ne for the pump, and the same procedure has been tested on the motor. An illustration of the modeling approach can be seen in Figure 6.14. The rotation of the motor is described by (Jm + J ) w m = Dm ptm m m TL . (6.4)
If TL was known this would probably be a good description for the rotation of the motor. Because TL is not known a black box model for TL has been tried. To create this black box model probable values for the torque are necessary. A modied version of (6.4) can be used for this calculation. To reduce the unknown parameters Km will be set to zero. Hopefully this approximation does not aect the result because Km would probably be small compared to TL . Another motivation for this simplication will also be provided further on.
Figure 6.14: The modeling approach for the rotation of the motor. In (6.4) there are three unknown terms; J , m and TL . The moment of inertia of the motor Jm , which can be found in [33] and the other terms are either measured or can be derived. To simplify the calculation of TL the term (Jm + J ) w m has been set to zero. One reason to do this simplication is that the estimated torque TL is rather noisy, leave out the term (Jm + J ) w m in the calculation makes TL a bit smoother. Equation (6.4) can now be rewritten as TL = Dm ptm m m . (6.5)
An assumption for the friction coecient m is used when probable values of TL is calculated. An ARMAX structure with model order two has been used to derive a model for TL . This model together with (6.4) should simulate the rotation for the motor. But to do that an initial guess for J is necessary. The initial values for J and m has later been modied to J = 5 Nms2 , m = 5 Nms.
45
To test if the achieved model for the rotation is good test run ve is used. As seen in Figure 6.15 the black box model for TL is not bad, but not good either. Compare with Td in Figure 6.13 where a very good t is achieved. The disagreement between probable and simulated values for TL is the reason to the poor simulation results for m .
Torque from the wheels [Nm] 2000 1500 1000 500 0 10 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 10 11 12 13 14 15 Time [s] 16 17 18 19 20 11 12 13 14 15 Time [s] 16 17 18 19 20 Probable values Simulated values
Figure 6.15: Results of a grey box simulation for the motor. Simulated values for TL and m are compared to the probable/real values.
One possible explanation why this approach did not work for the rotation of the motor is that (6.4) could be a bad description for the system. When the system is forced to work according to (6.4) the calculation of TL can be strange. If that is the case it is impossible estimate a black box model for TL . There is another explanation to the bad performance that is more likely. When estimating the black box model SITB is supposed to derive a model for the torque from the ground. But the road used when testing was quite bumpy which make the torque from the road unpredictable. Therefore, a black box model can not be used to simulate TL . However, this approach can have some relevance if tests were performed on a at surface, then maybe a good model for TL can be achieved.
Figure 6.16: The model for the rotation of the motor.
46
When no model could be developed for the torque from the ground, the calculated probable values of TL will be used. Figure 6.16 shows the model. The reason to use TL instead of the measured values for the rotation of the motor m is that when TL is used the rotation for the motor can still increase if the pressure goes up. That was the rst reason why models for the pump and the motor were necessary. Consequently, to get the rotation for the motor, probable values of TL will be calculated with (6.5). The values for TL will be inserted into (6.4). This also explains why there was no reason to include Tf m in previous calculations, Tf m would just have been added and then subtracted again. When using (6.4) and TL as a model to simulate m the correct values should show up. To check that this is true, test run eight have been used, see Figure 6.17. The reason why simulated and measured values for TL do not match perfectly is that the term (Jm + J ) w m has been neglected in (6.5).
1800 1600 1400 1200 1000 800 8 10 12 14 Time [s] 16 Measured values Simulated values 18 20
Figure 6.17: Comparison between simulated and measured values for m when calculated TL is used.
6.5
Complete model
All three sub models have been developed and can now be put together to form the complete model. Hopefully this will solve the problems with the pressure going to innity which was described in Section 6.2. To recall how the complete model looks like see Figure 6.18. Simulations that determine p, p and m will be performed. The torque TL and the pressure preverse are input signals to the system together with the control signals Dp and Dm . In Figure 6.19 and 6.20 test run two is used to examine how the model behaves. The Simulink les used for these simulations can be seen in Appendix B. The code les used to initiate the model are attached in Appendix C.
6.5. Complete model
47
Figure 6.18: Overview of the complete model.
Pressure [Bar]
200 150 100 50 30 32 34 36 38 40 Time [s] 42 44 46 48 50
Rotation pump [rpm]
1500 1400 1300 1200 1100 30 32 34 36 38 40 Time [s] 42 44 46 48 50
1200 1000 800 600 400 30 32 34 36 38 40 Time [s] 42 44 Measured values Simulated values 46 48 50
Figure 6.19: Simulation of the complete model. The visible results of the simulation are: the pressure agrees incredibly ne with measured values, the mean value for the pump rotation is good but the variation is somewhat too large and the rotation of the motor is too small. Simulations for other test runs show the same relationship between simulated and measured values for p, p and m . The reason why the simulated values for the rotations are not matching the measured values better is because the model used is not perfect. There is a strong relationship between p, p and m , and therefore it is not possible to just decrease TL to reach a faster rotation for the motor, because that will also aect p. More correct values for parameters and maybe adding more dynamics could improve the model and get better simulation results for the rotation of the pump and the motor. In order to make it easier to nd values for moment of inertias and bulk modulus used in this thesis an optimizer was developed but some hands on operation have also been performed to adjust all the unknown parameters.
48
200
Pressure [Bar]
150
100
50 30 30.5 31 31.5 32 32.5 Time [s] 33 33.5 34 34.5 35
Figure 6.20: Simulation of the complete model. Zoomed in version of Figure 6.19.
One thought is that the calculated torque from the ground makes the pressure simulation so good. But before was optimized the pressure was not correct at all. Therefore, it is reasonable to believe that the good simulations of the pressure exist because the model describes the reality when the unknown parameters have been adjusted. It would be interesting to investigate how sensitive the system is to changes in TL . If TL was not known and had to be estimated, then a model in which a small error in TL aects the result too much is not desired. The same data as in Figure 6.20 are used for two tests. In Figure 6.21 a white noise has been added to TL , the noise has a sample time of 0.5 second and a variance of 600 Nm. Usually TL is around 600 Nm. The noise only has a modest eect on the pressure. The second test is a bias change. A step of 200 Nm has been added to TL at the 32th second. As seen in Figure 6.22 it does not aect the pressure that much.
200 Measured values Simulated values
Pressure [Bar]
150
100
50 30 30.5 31 31.5 32 32.5 Time [s] 33 33.5 34 34.5 35
Figure 6.21: The simulated pressure when white noise with a sample time of 0.5 second and a variance of 600 Nm has been added to TL . The small reaction on p that a change in TL leads to keep the hope that it is possible to make some kind of model for the motor side.
6.5. Complete model
49
200
Pressure [Bar]
150
100
50 30 30.5 31 31.5 32 32.5 Time [s] 33 33.5 34 34.5 35
Figure 6.22: The simulated pressure when a step of 200 Nm at time 36 seconds was added to TL .
A possible solution would be to exchange the grey box model on the motor side to the black box model with m as output. This has been tested, but unfortunately it did not work well. One reason is that the black box model for the rotation of the motor was not sensitive enough to changes in pressure.
50
Chapter 7
Discussion and Conclusions

First I will comment some of the material presented, and then oer conclusions I have been able to draw from this work.
7.1
Discussion
After dierent methods and parameter estimations have been tested, it is nally possible to simulate the pressure with good accuracy. Unfortunately a calculated value of the torque from the wheel is necessary. A better model is needed to get around this problem. This improved model should be able to match the three validation signals; p , m and p. To achieve that I believe focus will be on the hydraulic model of the hose and mainly on the volumetric eciencies. An idea for how to improve the values for the eciencies will be presented in Chapter 8. If a model that produces better values for p , m and p is obtained it might be possible to make a model to estimate TL instead of using it as an input signal. An argument for this statement is that the pressure was not too sensitive to changes in TL as seen in Section 6.5. Another reason is that the black box model for Td worked very well. Although it is much less noise when modeling Td it shows that the idea has some potential. To get a better model it is also necessary to perform tests on a at surface. Then it would be much easier to get accurate values for unknown parameters, because under those conditions TL would have a less unpredictable behavior. That could make it possible to estimate the swashplate dynamics. The swashplate dynamics have not been addressed in this thesis but should probably improve the model if implemented. A mistake made in this thesis, was to try to keep constant speed in too many tests. The idea for that was to nd out if the tests were repetitive, but it was not possible because of the bumpy road. Instead large variations should have been performed to excite the system, and then SITB would have had an easier
Carlsson, 2006. 51
52
Chapter 7. Discussion and Conclusions
task to estimate black box models. MS5050 has the possibility to measure six signals. If an additional signal was to be measured, then one of the signals that we used in our experiment would have to be removed. Now when the work has been carried out I know that the locations for the sensors that were used when doing the test runs were the best ones, and that too much information would be lost if one of them was removed. The measurement of the rotation is not very smooth and this might cause problems when developing the model. One way to handle this is to attach extra reexes for the rotation sensors. Another way to get a smother signal is to decrease the sample time of the rotation sensors.
7.2
Conclusions
The greatest challenge of this thesis has been that the pressure in the hose is a sum of two ows. If the measurement signals are used for the rotation of the hydraulic pump and motor there is no feedback which aects the system if the pressure gets too high. This led to the conclusion that models of the pump and the motor are necessary to make the model stable. Because of that the assignment got more dicult than expected, and therefore no control system for the pressure has been developed. Good simulation results for the pressure have been obtained, but only when the torque from the ground is considered as input to the system. Unfortunately this is not an available measurement signal. To get around this problem a better model is necessary. The problem with the model as it is now is that simulated values for the rotation of the pump and the rotation of the motor do not match the measured values. This could be because some dynamics have been missed, but probably it is caused by the unknown parameters which are not estimated in a good way. To achieve better values for the model more tests need to be accomplished. Also the parameters for the eciencies should be improved. When this has been done it could be possible to achieve a model that can predict the pressure online, and then the task to avoid pressure peaks can be dealt with.
Chapter 8
Future work
One of the largest problems of the model is that the ow out from the pump is not equal to the ow into the motor when the pressure is constant and the measurement values for the rotations are used for the calculations. To x this the two eciencies vp and vm need to be adjusted. The idea is to nd a test run which have two time points when the pressure is the same. Between these two time points the sum of the ows in and out of the hose must be zero. Otherwise the pressure would not be the same. The ow into the hose is determined by Qp = Dp p vp , and the ow out of the hose is Qm = p Dm . vm
To make the sum of the ows be zero the relationship between vp and vm will be given because Dp , Dm , p and m are measured. The problem is that the eciencies depend on a lot of terms. At least the relationship between vp and vm depends on Dp , Dm , p and m but probably also on p and possibly on preturn . Therefore time intervals when as many terms as possible are constant need to be found. All twelve test runs can be searched for these time intervals. Then a map of how the relationship between vp and vm depends of Dp , Dm , p , m , p and preturn can be found. Hopefully this gives a much better model for the pressure in the hose. Another suggestion for better simulation results would be to use the values for the rotation of the pump that are available online. This measurement signal could be used to make the simulation results approach more correct values. To achieve a better model it would be very helpful if new test runs were performed. One problem in this thesis has been that the test runs were made on
Carlsson, 2006. 53
54
Chapter 8. Future work
a bumpy road. Therefore, it is important that new test runs were made on a at surface. Then the estimation of the torque from the ground would be much easier. Another circumstance that would help even more would be to use a sensor to measure the torque from the ground. If tests were performed with such sensor and maybe even a sensor for the torque from the diesel engine the model could undergo big improvements. An additional motive for new tests is that more variation in the input signal could be used and then it is easier to apply some identication method from Chapter 4, for example neural networks.
Bibliography
[1] Komatsu Forest. http://www.komatsuforest.com/, Acc. 2005-12-20. [2] Lino Guzzella and Antonio Sciarretta. Vehicle Propulsion System. Springer, 2005. [3] Kalevi Huhtala. Modelling of Hydrostatic transmission - Steady State, Linear and Non-Linear Models. PhD thesis, Tampere University of Technology, October 1996. [4] Olav Egeland and Jan T. Gravdahl. Modeling and Simulation for Automatic Control. Marine Cybernetics, 2002. [5] Machine Design. http://www.machinedesign.com/BDE/FLUID/bdefp6/bdefp6 6.html, Acc. 2005-10-10. [6] H. E. Merritt. Hydraulic Control System. J Wiley & Sons, 1967. [7] N. D. Manring. Hydraulic Control System. J Wiley & Sons, 2005. [8] E. A. Prasetiawan. Modeling, simulation fo an earthmoving vehicle powertrain simulator. Masters thesis, University of Illinois, 2001. [9] Jerker Lennevi. Hydrostatic Transmission Control. PhD thesis, Link oping University, November 1995. [10] Eko A. Prasetiawan, Zhang Rong, Andrew G. Alleyne, and Tsu-Chin Tsao. Modeling and control design of a powertrain simulation testbed for earthmoving vehicles. 1999. [11] K. Wu, Q. Zhang, and A. Hansen. Modelling and identication of hydrostatic transmission hardware-in-loop simulator. Vehicle Design, 34(1), 2004. [12] Rong Zhang. Multivariable Robust Control of Nonlinear Systems with Application to an Electro-Hydraulic Powertrain. PhD thesis, University of Illinois, 2002. [13] M. Sannelius. Complex Hydrostatic Transmissions - Design of a Two-Motor Concept using Computer-Aided Development Tools. PhD thesis, Link oping University, 1999. [14] R. Andersson. A simulation model of a hydrostatic dynamometer for improved controller design. Link oping University, 1999.
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[15] Kalervo Nevala, Jari Penttinen, and Pekka Saavalainen. Developing of anti-slip contro of hydrostatic power transmission for forest tractor and optimasation of the power of diesel engine. IEEE, 1998. [16] Zenon Jedrzykiewicz, Janusz Pluta, and Jerzy Stojek. Application of the matlab - simulink package in the simulation tests on hydrostatic systems. Acta Montanistica Slovaca, 1998. [17] Leon Dahl en. Numerical and Experimental Study of Performence of a Hydraulic Motor. PhD thesis, Lule a University of Technology, September 2003. [18] Kenneth Weddfelt. On Modelling, Simulation and Measurements of Fluid Power Pumps and Pipelines. PhD thesis, Link oping University, January 1992. [19] H. Reuter. State space identication of bilinear canonical forms. In Control, Mars 1994. [20] M. Jelali and H. Schwarz. Nonlinear identication of hydraulic servo-drive systems. Control Systems Magazine, October 1995. [21] H. Anyi, R. Yiming, Z. Zhongfu, and H. Jianjun. Identication and adaptive control for electro-hydraulic servo system using neural networks. In IEEE International Conference on Intelligent Processing Systems, October 1997. [22] M. K. Park and C. L. Lee. Identication of a hydraulic simulator using the modied signal compression method and application to control. In Industrial Electronics Society, October 2000. [23] J. Lennevi and J-O. Palmgren. Application and implementation of lq design methods for the velocity control of hydrostatic transmissions. Journal of Systems and Control Engineering, July 1995. [24] Jos e Cidr as and Camilo Carrillo. Regulation of synchronous generators by means of hydrostatic transmissions. IEEE Transactions on power systems, 15(2), May 2000. [25] Luigi del Re. Nonlinear modelling and black box identication of a hydrostatic transmission for control system design. In Mathematical and Computer Modelling, September 2002. [26] Sauer Danfoss. Series 90 Axial Piston Pumps, Mars 2004. [27] Lennart Ljung and Torkel Glad. Modellbygge och simulering, volume 2nd ed. Studentlitteratur, 2004. [28] L. Ljung. System Identication: Theory for the User, volume 2nd. Prentice Hall PTR, 1999. [29] J. Sj oberg. Non-Linear System Identication with Neural Networks. PhD thesis, Link oping University, 1995. [30] Mathworks. System Identication Toolbox 6.0, 2004.
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[31] Hydrotechnik. User Manual for Multi-System 5050, 2003. [32] Mathworks. Matlab 7.0, 2004. [33] Sauer Danfoss. Series 51 Bent Axis Variavle Displacement Motors, December 2003. [34] Don Earl Carter. Load modeling and emulation for an earthmoving vehicle powertrain. Masters thesis, University of Illinois, 2003. [35] I A Njabeleke, R F Pannett, P K Chawdhry, and C R Burrows. Selforganising fuzzy logic control of a hydrostatic transmission. In UKACC International Conference on CONTROL, September 1998. [36] Kenneth Weddfelt. On Modelling, Simulation and Measurements of Fluid Power Pumps and Pipelines. PhD thesis, Link oping University, Mars 1992.
58
Bibliography
Appendix A
Data sheet
Carlsson, 2006.
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60
Appendix A. Data sheet
Appendix B
Simulink models
Figure B.1: Main model for the hydrostatic transmission. This model has three sub models, which can be seen in Figure B.2, B.3 and B.4.
Carlsson, 2006.
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62
Appendix B. Simulink models
Figure B.2: Model for the hydraulic pump.
Figure B.3: Model for the hydraulic motor.
Figure B.4: Model for the hose. The sub models are shown in Figure B.5.
63
Figure B.5: Submodels in the hose model.
Figure B.6: Model for calculation of Td and TL .
64
Appendix B. Simulink models
Appendix C
.m-les
This Appendix consists of three .m-les which are used to initilize the model. The code le in C.3 uses the les in C.1 and C.2.
C.1
ltrera.m
Using butterworth lters to smooth the meassurementdata.
function [matrix_ff] = filtrera(matrix) matrix_ff(:,1) = matrix(:,1); [b,a]=butter(1,0.05); matrix_ff(:,2) = filtfilt(b,a,matrix(:,2)); matrix_ff(:,3) = filtfilt(b,a,matrix(:,3)); [b,a]=butter(3,0.1); matrix_ff(:,4) = filtfilt(b,a,matrix(:,4)); matrix_ff(:,5) = filtfilt(b,a,matrix(:,5)); [b,a]=butter(1,0.01); matrix_ff(:,6) = filtfilt(b,a,matrix(:,6)); [b,a]=butter(1,0.005); matrix_ff(:,7) = filtfilt(b,a,matrix(:,7));
Carlsson, 2006.
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66
Appendix C. .m-les
C.2
umu fetch matrix.m
Makes it easier to change data set.

function [matrix_name] = umu_fetch_matrix(i) %matris_du_vill_ha = eval(umu_fetch_matrix(i)); if i == 1 matrix_name elseif i == 2 matrix_name elseif i == 3 matrix_name elseif i == 4 matrix_name elseif i == 5 matrix_name elseif i == 6 matrix_name elseif i == 7 matrix_name elseif i == 8 matrix_name elseif i == 9 matrix_name elseif i == 10 matrix_name elseif i == 11 matrix_name elseif i == 12 matrix_name end
= umu_01; = umu_02; = umu_03; = umu_04; = umu_05; = umu_06; = umu_07; = umu_08; = umu_09; = umu_10; = umu_11; = umu_12;
C.3. Hydrostatic transmission.m
67
C.3
Hydrostatic transmission.m
Initilazies the model.

load umu_all_fix %load the data %scale with this factor. nersampling = 10; %choose not to start from 0.01 start = 1; % ----------------- Parameters my_p = 10; Tfp = 0; eta_tp = 0.92; my_m = 5; Tfm = 0; eta_tm = 0.97;
Jp = 0.0023; Jm = 0.02; Jd = 0.17; Jw = 5; Jpd = Jp + Jd; Jmw = Jm + Jw; Bulk = 3.7e8; V = 1.22*(25e-3/2)^2*pi; dis_p = [0 85 147]; varv_p = [0 1100 1350 1600 2500]; dis_m = [68 105 160]; varv_m = [0 600 1200 2000 4000]; p11 p12 p13 p21 p22 p23 p31 p32 p33 m11 m12 m13 m21 m22 m23 m31 m32 m33 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = 0.56; 0.58; 0.59; 0.84; 0.86; 0.87; 0.90; 0.92; 0.93; 0.77; 0.88; 0.97; 0.81; 0.91; 0.97; 0.85; 0.94; 0.97;
eff_p = [p11 p11 p12 p13 p13;
68
Appendix C. .m-les
p21 p21 p22 p23 p23; p31 p31 p32 p33 p33]; eff_m = [m11 m11 m12 m13 m13; m21 m21 m22 m23 m23; m31 m31 m32 m33 m33]; %from datasheet n_tp_v = [0.8830 0.9111 0.9233 0.9301 0.9324 0.9278 0.9242 0.9202 0.9201 0.9201]; n_vp_v = [0.5973 0.7423 0.8037 0.8378 0.8496 0.9060 0.9258 0.9391 0.9392 0.9392]; n_tm_v = [0.9816 0.9811 0.9803 0.9791 0.9783 0.9710 0.9635 0.9536 0.9241 0.8696]; n_vm_v = [0.3757 0.7013 0.8037 0.8539 0.8702 0.9373 0.9570 0.9687 0.9688 0.9688];
0.9308... 0.8762... 0.9761... 0.9035...
Angle_pump_v = [3 5 7 9 9.9 11 13 15 17 17 17]; Angle_motor_v = [32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 19.2 12.4]; Tl_v = [1081 1080 1079 1078 1077 962 808 686 593 357 218]; Tem_v = [188 296 403 511 564 564 564 564 564 564 564]; Motor_shaft_speed_v = [64 252 439 626 718 858 1086 1318 1544 2484 3821]; Pressure_v = [430 430 430 430 430 385 325 278 243 243 243]; Displacement_motor_v = [161 161 161 161 161 161 161 161 161 100 65]; Displacement_pump_v = [22 37 52 67 74 83 98 114 130 130 130]; Vehicle_speed_v = [0.1 0.5 0.8 1.2 1.4 1.6 2.1 2.5 3.0 4.7 7.3]; %--------------------
%------- Calculate Dp, Dm, Td, TL xm = [-0.2 0.33 0.35 0.37 0.39 0.41 0.43 0.45 0.47 0.49 0.51 0.53 0.56 0.8]; ym = [160 160 145 132 120 109 100 93 86 81 76 72 68 68 ]; Dpmatris = zeros(60001,9); Dmmatris = zeros(60001,9); for z = 1:9 matrix_ff_in_use = filtrera(eval(umu_fetch_matrix(z))); time = matrix_ff_in_use(start:nersampling:... length(matrix_ff_in_use)-1000,1); p_return = matrix_ff_in_use(start:nersampling:... length(matrix_ff_in_use)-1000,2); p = matrix_ff_in_use(start:nersampling:... length(matrix_ff_in_use)-1000,3); i_p = matrix_ff_in_use(start:nersampling:... length(matrix_ff_in_use)-1000,4); i_m = matrix_ff_in_use(start:nersampling:... length(matrix_ff_in_use)-1000,5); n_p = matrix_ff_in_use(start:nersampling:... length(matrix_ff_in_use)-1000,6); n_m = matrix_ff_in_use(start:nersampling:... length(matrix_ff_in_use)-1000,7); Dpmatris(1:length(i_p),z) = max(0, -82 + i_p*147/0.550); for r = 1:length(i_m) for s = 2:length(xm) if i_m(r) < xm(s) Dmmatris(r,z) = ym(s-1) + (ym(s-1)-ym(s))/... (xm(s-1)-xm(s))*(i_m(r)-xm(s-1)); break end
C.3. Hydrostatic transmission.m
69
end end end T_dmatris = zeros(6001,9); T_Lmatris = zeros(6001,9); for z = 1:9 matrix_ff_in_use = filtrera(eval(umu_fetch_matrix(z))); time = matrix_ff_in_use(start:nersampling:... length(matrix_ff_in_use)-1000,1); p_return = matrix_ff_in_use(start:nersampling:... length(matrix_ff_in_use)-1000,2); p = matrix_ff_in_use(start:nersampling:... length(matrix_ff_in_use)-1000,3); i_p = matrix_ff_in_use(start:nersampling:... length(matrix_ff_in_use)-1000,4); i_m = matrix_ff_in_use(start:nersampling:... length(matrix_ff_in_use)-1000,5); n_p = matrix_ff_in_use(start:nersampling:... length(matrix_ff_in_use)-1000,6); n_m = matrix_ff_in_use(start:nersampling:... length(matrix_ff_in_use)-1000,7); D_p = Dpmatris(1:length(time),z); D_m = Dmmatris(1:length(time),z); slut = length(time)/100; sim(Calculate_torque.mdl) T_dmatris(1:length(T_d),z) = T_d; T_Lmatris(1:length(T_L),z) = T_L; end %-----------------------------------------%-------- Use a special test run w = 9; matrix_ff_in_use = filtrera(eval(umu_fetch_matrix(w))); time = matrix_ff_in_use(start:nersampling:... length(matrix_ff_in_use)-1000,1); p_return = matrix_ff_in_use(start:nersampling:... length(matrix_ff_in_use)-1000,2); p = matrix_ff_in_use(start:nersampling:... length(matrix_ff_in_use)-1000,3); i_p = matrix_ff_in_use(start:nersampling:... length(matrix_ff_in_use)-1000,4); i_m = matrix_ff_in_use(start:nersampling:... length(matrix_ff_in_use)-1000,5); n_p = matrix_ff_in_use(start:nersampling:... length(matrix_ff_in_use)-1000,6); n_m = matrix_ff_in_use(start:nersampling:... length(matrix_ff_in_use)-1000,7); D_p = Dpmatris(1:length(time),w); D_m = Dmmatris(1:length(time),w); slut = length(time)/100; p_0 = p(1)*1e5; n_p0 = n_p(1)*2*pi/60; n_m0 = n_m(1)*2*pi/60; T_d = T_dmatris(1:length(time),w); T_L = T_Lmatris(1:length(time),w);
70
Appendix C. .m-les
% ------------------ K ors initialt med k orning 9 % % up = [D_p,p-p_return]; % % yp = [T_d]; % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % pump= ss(d2c(amx2220)); %where amx2220 is from ident using the following % code % % Import 09Td %09Td is yp and up % 09Tdd = dtrend(09Td,0) % % na = 2 % nb = [2 2] % nc = 2 % nk = [0 0] % amx2220 = armax(09Tdd,[na nb nc nk],,Focus,Sim) medel_Dp1 = mean(D_p); medel_Dm1 = mean(D_m); medel_p1 = mean(p-p_return); medel_n_m1 = mean(n_m); medel_n_p1 = mean(n_p); medel_Dp_dp1 = mean(D_p.*(p-p_return)); medel_Dm_dp1 = mean(D_m.*(p-p_return)); medel_T_d = mean(T_d); medel_T_L = mean(T_L);
%----------------------------
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Modeling Hydrostatic Transmission in Forest Vehicle Erik Carlsson

Modeling Hydrostatic Transmission in Forest Vehicle

Avdelning, Institution Division, Department Institutionen f or systemteknik 581 83 LINKOPING SWEDEN

Datum Date May 2006

Rapporttyp Report category

Examensarbete C-uppsats D-uppsats Ovrig rapport

LITH - ISY - EX - - 06/3801 - - SE

URL f or elektronisk version

Modeling Hydrostatic Transmission in Forest Vehicle

Hydrostatic transmission, Forest Vehicle, Model, Pressure, Simulation

Keywords: Hydrostatic transmission, Forest Vehicle, Model, Pressure, Simulation

Grey box models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4.1 6.4.2

7 Discussion and Conclusions 7.1 7.2 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Outline of the Report

Chapter 2. System overview

2.3. Previous work, modeling

Previous work, modeling

Chapter 2. System overview

2.4. Previous work, identication

Previous work, identication

Chapter 2. System overview

Physical model of the hydrostatic transmission

Chapter 3. Physical model of the hydrostatic transmission

Figure 3.1: Egeland and Gravdahls model.

3.2. Diesel engine

Chapter 3. Physical model of the hydrostatic transmission

of sound in oil 1000 m/s.

Chapter 3. Physical model of the hydrostatic transmission

Figure 3.5: Connections with the hydraulic motor.

3.7. Complete model

(Jp + Jd )w p = Td T f p T p , Tf p = p p + Kp , Dp p Tp = . tp The motor related equations are

(Jm + J ) w m = T m Tf m T L , Tm = Dm ptm , Tf m = m m + Km sign(m ). The equations describing the pressure are

Chapter 3. Physical model of the hydrostatic transmission

3.7. Complete model

x3 Jpd tp 0 x1 vp (x1 ;vp ) V

Chapter 3. Physical model of the hydrostatic transmission

x (t) = A()x(t) + B ()u(t) + d(t) y (t) = C ()x(t) + D()u(t) + h(t),

Linear black box modeling

4.2. Linear identication

Non-linear black box modeling

4.3. Non-Linear identication

Figure 4.1: Approximation of a function using a neural network.

If a smoother function is desirable can be set to be for example a Gaussian bell,

Chapter 5. Data collection

the sensor close to the rotating part.

5.2. Test day

Chapter 5. Data collection

Figure 5.3: The track at which the tests where performed.

Return pressure [Bar]

1 0.8 0.6 0.4 10 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 10 15 Time [s] 20

Rotation speed pump [rpm]

Current to the pump [mA]

Charge pressure [Bar]

Figure 5.4: Example of the data collected.

Rotation speed pump [rpm]

Current to the motor [mA]

5.2. Test day

Modications of the data

Return pressure [Bar]

Figure 5.5: Example of ltered data (Same data as in Figure 5.4).

Rotation speed pump [rpm]