Howard Gardner Some researchers in the field of intelligence have long argued that people have a variety of different

intelligences. A person may be good at learning languages and terrible at learning music--or vice versa. A single number (a score on an IQ test) cannot adequately represent the complex and diverse capabilities of a human being. Howard Gardner has proposed a theory of multiple intelligences. He originally identified seven components of intelligence (Gardner, 1983). He argues that these intelligences are relatively distinct from each other and that each person has some level of each of these seven intelligences. More recently, he has added an eighth intelligence to his list (Educational Leadership, 1997). Many PBL-using teachers have studied the work of Howard Gardner and use some of his ideas in their teaching. For example, in creating a team of students to do a particular project, a teacher may select a team whose collective "highest" talents encompass most of the eight areas of intelligence identified by Gardner. The teacher may encourage a team to divide up specific tasks in line with specific high levels of talents found on a team. Alternatively, a teacher may encourage or require that team members not be allowed to work in their areas of highest ability in order to encourage their development of knowledge and skills in other areas. The following table lists the eight intelligences identified by Howard Gardner. It provides some examples of the types of professionals who exhibit a high level of an intelligence. The eight intelligences are listed in alphabetical order.
Intelligence Bodilykinesthetic Interpersonal Intrapersonal Linguistic Logicalmathematical Musical Naturalistic Spatial Examples Dancers, athletes, surgeons, crafts people Sales people, teachers, clinicians, politicians, religious leaders Discussion The ability to use one's physical body well. The ability to sense other's feelings and be in tune with others.

People who have good insight into Self-awareness. The ability to know your own body and themselves and make effective use of mind. their other intelligences Poets, writers, orators, communicators Mathematicians, logicians Musicians, composers Biologists, naturalists Sailors navigating without modern navigational aids, surgeons, sculptors, painters The ability to communicate well, perhaps both orally and in writing, perhaps in several languages. The ability to learn higher mathematics. The ability to handle complex logical arguments. The ability to learn, perform, and compose music. The ability to understand different species, recognize patterns in nature, classify natural objects. The ability to know where you are relative to fixed locations. The ability to accomplish tasks requiring threedimensional visualization and placement of your hands or

other parts of your body.

Table 4.1 Examples for each of the eight intelligences. Logical-mathematical

This area has to do with logic, abstractions, reasoning and numbers and critical thinking. While it is often assumed that those with this intelligence naturally excel in mathematics, chess, computer programming and other logical or numerical activities, a more accurate definition places less emphasis on traditional mathematical ability and more on reasoning capabilities, recognizing abstract patterns, scientific thinking [citation needed] and investigation and the ability to perform complex calculations. Logical reasoning is closely [6] linked to fluid intelligence and to general ability. [edit]Spatial Main article: Spatial intelligence (psychology) This area deals with spatial judgment and the ability to visualize with the mind's eye. Careers which suit those with this type of intelligence include artists, designers and architects. A spatial person is also good [citation needed] with puzzles. Spatial ability is one of the three factors beneath g in the hierarchical model of intelligence. [edit]Linguistic This area has to do with words, spoken or written. People with high verbal-linguistic intelligence display a facility with words and languages. They are typically good at reading, writing, telling stories and memorizing words along with dates. They tend to learn best by reading, taking notes, listening to lectures, [citation needed] and by discussing and debating about what they have learned. Those with verbal-linguistic intelligence learn foreign languages very easily as they have high verbal memory and recall, and an [citation needed] ability to understand and manipulate syntax and structure. Verbal ability is one of the most g[7] loaded abilities. [edit]Bodily-kinesthetic Main article: Kinesthetic learning The core elements of the bodily-kinesthetic intelligence are control of one's bodily motions and the capacity to handle objects skillfully (206). Gardner elaborates to say that this intelligence also includes a sense of timing, a clear sense of the goal of a physical action, along with the ability to train responses so they become like reflexes. In theory, people who have bodily-kinesthetic intelligence should learn better by involving muscular movement (e.g. getting up and moving around into the learning experience), and are generally good at physical activities such as sports or dance. They may enjoy acting or performing, and in general they are good at building and making things. They often learn best by doing something physically, rather than by reading or hearing about it. Those with strong bodily-kinesthetic intelligence seem to use what might be termed "muscle memory", drawing on it to supplement or in extreme cases even substitute for other skills such as verbal memory. Careers that suit those with this intelligence include: athletes, pilots, dancers, musicians, actors, surgeons, builders, police officers, and soldiers. Although these careers can be duplicated through virtual simulation, they will not produce the actual [8] physical learning that is needed in this intelligence.

[edit]Musical Further information: auditory learning This area has to do with sensitivity to sounds, rhythms, tones, and music. People with a high musical intelligence normally have good pitch and may even have absolute pitch, and are able to sing, play musical instruments, and compose music. Since there is a strong auditory component to this intelligence, those who are strongest in it may learn best via lecture. Language skills are typically highly developed in those whose base intelligence is musical. In addition, they will sometimes use songs or rhythms to learn. They have sensitivity to rhythm, pitch, meter, tone, melody or timbre. Careers that suit those with this intelligence include instrumentalists, singers, conductors, disc jockeys, orators, writers and composers. Research measuring the effects of music on second language acquisition is supportive of this musiclanguage connection. In an investigation conducted on a group of elementary-aged English language [9] learners, music facilitated their language learning. Gardner's theory may help to explain why music and its sub-componenets (i.e., stress, pitch, rhythm) may be viable vehicles for second language learning. [edit]Interpersonal This area has to do with interaction with others. Interpersonal intelligence is the ability to understand others. In theory, individuals who have high interpersonal intelligence are characterized by their sensitivity to others' moods, feelings, temperaments and motivations, and their ability to cooperate in order to work as part of a group. According to Gardner in How Are Kids Smart: Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom, "Inter- and Intra- personal intelligence is often misunderstood with being extroverted or liking other [10] people..." Interpersonal intelligence means that you understand what people need to work well. Individuals with this intelligence communicate effectively and empathize easily with others, and may be either leaders or followers. They typically learn best by working with others and often enjoy discussion and debate. Careers that suit those with this intelligence [11] include sales, politicians, managers, teachers, counselors and social workers. [edit]Intrapersonal This area has to do with introspective and self-reflective capacities. This refers to having a deep understanding of the self; what your strengths/ weaknesses are, what makes you unique, being able to predict your own reactions/emotions. Philosophical and critical thinking is common with this intelligence. Many people with this intelligence are authors, psychologists, counselors,philosophers, and members of the clergy. [edit]Naturalistic This area has to do with nurturing and relating information to ones natural surroundings. Examples include classifying natural forms such as animal and plant species and rocks and mountain types; and the applied knowledge of nature in farming, mining, etc. Careers which suit those with this intelligence include naturalists, farmers and gardeners. [edit]Existential

Some proponents of multiple intelligence theory proposed spiritual or religious intelligence as a possible additional type. Gardner did not want to commit to a spiritual intelligence, but suggested that an [12] "existential" intelligence may be a useful construct. The hypothesis of an existential intelligence has [13] been further explored by educational researchers. Ability to contemplate phenomena or questions beyond sensory data, such as the infinite and infinitesimal. Careers or callings which suit those with this intelligence include shamans, priests,mathematicians, physicists, scientists, cosmologists, psychologists and philosop hers.

You might want to do some introspection. For each of the eight intelligences in the Howard Gardner list, think about your own level of talents and performance. For each intelligence, decide if you have an area of expertise that makes substantial use of the intelligence. For example, perhaps you are good at music. If so, is music the basis of your vocation? Students can also do this type of introspection, and it can become a routine component of PBL lessons. Students can come to understand that they are more naturally gifted in some areas than in others, but that they have some talent in all of the eight areas identified by Howard Gardner. Curriculum and instruction can be developed to help all students make progress in enhancing their talents in each of these eight areas of intelligence. Robert Sternberg Many teachers have provided testimonial evidence that PBL encourages participation on the part of their students who do not have a high level of "school smarts." They report that some of their students who were not doing well in school have become actively engaged and experienced a high level of success in working on projects. These observations are consistent with and supportive of the research of Robert Sternberg. As noted earlier in this chapter, different researchers have identified different components of intelligence. Sternberg (1988, 1997) focuses on just three main components: 1. Practical intelligence--the ability to do well in informal and formal educational settings; adapting to and shaping one's environment; street smarts. 2. Experiential intelligence--the ability to deal with novel situations; the ability to effectively automate ways of dealing with novel situations so they are easily handled in the future; the ability to think in novel ways.

3. Componential intelligence--the ability to process information effectively. This includes metacognitive, executive, performance, and knowledge-acquisition components that help to steer cognitive processes. Sternberg provides examples of people who are quite talented in one of these areas but not so talented in the other two. In that sense, his approach to the field of intelligence is somewhat like Howard Gardner's. However, you can see that Sternberg does not focus on specific components of intelligence that are aligned with various academic disciplines. He is far more concerned with helping people develop components of intelligence that will help them to perform well in whatever they chose to do. Sternberg strongly believes that intelligence can be increased by study and practice. Quite a bit of his research focuses on such endeavors. Some of Sternberg's work focuses specifically on "street smarts" versus "school smarts." He notes that some people are particularly talented in one of these two areas, and not in the other. This observation is consistent with the work of Lev Vygotsky (Fosnot, 1996) who argues that the type of learning that goes on outside of school is distinctly different than the type of learning that goes on in school. While some students are talented in both informal and formal education, others are much more successful in one rather than the other. A teacher who is skillful in developing PBL can help students to design projects that are consistent with their learning abilities and interests. David Perkins In his 1992 book, Smart Schools, David Perkins analyzes a number of different educational theories and approaches to education. His analysis is strongly supportive of Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences. Perkins' book contains extensive research-based evidence that education can be considerably improved by more explicit and appropriate teaching for transfer, focusing on higher-order cognitive skills, and the use of project-based learning. Perkins (1995) examines a large number of research studies both on the measurement of IQ and of programs of study designed to increase IQ. He presents detailed arguments that IQ has three major components or dimensions. 1. Neural intelligence. This refers to the efficiency and precision of one's neurological system. 2. Experiential intelligence. This refers to one's accumulated knowledge and experience in different areas. It can be thought of as the accumulation of all of one's expertises. 3. Reflective intelligence. This refers to one's broad-based strategies for attacking problems, for learning, and for approaching intellectually challenging tasks. It

includes attitudes that support persistence, systemization, and imagination. It includes self-monitoring and self-management. There is substantial evidence to support the belief that a child's neural intelligence can be adversely affected by the mother's use of drugs such as alcohol and cocaine during pregnancy. Lead (such as from lead-based paint) can do severe neural damage to a person. Vitamins, or the lack thereof, can affect neural intelligence. Moreover, there is general agreement that neural intelligence has a "use it or lose it" characteristic. It is clear that neural intelligence can be maintained and, indeed, increased, by use. Experiential intelligence is based on years and years of accumulating knowledge and experience in both informal and formal learning environments. Such knowledge and experience can lead to a high level of expertise in one or more fields. People who live in "rich" learning environments have a significant intelligence advantage over people who grow up in less stimulating environments. Experiential intelligence can be increased by such environments. Reflexive intelligence can be thought of as a control system that helps to make effective use of neural intelligence and experiential intelligence. A person can learn strategies that help to make more effective use of neural intelligence and experiential intelligence. The habits of mind included under reflexive intelligence can be learned and improved. Metacognition and other approaches to reflecting about one's cognitive processes can help. End of materials quoted from: Moursund, D.G. (1999). Project-based Learning Using Information Technology. Eugene, Oregon: ISTE.

Everyone is a genius at least once a year. The real geniuses simply have their bright ideas closer together. Georg C. Lichtenberg

The concept of intelligence as used today in the measurement of the intelligence quotient (IQ) dates back to the work of Sir Francis Galton about 150 years ago. Since then, many alternatives to the psychometric approach have been described. Galton (1822-1911) a former child prodigy who could read at the age of two and the author of Hereditary Genius started testing huge numbers of people between 1884 and 1890 for a variety of psychophysical tasks, because he believed that looking at how forcefully somebody could squeeze hands or how sensitive somebody was to musical pitch could be telling about the person's intelligence. He not only greatly influenced the psychometric approach to intelligence, he was also in the centre of a dispute still flaring up today once in a while: Is intelligence a result of nature or nurture? Another testing approach goes back to the French Alfred Binet (1857-1911) and Theodore Simon (1873-1961) who rejected the Galtonian tradition, because they preferred to measure higher ability functions such as judgement, comprehension, and reasoning. Originally developed to measure the intelligence age of feebleminded students in France, the approach became hugely popular after Lewis M. Terman (1877-1956) brought the Binet-Simon Intelligence Test to the United States, and used a revised form of it, the Standford-Binet Intelligence Scale, widely. Today's IQ tests normally don't use the intelligence age any more, they rather compare how well somebody does in relation to the average of a population. Apart from testing intelligence, researchers were also interested in the question of what intelligence actually is. Today's theories about intelligence are based on four approaches: 1) Psychometric theories try to answer the questions what forms intelligence takes and what its parts are. Important examples of such theories, mostly based on data collected from paper-and-pencil tests are: the Standford-Binet and the Wechsler Intelligence Scales (both for adults and children). Using data from such tests, psychologists developed different theories. The British psychologist

Charles E. Spearman (1863-1945) suggested two major forms of intelligence: a general intelligence (g) and specific intelligence (s). L. L. Thurstone (1887-1955) considered Spearman's g-intelligence as statistical artefact and suggested seven "primary mental abilities": verbal comprehension, verbal fluency, numeracy, spatial visualisation, inductive reasoning, memory, and perceptual speed. The Canadian Philip E. Vernon (1905-1987) and the American Raymond B. Cattell (1905-1998) tried to bring the two theories together by suggesting that intellectual abilities are hierarchical with g-intelligence at the top and s-intelligence at the bottom. Later on Cattell suggested that g-intelligence can be divided into fluid and crystallized intelligence: Whereas fluid intelligence is represented by reasoning and problem solving, crystallized intelligence is the knowledge acquired over the years. Not everybody agreed on intelligence having a hierarchical structure: J. P. Guilford (1897-1988) postulated 120 different abilities in his Structure-of Intellect theory. He arrived at that number by combining multiplicatively five kinds of operations, four kinds of content and six kinds of products. Later he increased the number to 150 abilities. Because the number of abilities which had to be measured in tests got out of hand, and because the psychometric theories couldn't explain the processes underlying intelligence, some researchers tried to study the mental processes important for intelligence directly. 2) Cognitive psychology assumes that intelligence comprises a set of mental representations of information and a set of processes operating on them. A more intelligent person therefore will have a better representation of information and can operate on them faster. Whether processes are executed serially or parallel hasn't been decided yet. The use of computer models for intelligence had less of an impact on intelligence theories but proofed hugely influential in computer science itself. However, cognitive psychology didn't answer the question of why a certain behaviour is considered as intelligent. Thus, Michael E. Cole argued that the description of intelligence may differ from one culture to another: to know what

intelligence is the context in which cognition operates would have to be taken into account. 3) Contextualism looks at how cognitive processes operate in various environmental contexts. The two most influential theories with this approach are Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Human Intelligence and Gardner's Multiple Intelligences. Gardner went a step further than earlier researchers who suggested intelligence comprises several abilities. He argued that there is no single intelligence. Even though Sternberg agreed with Gardner that intelligence as measured in IQ-tests was to narrow a concept, he disagreed with other aspects, because he understands some abilities rather as talent than intelligence. Sternberg also considered the automatization of cognitive processes very important: Only a person who has automatized daily life's task, can use enough mental powers to cope with newly arising situations. 4) Biological science tries to understand the neural bases of intelligence and not, like the other three approaches, hypothetical constructs. This reductionistic way of looking at the brain, made possible by newest technology, might sound like the ultimate tool to build a model upon. Yet, because it looks at such narrow details, so far it can't be handled successfully to understand higher concepts such as critical thinking. Some yet unproved theories suggest that intellect could be a result of either more efficiently connected braincells (neurons) or the fast transmition of information through the axons of neurons. Also, very recently the role of the glia-cells, formerly considered as less important, has come into the limelight. Another new interesting approach is the simulation of very small parts of the human brain with massively parallel computer networks. Despite all these different ideas about what intelligence could be, IQ-tests play an important role in the identification of the gifted. But today, most people in the field would probably agree with the American psychologist Howard E. Gruber that to measure giftedness merely in terms of a single test core would be a trivialization of the concept. Also, through the work of James Flynn from New Zealand

who discovered that IQ test scores are rising in the general population and other researchers, today intelligence is considered as a result of nature and nurture and therefore malleable to an extent. Or in other words, the intelligence of a person can be influenced through education.

Triarchic theory of intelligence

Main article: Triarchic theory of intelligence Robert Sternberg proposed the triarchic theory of intelligence to provide a more comprehensive description of intellectual competence than traditional differential or cognitive theories of human [33] ability. The triarchic theory describes three fundamental aspects of intelligence. Analytic intelligence comprises the mental processes through which intelligence is expressed. Creative intelligence is necessary when an individual is confronted with a challenge that is nearly, but not entirely, novel or when an individual is engaged in automatizing the performance of a task. Practical intelligence is bound in a sociocultural milieu and involves adaptation to, selection of, and shaping of the environment to maximize fit in the context. The triarchic theory does not argue against the validity of a general intelligence factor; instead, the theory posits that general intelligence is part of analytic intelligence, and only by considering all three aspects of intelligence can the full range of intellectual functioning be fully understood. More recently, the triarchic theory has been updated and renamed the Theory of Successful Intelligence [34][35] by Sternberg. Intelligence is defined as an individual's assessment of success in life by the individual's own (idiographic) standards and within the individual's sociocultural context. Success is achieved by using combinations of analytical, creative, and practical intelligence. The three aspects of intelligence are referred to as processing skills. The processing skills are applied to the pursuit of success through what were the three elements of practical intelligence: adapting to, shaping of, and selecting of one's environments. The mechanisms that employ the processing skills to achieve success include utilizing one's strengths and compensating or correcting for one's weaknesses. Sternberg's theories and research on intelligence remain contentious within the scientific community
Robert Sternberg - Triarchic Theory of Intelligence:

Psychologist Robert Sternberg defined intelligence as "mental activity directed toward purposive adaptation to, selection and shaping of, real-world environments relevant to ones life." While he agreed with Gardner that intelligence is much broader than a single, general ability, he instead suggested some of Gardner's intelligences are better viewed as individual talents.

Sternberg proposed what he refers to as 'successful intelligence,' which is comprised of three different factors:

Analytical intelligence: This component refers to problem-solving abilities.

Creative intelligence: This aspect of intelligence involves the ability to deal with new situations using past experiences and current skills.

Practical intelligence: This element refers to the ability to adapt to a changing environment.

PASS Theory of Intelligence

Main article: PASS Theory of Intelligence Based on A. R. Lurias (1966) seminal work on the modularization of brain function, and supported by [41] decades of neuroimaging research, the PASS Theory of Intelligence proposes that cognition is organized in three systems and four processes. The first is the Planning, which involves executive functions responsible for controlling and organizing behavior, selecting and constructing strategies, and monitoring performance. The second is the Attention process, which is responsible for maintaining arousal levels and alertness, and ensuring focus on relevant stimuli. The next comprise two processes ,Simultaneous and Successive processing to encode, transform, and retain information. Simultaneous processing is engaged when the relationship between items and their integration into whole units of information is required. Examples of this include recognizing figures, such as a triangle within a circle vs. a circle within a triangle, or the difference between he had a shower before breakfast and he had breakfast before a shower. Successive processing is required for organizing separate items in a sequence such as remembering a sequence of words or actions exactly in the order in which they had just been presented. These four processes are functions of four areas of the brain. Planning is broadly located in the front part of our brains, the frontal lobe. Attention and arousal are combined functions of the frontal lobe and the lower parts of the cortex, although the parietal lobes are also involved in attention as well. Simultaneous processing and Successive processing occur in the posterior region or the back of the brain. Simultaneous processing is broadly associated with the occipital and the parietal lobes while Successive processing is broadly associated with the frontal-temporal lobes. The PASS (Planning/Attention/Simultaneous/Successive) [40] [42] theory is heavily indebted to both Luria (1966 , 1973 ), and studies in cognitive psychology involved in [4 promoting a better look at intelligence
[40]

Piaget's theory and Neo-Piagetian theories

Main articles: Piaget's theory of cognitive development and Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development In Piaget's theory of cognitive development the focus is not on mental abilities but rather on a child's mental models of the world. As a child develops, increasingly more accurate models of the world are developed which enable the child to interact with the world better. One example being object permanence where the child develops a model where objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched. Piaget's theory described four main stages and many sub-stages in the development. Degree of progress [44][45] through these is correlated with but is not identical with psychometric IQ. Piaget conceptualizes intelligence as an activity more than a capacity.

Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development expand Piaget's theory in various ways such as also considering psychometric-like factors such as processing speed and working memory, "hypercognitive" factors like self-monitoring, more stages, and more consideration on how progress may vary in different [46][47] domains such as spatial or social. Piaget's theory has been criticized for the age of appearance of a new model of the world, such as object permanence, being dependent on how the testing is done (see the article on object permanence). More generally, the theory may be very difficult to test empirically due to the difficulty of proving or not proving [48] that a mental model is the explanation for the results of the testing.

Animal and plant intelligence

Main articles: Animal cognition and Plant intelligence

The common chimpanzee can use tools. This chimpanzee is using a stick in order to get food.

Although humans have been the primary focus of intelligence researchers, scientists have also attempted to investigate animal intelligence, or more broadly, animal cognition. These researchers are interested in studying both mental ability in a particular species, and comparing abilities between species. They study various measures of problem solving, as well as mathematical and language abilities. Some challenges in this area are defining intelligence so that it means the same thing across species (e.g. comparing intelligence between literate humans and illiterate animals), and then operationalizing a measure that accurately compares mental ability across different species and contexts. Wolfgang Khler's pioneering research on the intelligence of apes is a classic example of research in this [unreliable source?] area. Stanley Coren's book, The Intelligence of Dogs is a notable popular book on the [56] topic. Nonhuman animals particularly noted and studied for their intelligence include chimpanzees, bonobos (notably the language-using Kanzi) and other great apes, dolphins, elephants and to some extentparrots, rats and ravens. Controversy exists over the extent [citation needed] to which these judgments of intelligence are accurate. Cephalopod intelligence also provides important comparative study. Cephalopods appear to exhibit characteristics of significant intelligence, yet their nervous systems differ radically from those of most other notably intelligent life-forms (mammals and birds).

It has been argued that plants should also be classified as being intelligent based on their ability to sense [57][58] the environment and adjust theirmorphology, physiology and phenotype accordingly. [edit]Artificial

intelligence

Main article: Artificial intelligence Artificial intelligence (or AI) is both the intelligence of machines and the branch of computer science which [59] aims to create it, through "the study and design of intelligent agents" or "rational agents", where an intelligent agent is a system that perceives its environment and takes actions which maximize its [60] chances of success. Achievements in artificial intelligence include constrained and well-defined problems such as games, crossword-solving and optical character recognition. General intelligence or strong AI has not yet been achieved and is a long-term goal of AI research. Among the traits that researchers hope machines will exhibit are reasoning, knowledge, planning, learning, communication, perception, and the ability to move and [59][60] manipulate objects. In the field of artificial intelligence there is no consensus on how closely the brain should be simulated.

CattellHornCarroll theory
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory)

Recent advances in current theory and research on the structure of human cognitive abilities have resulted in a new empirically derived model commonly referred to as the CattellHornCarroll theory of cognitive abilities (CHC theory). CHC theory of cognitive abilities is an amalgamation of two similar theories about the content and structure of human cognitive abilities. The first of these two theories is Gf-Gc theory (Raymond Cattell, 1941; Horn 1965), and the second is John Bissell Carroll's (1993) Three-Stratum theory. Carroll's expansion of Gf-Gc theory to CHC theory was developed in the course of a major survey of research over the past 60 or 70 years on the nature, identification, and structure of human cognitive abilities [1]. That research involved the use of the mathematical technique known as factor analysis. In comparison to other well-known theories of intelligence and cognitive abilities, CHC theory is the most comprehensive and empirically supported psychometric theory of the structure of cognitive and academic abilities.[2] The CHC model was expanded by McGrew (1997), later revised with the help of Flanagan (1998), and extended again by McGrew (2011).[3] There are a fairly large number of distinct individual differences in cognitive ability, and CHC theory holds that the relationships among them can be derived by classifying them into three different strata: stratum I, "narrow" abilities; stratum II, "broad abilities"; and stratum III, consisting of a single "general" ability

CHC theory abilities

There are 9 broad stratum abilities and over 70 narrow abilities below these. The broad abilities are
[5]

Crystallized Intelligence (Gc): includes the breadth and depth of a person's acquired knowledge, the ability to communicate one's knowledge, and the ability to reason using previously learned experiences or procedures. Fluid Intelligence (Gf): includes the broad ability to reason, form concepts, and solve problems using unfamiliar information or novel procedures. Quantitative Reasoning (Gq): is the ability to comprehend quantitative concepts and relationships and [6] to manipulate numerical symbols. Reading & Writing Ability (Grw): includes basic reading and writing skills. Short-Term Memory (Gsm): is the ability to apprehend and hold information in immediate awareness and then use it within a few seconds. Long-Term Storage and Retrieval (Glr): is the ability to store information and fluently retrieve it later in the process of thinking. Visual Processing (Gv): is the ability to perceive, analyze, synthesize, and think with visual patterns, including the ability to store and recall visual representations. Auditory Processing (Ga): is the ability to analyze, synthesize, and discriminate auditory stimuli, including the ability to process and discriminate speech sounds that may be presented under [7] distorted conditions. Processing Speed (Gs): is the ability to perform automatic cognitive tasks, particularly when measured under pressure to maintain focused attention.

A tenth ability, Gt, is considered part of the theory, but is not currently assessed by any major intellectual ability test. For this reason, it does not appear in cross-battery reference materials. Decision/Reaction Time/Speed (Gt): reflect the immediacy with which an individual can react to stimuli or a task (typically measured in seconds or fractions of seconds; not to be confused with Gs, which typically is measured in intervals of 23 minutes).

McGrew proposes a number of extensions to CHC theory, including Gkn, Domain-specific knowledge, Gp, Psychomotor ability, and Gps, Psychomotor speed. In addition, additional sensory processing [8] abilities are proposed, including tactile (Gh), kinesthetic (Gk), and olfactory (Go).

Fluid and crystallized intelligence

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Human intelligence

Abilities, traits and constructs

Abstract thought Communication

Creativity

Emotional intelligence

g factor

Intelligence quotient

Knowledge

Learning

Memory Problem solving

Reaction time Reasoning

Understanding Visual processing Models and theories

CattellHornCarroll theory Fluid and crystallized intelligence Theory of multiple intelligences

Three stratum theory

Triarchic theory of intelligence PASS theory of intelligence Fields of study

Cognitive epidemiology

Evolution of human intelligence

Psychometrics

Heritability of IQ

Impact of health on intelligence Environment and intelligence Neuroscience and intelligence

Race and intelligence

In psychology, fluid and crystallized intelligence (abbreviated Gf and Gc, respectively) are factors of general intelligence originally identified by Raymond Cattell.[1] Concepts of fluid and crystallized intelligence were further developed by John L. Horn, the primary student of Raymond Cattell. Fluid intelligence or fluid reasoning is the capacity to think logically and solve problems in novel situations, independent of acquired knowledge. It is the ability to analyze novel problems, identify patterns and relationships that underpin these problems and the extrapolation of these using logic. It is necessary for all logical problem solving, especially scientific, mathematical and technical problem solving. Fluid reasoning includes inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning. Crystallized intelligence is the ability to use skills, knowledge, and experience. It should not be equated with memory or knowledge, but it does rely on accessing information from long-term memory. Crystallized intelligence is ones lifetime or intellectual achievement, as demonstrated largely through one's vocabulary and general knowledge. This improves somewhat with age, as experiences tend to expand one's knowledge. The terms are somewhat misleading because one is not a "crystallized" form of the other. Rather, they are believed to be separate neural and mental systems. Crystallized intelligence is indicated by a person's depth and breadth of general knowledge, vocabulary, and the ability to reason using words and numbers. It is the product of educational and cultural experience in interaction with fluid intelligence. Fluid and crystallized intelligence are thus correlated with each other, and most IQ tests attempt to measure both varieties. For example, the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) measures fluid intelligence on the performance scale and crystallized intelligence on the verbal scale. The overall IQ score is based on a combination of these two scales.

Theoretical development
Fluid and crystallized intelligence are discrete factors of general intelligence, or g. Although formally recognized by Cattell, the distinction was foreshadowed by Charles Spearman who originally developed the theory of g and made a similar observation regarding the difference between eductive and [citation needed] reproductive mental ability. According to Cattell, "...it is apparent that one of these powers has the 'fluid' quality of being directable to almost any problem. By contrast, the other is invested in particular areas of crystallized skills which can [2] be upset individually without affecting the others." Thus, his claim was that each type, or factor, was [3] independent of the other, though many authors have noted an apparent interdependence of the two. [edit]Fluid
[2]

versus crystallized

Fluid intelligence includes such abilities as pattern recognition, abstract reasoning, and problem-solving. [4][5] Evidence is consistent with the view that Gf is more affected by brain injury. Enhanced performance on some tasks measuring fluid intelligence is characteristic of individuals [6][7] with Autism spectrum disorders, including Asperger syndrome. Crystallized intelligence is possibly more amenable to change as it relies on specific, acquired knowledge. For example, a child who has just learned to add numbers now owns a new piece of crystallized intelligence; but his or her general ability to learn and understand, Gf, has not been altered. An example of the flexibility of, or ability to revise, crystallized intelligence can be seen in beliefs about Santa Claus. A five year-old child may believe that Santa Claus lives at the North Pole. Later, when the child is eight years old, he learns there is no Santa Claus. His belief that Santa lives at the North Pole was then invalidated and new knowledge is gained: there is no Santa Claus. The prior belief was revised in order to accommodate the new learning. Vocabulary tests and the verbal subscale of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale are considered good measures of Gc. Crystallized intelligence relates to the study of aging. Belsky claims this declines with age. In life, things that are not used or lost can be forgotten. Belsky believes forgetting exceeds the rate at which knowledge is acquired. Not surprisingly, people with a high capacity of Gf tend to acquire more Gc knowledge and at faster rates. [8] The process of acquiring factual knowledge is sometimes called "cognitive investment." Some researchers have linked the theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence to Piaget's conception of [9][10] operative intelligence and learning. Fluid ability and Piaget's operative intelligence both concern logical thinking and the education of relations. Crystallized ability and Piaget's treatment of everyday learning reflect the impress of experience. Like fluid ability's relation to crystallized intelligence, Piaget's operativity is considered to be prior to, and ultimately provides the foundation for, everyday learning.

Louis L. Thurstone - Primary Mental Abilities:

Psychologist Louis L. Thurstone (1887-1955) offered a differing theory of intelligence. Instead of viewing intelligence as a single, general ability, Thurstone's theory focused on seven different "primary mental abilities." The abilities that he described were:

Verbal comprehension Reasoning Perceptual speed Numerical ability Word fluency Associative memory Spatial visualization

Charles Spearman - General Intelligence:

British psychologist Charles Spearman (1863-1945) described a concept he referred to as general intelligence, or the g factor. After using a technique known as factor analysis to to examine a number of mental aptitude tests, Spearman concluded that scores on these tests were remarkably similar. People who performed well on one cognitive test tended to perform well on other tests, while those who scored badly on one test tended to score badly on others. He concluded that intelligence is general cognitive ability that could be measured and numerically expressed.

What is Emotional Intelligence? Emotional intelligence (EI) refers to the ability to perceive, control and evaluate emotions. Some researchers suggest that emotional intelligence can be learned and strengthened, while others claim it is an inborn characteristic. Since 1990, Peter Salovey and John D. Mayer have been the leading researchers on emotional intelligence. In their influential article "Emotional Intelligence," they defined emotional intelligence as, "the subset of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one's own and others' feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one's thinking and actions" (1990). The Four Branches of Emotional Intelligence Salovey and Mayer proposed a model that identified four different factors of emotional intelligence: the perception of emotion, the ability reason using emotions, the ability to understand emotion and the ability to manage emotions.

1.

Perceiving Emotions: The first step in understanding emotions is to accurately perceive them. In many cases, this might involve understanding nonverbal signals such as body language and facial expressions.

2.

Reasoning With Emotions: The next step involves using emotions to promote thinking and cognitive activity. Emotions help prioritize what we pay attention and react to; we respond emotionally to things that garner our attention.

3.

Understanding Emotions: The emotions that we perceive can carry a wide variety of meanings. If someone is expressing angry emotions, the observer must interpret the cause of their anger and what it might mean. For example, if your boss is acting angry, it might mean that he is dissatisfied with your work; or it could be because he got a speeding ticket on his way to work that morning or that he's been fighting with his wife.

4.

Managing Emotions: The ability to manage emotions effectively is a key part of emotional intelligence. Regulating emotions, responding appropriately and responding to the emotions of others are all important aspect of emotional management.

According to Salovey and Mayer, the four branches of their model are, "arranged from more basic psychological processes to higher, more psychologically integrated processes. For example, the lowest level branch concerns the (relatively) simple abilities of perceiving and expressing emotion. In contrast, the highest level branch concerns the conscious, reflective regulation of emotion" (1997).