Alpine Hut Report

Establishing Infrastructure Guidelines for High Alpine Huts in the Canadian Rockies and Selkirks
EVDS 702.09 Fall 2004 Advanced Environmental Design Practice Faculty of Environmental Design University of Calgary
Establishing Infrastructure Guidelines for High Alpine Huts in the Canadian Rockies and Selkirks
For further information, contact: Dr. Loraine Dearstyne-Fowlow Course Manager Associate Professor Faculty of Environmental Design University of Calgary 2500 University Drive NW, Calgary AB T2N 1N4 Phone 403-220-7442 Fax 403-284-4399 lfowlow@ucalgary.ca
Report authors: Jennifer Dubois Julie Lefebvre Anne Marchand Quentin Mattie Hilary Janes Rowe Kanaka Sabapathy Scott Truswell
Fall 2004
Table of Contents
Background/Introduction Context of the Project Human Dimensions Facility Infrastructure Ecological Aspects Policy Framework Summary of Key Issues Objectives of the Project Purpose Objectives Relevant Questions Approach Methods Project Management Review and Discussion of Infrastructure Alternatives Lighting Heating Waste Management Human Waste Waste Management Solid Waste (garbage) Water - Water Provision Water Grey Water Management Energy Sources International Innovations Survey Findings Proposed Guidelines General Principles Lighting Heating Waste Management Human Waste Waste Management Solid Waste Water Water Provision 1 2 2 3 7 9 11 13 13 13 13 13 14 14 15 15 18 20 23 24 25 27 30 32 33 33 34 35 35 37 37
Infrastructure Guidelines for High Alpine Huts
Water Grey Water Treatment Energy Sources Design Implementation General Characteristics Lighting Concepts Heating Concepts Waste Management Concepts Water Provision Concept Energy Source Concepts Glossary Company References References Appendix 1 Inventory of existing systems used in Alpine Club huts Appendix 2 Records of overnight use of Alpine Club huts Appendix 3 Monthly overnight use for high alpine huts in 2003 and 2004 Appendix 4 Goals, Objectives and Key Actions from National Parks Management Plans Appendix 5 Inventory of human waste treatment technological options Appendix 6 Ethics certificate, Questionnaire and Survey Findings
38 39 41 41 42 47 50 54 55 61 62 63 67 70 72 73 76 79
Appendix 7 Operational Guidelines excerpts from Parks Canada Operational Guidelines for Backcountry Lodges and Huts. 90
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List of Figures
Figure 1 Location of alpine and sub-alpine huts in the Rockies and Selkirks ................ 3 Figure 3 Graph of monthly overnight use for each high alpine hut in 2003/04............... 6 Figure 4 building enveloped showing (a) a front elevation, (b) a rear elevation, and (c) floor plan........................................................................................................ 42 Figure 5 Proposed portable lighting system................................................................. 43 Figure 6 Proposed portable lighting system details with (a) side view, (b) interior and top views, and (c) front view .......................................................................... 44 Figure 7 Tubular skylights ............................................................................................ 46 Figure 8 Passive solar heating through heat capture from space between hut wall and second exterior metal cladding...................................................................... 48 Figure 9 Insulation to prevent thermal bridges............................................................. 49 Figure 10 Illustration of the moving belt and drum that contains the bags................... 50 Figure 11 Description of the principle components of the system................................ 51 Figure 12 Perspectives of the technical chamber under the toilet ............................... 51 Figure 13 Cross-section of the facility to house the Sani-Alpine desiccating toilet ...... 53 Figure 14 Davnor biosand water filtration system .................................................... 54 Figure 15 Optimum angle for photovoltaic panels at various latitudes......................... 56 Figure 16 Battery enclosure ......................................................................................... 57 Figure 17 Schematic drawings of a wire capacitance battery charger......................... 58 Figure 18 Number of annual visits to ACC huts expressed in percentage of the 232 respondents who completed the survey. ....................................................... 84 Figure 19 Number of respondents who indicated particular activities enjoyed while at ACC huts ....................................................................................................... 84 Figure 20 Hut user satisfaction with current (a) lighting, (b) heating, (c) human waste management, (d) water provision and (e) grey water treatment systems. .... 88 Figure 21 Hut user preferences for (a) lighting, (b) heating, (c) human waste management and (d) energy systems options .............................................. 89
List of Tables
Table 1 Summary of efficiency rating for various bulbs ............................................... 17 Table 2 Luminous flux and incandescent wattage delivered under various daylight conditions 45 Table 3 Summary of technical specifications phosphorescent paint............................ 46
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Introduction Objectives of the Project Review and Discussion of Infrastructure Alternatives Proposed Guidelines Design Implementation Glossary and References Appendices
Background/Introduction
The establishment and use of high alpine huts have facilitated the exploration and enjoyment of the Canadian backcountry for more than a century. There is a long history of alpinism in Canadas mountainous regions, much of which is concentrated in the Selkirk and Rocky Mountain systems of British Columbia and Alberta. The enthusiasm and passion for mountain environments displayed by Swiss guides who completed many first ascents in the Rockies and spearheaded the construction of a number of alpine huts became infectious for a growing number of Canadians. Today, these same mountain landscapes are explored by a broad cross-section of international and domestic visitors alike. According to the Canadian Tourism Commission, adventure travel is the fastest growing sector of the tourism industry in North America (CTC, 1995). Adventure travel can be defined in many ways, but generally involves an outdoor leisure activity that takes place in a remote or wilderness destination where participants engage in high levels of activities. In mountainous areas, these activities may involve hiking, rock, alpine, or ice climbing and back country skiing. Situated at about 2,200 metres depending on the aspect, latitude, and the nature of the topography, the high alpine is a fragile environment that can take hundreds of years to recover from impacts such as trampling and erosion. Dominant land forms in the high alpine have been shaped by a history of glaciation resulting in moraines, artes, cols, tarns, cirques and glacial outwash plains. Sparse vegetation in these very high areas is characterised by lichens, saxifrages, snow willows, mountain avens (Dryas spp.) and alpine bearberry (Arctostaphylos rubra). Established in 1906, the Alpine Club of Canada (ACC) has created a system of alpine huts for use by mountain recreationists. The ACCs main objective in establishing these huts is to allow for exploration of the backcountry while providing a safe and relatively comfortable experience for the traveler. In recent years there has been a growing interest in exploring alpine areas and use of these huts has increased as more people seek an escape from busy urban lifestyles (Tesitel et al., 2003). Unfortunately, this desire for a wilderness experience can be accompanied by unintended environmental impacts. While access to the backcountry is a vital component of the ACCs mandate, the Club also promotes the preservation of the natural beauties of the mountain places and of the fauna and flora in their habitat (Alpine Club of Canada, 2004). To this end, the ACC has contacted the Faculty of Environmental Design at the University of Calgary for recommendations to minimise the environmental impact related to the location, design and operation of high alpine huts. This challenge requires an understanding of complex and interrelated aspects involved in setting guidelines for facilities in sensitive environments. In consultation with the client, the team opted to concentrate its work within the geographic area of the four mountain parks straddling the BC/Alberta border and the Selkirk Mountains. Particularly, we will focus on the challenges presented by hut operation and maintenance above the treeline or above 2,200 metres in elevation.
Context of the Project

Based on an initial understanding of the projects scope and the needs of the client, we chose to group elements of the context into four general areas for further investigation. These are: Human Dimensions, Facility Infrastructure, Ecological Aspects, and Policy Framework.
Human Dimensions
There is a large and growing demand for backcountry recreation experiences (Ewart and Shultis, 1999). Motivations to participate in alpine activities include, but are not limited to: the desire for outdoor recreation and to be close to nature; the sense of accomplishment that comes from reaching the summit of a mountain; the camaraderie with fellow mountaineers, and; the opportunity to reflect and to experience personal growth (Carr, 2004; Ewart, 1985). Generally, people who participate in mountain activities are dedicated to the conservation, exploration and enjoyment of outdoor and wilderness areas and believe in freedom of responsible access (UIAA, 2002). The characteristics of participants in adventure-type activities are often ranked along a scale from soft to hard adventures. This indicates that participants seek a broad range of experiences, they hold differing values towards the wilderness in which they engage in their activities, and they seek different amenities from the facilities used to support their activities. The needs and expectations of visitors to the alpine environment must be considered when evaluating design possibilities for alpine huts. Alpine huts play a pivotal role in the backcountry experience by supplying visitors with basic life support equipment including shelter and heat. While enhancing the mountain experience for most users, the huts can also save human lives in times of emergency for mountaineers who experience equipment failure or encounter unexpected circumstances. Tourism research indicates that the demand for adventure-type tourism products has increased in Canada. (CTC, 1995) ACCs hut utilisation records also show an increased demand for the services of alpine facilities which provides evidence for the trend in our study area. For these reasons, it is important not only to maintain existing huts, but also to improve the delivery of services they provide to their users to ensure that cumulative impacts do not negatively affect ecological integrity of protected areas. Records of overnight use for alpine huts are discussed further in the Facility Infrastructure section that follows. It is critical that the performance of infrastructure systems offer minimal cumulative impacts on environmental features in order to deliver sustainable services while accommodating increased usage of the huts. This is essential to ensure the longterm ecological integrity of ecosystems in protected areas. It is critical to understand the particular needs, expectations and motivations of alpinists, how they use the huts and how they interact with this unique environment. Beyond the simple shelter provided by the huts, the particular systems that deliver lighting, heating, waste management, and water treatment for any alpine hut should
be shaped by the users perspective and preferences regarding the features and services perceived as essential to provide a memorable experience. From this starting point, a suite of potential infrastructure design solutions can be developed that will meet the identified needs; these will in turn be limited by ecological and agency-enforced policy constraints.
Facility Infrastructure
The Alpine Club of Canada currently operates 23 huts within the study area. Seven of these are located in high alpine areas, above 2,200 meters in elevation. Figure 1 provides a map of the study area and locations of the huts.
Jasper National Park
Brule Lake
Mt Colin
Medicine Lake
Mount Amethyst Lakes Robson Waites-Gibson
Maligne Lake
Sydney Valance (Fryatt)
River
Mt Alberta
Hamber
Fortess Lake
rth No
Saskatchewan
E
Wood Arm
Ki nb ask et L
Cummins Lakes
Banff National Park
B R IT IS
Kootenay-Cline
A L B
ak e
H C O L U M
R T A B IA
E E
Fairy Meadow Great Cairn
Bush Arm
Peter & Catharine Whyte (Peyto)
E
Stanley Mitchell
E Bow E Balfour E Scott Duncan
Banff National Park
Marl Creek Burges & James Gadsden
Yoho National Park

Elizabeth Parker
Golden
EE
Abbot Pass
Legend
Co b ia lum
Mount Revelstoke National Park
Wheeler
Fay
E E
Neil Colgan
Castle Mountain
er Riv
Glacier National Park
Kootenay National Park
Co lu
mb i
aR
ive
10
20
30
40
Mount Ass iniboine Kilometres
E E
Alpine Hut Sub-Alpine Hut Provincial Park National Park
Figure 1: Alpine and Sub-Alpine Hut Locations Alberta and British Columbia
Figure 1 Location of alpine and sub-alpine huts in the Rockies and Selkirks
Generally, these facilities provide basic services only. All offer shared cooking and sleeping areas, as well as toilet facilities, while some huts also provide cooking utensils and foam mattresses for the bed frames. Hut capacity varies between 6 and 30 patrons. For some of the huts, the number of guests that can be accommodated will differ between summer and winter months due in part to environmental constraints or the amount of gear each visitor will have with them to support their activities. We provide a detailed discussion of the current systems found in ACC huts and other international precedents in our section titled Review and Discussion of Infrastructure Alternatives. An inventory table summarising systems currently in use in ACC huts is provided in Appendix 1. As stated previously, more and more people are taking to the mountains to participate in backcountry adventure. As a result of the increased activity in alpine areas, the ACC has seen a steady increase in the number of visitors to its alpine huts. Figure 2 illustrates the annual use for each high alpine hut. In general, all huts have seen major increases in the number of annual overnight stays from 1988 to 2002. Use of the Bow hut, in particular, has risen dramatically as the number of overnight stays has tripled in the last ten years. The charts indicate that the Bow and Peyto huts received the largest annual visitation of the high alpine facilities. Such high levels of activity in the high alpine can have negative cumulative impacts on the fragile surrounding environment, some of which are discussed in the following section titled Ecological Aspects. In fact, Parks Canada uses an approach to establish backcountry use limits that is based on grizzly bear disturbance by measuring disturbance events (Parks Canada, 2002). This model categorizes levels of backcountry use as follows: Low use: 0 to 100 events/month Moderate use: 100 1000 events/month High use: >1000 events/month The ACC must consider potential environmental impacts and evaluate responsible infrastructure systems when making decisions regarding the development of new and existing huts. It is also important to consider that some high alpine huts are used year round when selecting appropriate infrastructure systems. Figure 3 demonstrates use patterns for the high alpine huts. Particularly, it shows that the Bow, Balfour and Scott Duncan huts are used extensively in late winter/early spring and again in summer months.
a.
Annual Use of Abbot Pass Hut
900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 Year
e.
Annual Use of Neil Cogan Hut
400 Number of bednights 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 Year
Number of bednights
b.
Annual Use of Balfour Hut
700 Number of bednights
f.
Annual Use of Peyto Hut
1200 Number of bednights 1000 800 600 400 200 0 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 Year
600 500 400 300 200 100 0 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 Year
c.
Annual Use of Bow Hut
3500 Number of bednights 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 Year
Number of bednights 450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0
g.
Annual Use of Scott Duncan Hut
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
Year
d.
Annual Use of Mt. Alberta Hut
90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 Year
Figure 2 Graphs of overnight use for each high alpine hut of the ACC in the Selkirks and Rockies
Number of bednights
Consequently, hut infrastructure must be able to function adequately in frigid winter temperatures, as well as during the warmer summer months. Hut infrastructure must reflect the divergent needs and expectations of summer versus winter hut users. Figure 3 illustrates two annual peaks of hut activity, one from February to April and the other from July to September. During these seasonal peaks it is likely that hut users participate in a broad spectrum of activities. For instance, summer hut users may take advantage of the warm weather to engage in rock climbing activities or view birds and other wildlife. Winter users may visit alpine areas to take part in ice climbing, backcountry skiing or telemarking. Depending on the activities they participate in and the time of year for the visit, hut users may have different equipment that will require storage and care. Hut infrastructure must be able to fulfill the varying needs and expectations of hut visitors year round. For example, winter users can be expected to have extra clothing along with equipment such as skis. The equipment may be snow-covered or wet which will create moisture within the buildings. Left unattended, this may contribute to the growth of mould in the buildings or may add to increased wear and tear of interior surfaces. Accessibility of the most remote huts might be an important factor that contributes to their relatively low usage. If this is the case, then current infrastructure may be sufficient to meet projected needs. For those huts that currently experience relatively high use, careful attention to upgrading the infrastructure systems may be more imperative. In this case, the Bow, Balfour, Peyto and Scott Duncan might require more in-depth studies to ensure they meet user needs and do not contribute to longterm degradation of ecosystem integrity.
Monthly overnight use of high alpine huts in 2003-04

450 400
Number of bednights
350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct
Month Abbot Pass Balfour Bow Mt. Alberta Neil Cogan Peyto Scott Duncan
Figure 3 Graph of monthly overnight use for each high alpine hut in 2003/04
Ecological Aspects
The term alpine is of Latin origin meaning white or snow-covered (Korner, 2003). It also refers to the zone above the treeline. The treeline is the uppermost limit of small individual trees and is often fragmented over several hundred metres of elevation. The zone between the closed upper Montane forest and the treeline is often termed subalpine, and represents a forest-alpine transition. In the Rocky and Selkirk mountains of Alberta and British Columbia the treeline occurs at roughly 2,200 metres. It is very difficult to characterise the alpine climate as the alpine zone varies considerably across the globe. However some general attributes are shared between all alpine environments. A decline in atmospheric pressure with increasing altitude, a decline in atmospheric temperature with increasing altitude (termed the adiabatic lapse rate - about 0.70C for every 100 m of elevation gain), reduced moisture content of vapour saturated air (the saturation vapour pressure), and the increase in aerial fluxes of solar radiation with altitude under both a clear sky and overcast conditions (Korner, 2003). Many climate characteristics in alpine environments reflect regional rather than global patterns. For instance, in the Rockies and Selkirks there are generally cooler temperatures, more precipitation and more wind than at lower elevations. The Rockies and Selkirks represent a continental or inland climate which is marked by a large range in temperatures over the year. The Koeppen classification system used by climatologists rates this climate as Dfc: a cold, snowy forest climate with no distinct dry season and short, cool summers (Gadd, 1995). For example, Banff can see a spread of 370C between daily summer highs and winter lows. It can also have a moderate amount of annual precipitation of about 468 mm (Gadd, 1995). The Rockies are warmest in July, with a typical daily maximum of 200C to 250C in the valleys, and coldest in January, when the average overnight low ranges from -150C in the south to -300C in the north. Length of sunlight hours also contributes to daily temperatures. The Rockies and Selkirks are northerly mountain ranges and, as such, the length of the day changes a great deal through the seasons. At Lake Louise, hours of sunshine vary between eight in December and January, when the sun angle is lowest and provides the least warmth, to almost 16.6 hours in June and July, when the opposite is true (Gadd, 1995). Slope and aspect also play a role in temperature variation in alpine environments. South-facing slopes in the Rockies and Selkirks receive more heat than north-facing slopes because the sun lies at a fairly low angle throughout the year. The suns rays hit a north-facing slope obliquely even at noon in summer, when the sun is highest in the sky. The opposite is true for a south-facing slope, which will receive the suns rays at a nearly perpendicular angle under the same conditions. Therefore, southfacing slopes are significantly warmer and drier than north-facing ones (Gadd, 1995). This difference in aspect is an important factor in the ecology of northerly mountain ranges. Precipitation increases with higher elevation and lower temperature, except during inversions. The Rockies and Selkirks receive more moisture in winter than in
summer, while on the Montane valley floors it is the opposite (Gadd, 1995). The Selkirks, west of the Rockies, catch more of the Pacific moisture laden air as it flows easterly. Typical annual valley-floor precipitation in the Rockies is 400-700 mm, compared to 650-950 mm in the Selkirks (Gadd, 1995). Of course, significant variation exists within both mountain ranges. Predominant winds are from the southwest, perpendicular to the northwest-southeast alignment of ridges in the Rockies and Selkirks. This results in light winds which frequently shift in direction in most valleys, while winds are steadier and stronger in the few cross-cutting, southwest/northeast-aligned valleys. As well, these southwesterly winds blow snow off the south-facing, windward side of ridges which later accumulates on their northeast-facing leeward slopes (Gadd, 1995). A more localised type of wind is created by differential heating. These katabatic winds form in two ways. The first occurs in summer when large glaciers cool a layer of air over their surfaces. This denser air flows downhill, producing a breeze that is markedly cold. The second type of katabatic wind is felt more generally in the mountains in the evening, when cool air moves down the slopes and pools in glacial cirques and valley bottoms, forming small temperature inversions (Gadd, 1995). The unique climate of alpine environments presents a challenge for both flora and fauna. Fewer species of plants and animals can survive in the alpine than live at lower elevations. Vegetation in the alpine is characterised by plants with larger root systems than leaves and stems. Their branches and stems are flexible so as not to break in wind or snow. Many alpine plants hug the ground to avoid wind and form dense mats or cushions to trap heat and attract insects. These alpine meadows consist of a broad community of plants. Heaths (Ericaceae), such as pink mountain heather (Phyllodoce empetriformis) and kinnikinnick (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi), mountain marsh marigold (Caltha letosepala) from the buttercup family (Ranunculaceae), alpine grass of Parnassus (Parnassia kotzebuei) from the saxifrage family (Saxifragaceae), several different dryas species such as white mountain-avens (Dryas octopetala) in the rose family (Rosaceae), phlox (Polemoniaceae), and moss campion (Silene acaulis) from the pink family (Caryophyllaceae) to name only a few (Kershaw et al., 1998). These alpine wildflowers bloom in intense dark colours to contribute to heat absorption and attract pollinators. Much of the alpine vegetation is slow-growing and, therefore, very sensitive to damage from trampling and erosion. Moss campion for example is one of the faster growing species at ten years old before the first flowers appear. The cushion is only 20 cm across at 25 years. The fragile alpine vegetation can take hundreds of years to repair from damage caused by repetitive foot steps. Severe impacts can lead to a change in plant community and a loss of vegetative cover (Gadd, 1995; Kershaw et al, 1998; Fuller, 1989). Fauna who inhabit the alpine either seasonally or year-round must be equally hardy. The alpine environment is home to a wide variety of species adapted to the harsh climate or in some cases displaced from preferred habitat. Some species more commonly found in the alpine include pika (Ochotona princeps), marmot (Marmota caligata), snowshoe hare (Lepus americanus), white-tailed ptarmigan (Lagopus leucurus), mountain goat (Oreamnos americanus), mountain sheep (Ovis
canadensis), both black and grizzly bear (Ursus americanus and Ursus arctos), lynx (Felis lynx), wolverine (Gulo gulo), cougar (Felis concolor) and caribou (rangifer tarandus) to name a few (Gadd, 1995). All wildlife should be accorded due respect and given space and distance when encountered. Negative human-wildlife interactions can be minimised in this way. Displacement of wildlife can cause stress to the animals and result in an increased metabolic rate at times when sufficient food resources are critical. Human impacts in these fragile alpine environments can include erosion of shallow soils and trampling of sensitive vegetation, issues of human and solid waste disposal, water contamination, and increased human traffic that may impact wildlife behaviours. Permanent encampments also have an additional suite of impacts beyond those listed above. These may include the physical footprint of the structure and the aesthetics of the encampment. A permanent encampment may also facilitate increased use in the area and, therefore, concentrate the individual impacts of users.
Policy Framework
The team sought to understand the policies that frame current activities related to backcountry management by reviewing legislation, management plans and strategies, and operation directives from the agencies with authority in matters pertaining to land management where huts are located. Specific directions and relevant conditions stated in these documents contribute to understanding the legal and institutional context within which the hut system operates and may contribute to structuring potential design solutions. The Alpine Club of Canada, as stated in its Access and Environment Policy, seeks to encourage the practice of mountaineering activities while recognising the importance of preservation of the natural beauty of mountain environments. The ACCs policy promotes the protection and conservation of mountaineering environments, including national and provincial parks, management areas and related reserves for the purposes of access and environmental protection (ACC, 2000). The Club also supports the development and implementation of land use policies, laws and regulations for the purposes of legal accessibility to mountaineering environments which will: (a) insure access; (b) consider the interests of land owners to allow them to consent to access for the purposes of mountaineering activities; and (c) provide adequate protection for land owners (ACC, 2000). The ACC maintains huts in alpine environments to support the interests of their members and to provide access opportunities to mountain environments. The ACCs huts are located on lands managed by three different agencies. Sixteen huts are located within the four mountains parks of Parks Canada, five are within the jurisdiction of British Columbia Parks and two are within lands managed by the British Columbia Ministry of Forests. The majority of huts, including the seven identified as high alpine facilities, are located on lands managed by Parks Canada. This agency has a comprehensive framework of acts, regulations, management plans, and strategies which govern activities that take place on lands they administer. Collectively, these principles
address many factors related to the operation of the huts and inform the selection of potential alternative design solutions. The Canada National Parks Act is the overarching authority in matters pertaining to the dedication and management of all national parks in the country. This act grants authority to the charter for Parks Canada Agency and National Parks, which is stated as: on behalf of the people of Canada, we protect and present nationally significant examples of Canadas natural and cultural heritage, and foster public understanding, appreciation and enjoyment in ways that ensure the ecological and commemorative integrity of these places for present and future generations. Section 4.0 titled Public Understanding: Appreciation and Enjoyment of National Parks of the Parks Canada Guiding Principles and Operational Policies broadly describes the approach used in providing outdoor recreation opportunities within parks. Selected among activities deemed to promote appreciation for a parks purpose and objectives, each park may offer a range of opportunities that serve visitors of diverse interests, ages, physical capabilities and skills so that they can understand and experience the parks natural environment (Parks Canada, 1997). Following these general guiding principles, each park has a management plan that provides further details as to the intent and direction for human use. Appendix 4 presents specific Strategic Goals, Objectives and Key Actions that pertain to backcountry use for recreational purposes for the four mountain parks. In general, the approach to human use management seeks to integrate the maintenance of ecological integrity for park ecosystems with providing opportunities for high quality, appropriate wilderness experiences. A range of backcountry opportunities, including semi-primitive, primitive and wildland experiences are offered in National Parks. The facilities provided, the degree of management and the ease of access vary for each category of backcountry opportunity. The Human Use Management Strategy of Banff National Park defines semi-primitive areas as those which provide the greatest support for visitors. They have well maintained facilities and moderate levels of use (Parks Canada, 2002). Areas designated as primitive only have facilities required to maintain ecological integrity or visitor safety. At the other end of the spectrum are wildlands where few facilities exist and levels of use are low. This Backcountry Opportunity Spectrum (BOS) is based on the recognition that a combination of ecological, physical, sociological and administrative conditions gives value to an area and shapes a visitor's experience (Parks Canada, 2000). Generally, the principles for national park management are congruent with the interests of the ACC. A number of restrictions pertaining directly to alpine huts are stated in management plans for the four mountain parks. The plans express the need to maintain alpine huts to support mountaineering activities or as shelters in cases of emergency, but they also specifically: prohibit the construction of new alpine huts; prohibit the use of helicopters to transport visitors and their supplies to the huts; and allow helicopters and oversnow vehicles to service the huts.
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Similarly to National Parks, Provincial Parks are designated under the British Columbia Park Act. Each park has a comprehensive master plan which ensures the maintenance of the conservation, recreation and cultural heritage values within the new protected areas (BC Parks, 2004). Two parks are of particular interest in the operation of alpine huts. Presently, ACC huts are only found in Bugaboo and Kokanee Glacier Provincial Parks. Similarly to National Parks, the challenge for human use management in Provincial Parks is to conserve and protect important natural values, while maintaining high quality backcountry recreational experiences (BC Parks, 2004). In Wilderness Recreation Zones, primitive facilities and sites are preferred and nonmechanized forms of transportation are favoured. There is an important exception to note for areas of high avalanche risk. In response to the high avalanche risk in some areas, which poses a important concern for human safety, permits can be issued to transport hut users by helicopter. Because of hazardous avalanche terrain in all access corridors leading to the core area, a helicopter taxi service is an integral component of the backcountry skiing accommodation services (BC Parks, 2004). This is a marked contradiction to National Park policies which prohibit the use of helicopters to transport hut patrons and makes no exception for avalanche zones. No particular policies for BC Forests were found in research for this project and their policies are assumed to follow those set forth by BC Parks.
Summary of Key Issues

Discussions with the client revealed that infrastructure development, maintenance, and servicing present areas of growing concern. Our challenge was to review existing practices and develop appropriate solutions to address infrastructure needs, particularly in the essential services of lighting, heating, solid and human waste management, and water treatment. The use of helicopters was perceived by the team as a key problem overarching the operation and maintenance of these essential services provided by alpine huts. A number of issues related to the use of helicopters were identified. These helped to focus decisions and evaluate alternative design concepts suitable for use in retrofitting existing huts or in future new facilities. Issues were grouped within five broad categories: Public perception; Policy restrictions; Environmental costs; Risk Management; and Financial costs. Public perception: Other users may view the practice of using helicopters in protected areas in a negative light Increased use of helicopters may negatively impact a users experience Policy restrictions Increasing restrictions on timing and flight corridors for delivery of fuel and removal of waste barrels Future increases in hut use may require more flights than would be permitted by agencies
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Environmental costs Contributes to pollution (air, water, soil, sound) Disturbance to wildlife (causing them to run or stop their normal activities which reduces their fitness)
Risk management Dangers associated with slinging heavy barrels under helicopters in mountainous regions Financial costs Associated with maintenance or operation of a system particularly the number of trips in or out to ensure proper maintenance of heavily used huts
Other important issues Trends demonstrate increasing use of huts which puts pressure on existing infrastructure systems Current hut infrastructure systems may not be as efficient in dealing with the numbers of users as they could be The impact from each user and the overall impacts from the huts must be reduced to fulfill the need for increased user access promoted by ACC and to maintain ecological integrity demanded by agencies responsible for management of the protected areas. Providing positive and rewarding experiences for users entails tailoring technological improvements to their specific needs and expectations which can be accomplished through the judicious use of systems Values inherent to this project include providing authentic backcountry experiences including the sense of isolation and adventure sought by users in a way that is respectful of the wilderness setting, other users of the protected areas and the wildlife that make their homes in the mountain environment. Protection of the fragile environment is the ultimate goal maintaining ecological integrity of the protected areas
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Objectives of the Project

Purpose
To provide solutions to identified infrastructure problems in high alpine huts that will help the Alpine Club of Canada minimise environmental impacts of their facilities while meeting the needs of the mountaineering community.
Objectives Compile infrastructure guidelines for high alpine huts concerning lighting,
heating, waste management, and water treatment which aim to minimise environmental impacts. Develop design concepts that exemplify the identified infrastructure guidelines for high alpine huts and that will be suitable for both new and existing huts.
Relevant Questions What are the expectations and needs of current users? What are the infrastructure features desired by alpine hut patrons? What are the ecological conditions that will limit hut operations? What are the current and potential levels of use in these high alpine areas? What are existing technologies that could be adapted for use in high alpine
environments? What existing policies will constrain design alternatives?
Approach
For the purpose of this project, the team has adopted the views expressed in the ACCs Access and Environment Policy (2000) related to access and the enjoyment of mountain environments. Particularly, the team feels that providing responsible access to wilderness experiences can be a powerful tool to encourage and promote conservation. It facilitates the establishment of emotional affinity to these special places and creates knowledgeable advocates for their conservation. While it is important that the establishment and operation of alpine huts occur with minimal impact to the fragile alpine environment, the team feels that the opportunity to access and enjoy the backcountry is essential to the mountaineering community and the environmental conservation movement in general. This project began by considering the individual who engages in mountaineering activities. First, we sought to understand which services and features provided by a hut are considered most essential by the mountaineers to provide a level of comfort that meets their needs and expectations while delivering a memorable experience. Once we understood the infrastructure needs of the mountaineering community we were able to examine these systems in terms of their environmental impact. Data compiled was used to establish infrastructure guidelines for alpine huts which we applied in design concepts that demonstrate appropriate solutions to identified issues. The team defined guidelines as principles by which to determine a course of action. The team chose to narrow the scope of the project to provide guidelines for the implementation of infrastructure systems in alpine huts.
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Methods Research tourism documents related to adventure tourism as well as research

findings from the ACC and other alpine clubs. Review existing structures and systems operating in high alpine areas Literature and internet searches (including park management plans and policies, and Alpine Club of Canada documents) Obtain ethics approval for interviews Conduct key informant interviews Conduct site visit(s) to ACC hut(s) Review selected national and international precedents and case studies related to high alpine huts Based on our findings, identify good practices relating to the infrastructure of high alpine huts, to inform the development of guidelines Highlight those practices that the team feels are most progressive, successful and feasible for our study area Compile and compose guidelines with regards to identified infrastructure systems for high alpine huts Selection of guidelines will be based on the literature review, identified good practices and the intent to minimise ecological impacts Demonstrate the application of the guidelines through design concepts Identify conditions representative of existing alpine hut locations Create a hypothetical hut scenario that presents characteristic environmental constraints in which to house infrastructure systems Create 2-D and/or 3-D representations of potential design concepts Involve the client in the design process by obtaining regular feedback in order to ensure the appropriateness of the design solutions
Project Management
Officers Project Manager Client Contact Agency Contact Treasurer Secretary Office Administrator Digital Media Co-ordinator Scott Truswell Jennifer Dubois Julie Lefebvre Quentin Mattie Kanaka Sabapathy Hilary Janes Rowe Anne Marchand
Strategy The team consists of seven individuals with disciplinary focus on environmental science, industrial design and environmental design. Each team member brings an extensive breadth of experience, both academic and professional, to the project. Due to the nature of the project we have devised sub-groups to focus individual team members strengths and interests where best suited. Despite this division of labour, there will be considerable overlap between the sub-groups and all team members will be expected to contribute to the work of each sub-group. The sub-groups and individual responsibilities are as follows:
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Review and Discussion of Infrastructure Alternatives

In this section, we discuss the systems currently used in ACC huts. In addition, we explore systems alternatives that might be of value and could be considered applicable within our study area. We also provide an analysis of these systems. Technological advances that are not in use but show promise are also explored as potential alternatives.
Lighting
Current practices White gas/propane lanterns Personal lighting (headlamps, flashlights) Candles Day lighting (windows) Analysis of options White gas/propane lanterns Currently in use in many huts, these familiar lanterns provide adequate light, although not without problems. White gas lanterns are tricky to fill, light, and keep running. Mantles are very fragile and prone to damage, and the fuel is very volatile. Propane lanterns are easier to use, as individual lanterns do not need to be filled and pumped, but there have been incidents where propane lanterns have been left on and completely drained 500 lb. propane tanks. Fuel must be carried or flown up to the huts in order to power these lanterns, and both types of lantern represent a fire hazard. Personal lighting The use of personal lighting systems, such as headlamps and flashlights, are efficient because they illuminate only areas that are in use and people tend to turn off the lights when they are not absolutely needed in order to conserve batteries. The use of batteries in personal lighting devices is an issue because they contain toxic elements, including mercury, cadmium, cadmium salts, potassium hydroxide, lead, silver oxide, mercuric oxide, sodium hydroxide, cobalt, and lithium (Archer, 2002). Unfortunately, the majority of batteries used for lighting inevitably end up in the landfill where they have the potential to pollute soil and groundwater. Candles Candles are often used by hut visitors as a way to provide light but are not generally the primary light source. They provide a warm glow and certainly add to the ambiance of the huts and to the rustic experience that many hut users hope to find in the high alpine. However, the light that candles provide is generally not strong enough to allow hut users to safely perform some essential functions, such as cooking or equipment repair. Candles can pose a serious fire hazard when unattended and can also damage surfaces from wax drippings. Inevitably, the ACC is required to remove the waste candle stubs, which adds to the overall solid waste generated at a hut.
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Day lighting Natural light is not only free, but the most pleasant light available. Currently, windows are the only method used in ACC huts to provide day lighting. Standard and tubular skylights are currently not in use and will be discussed in the Alternative Technologies for lighting section. Windows Besides providing hut users with fantastic views of the alpine environment, windows allow natural light to flow into the huts during the day. The only drawback to installing windows in the huts is that they may provide an access route for cold air to enter, thereby increasing the need to provide heating. Well insulated, high quality windows are a good way to provide day lighting while minimising heat loss. Windows should be placed on south-facing walls where maximum sunlight will be available. Alternative technologies Electric lights Phosphorescence Day lighting (skylights) Electric lights Electric lights obviously require a supply of electricity which may be generated onsite using renewable energy sources, decreasing the need to bring fuel to the huts. Incandescent Standard incandescent lights have changed little since Edison invented them. They are more efficient at producing heat than light, with smaller bulbs being even more inefficient than larger ones. Although quite inexpensive to purchase, bulbs typically last 1,000 hours at best. Small 12-volt versions are available, but are just as inefficient as household bulbs. Unless there is power to waste, these lights are not recommended. Quartz-halogen About 15% more efficient than standard incandescent, these bulbs are available in 12-volt versions from 10 to 75 Watts. They produce an abundance of light even in cold situations and typically last for 2,000 hours. They could be a good option in the alpine if there is enough power to supply them. Fluorescent and compact-fluorescent These are a very good, energy efficient method of lighting. Standard AC fluorescent lights are the most efficient room lights currently available, and compact fluorescents are the next most efficient. Unfortunately, fluorescent tubes require 120 Volt AC power to operate. Compact-fluorescents are also available in 12 volt DC versions. The greatest drawback to their use in the high alpine is that they perform very poorly in the cold. For this reason they are not recommended for the high alpine environment. LED lighting Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) are very useful as replacements for inefficient small incandescent bulbs. They are useful where small areas of intense light are required, such as for task lighting. In addition, they require only 4-6 volts DC to operate,
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making them an ideal choice to use with batteries. LEDs have a very low current draw as well, with most super-bright white LEDs requiring only 0.1 Watts. Luxeon makes a 1-watt LED that is more than bright enough to provide light by which to read. LEDs are unaffected by cold or heat and last for upwards of 100,000 hours. One drawback of LEDs is the quality of the light, which tends to be rather harsh and bluish in colour. As a result, hut users may feel that LEDs detract from the romantic backcountry atmosphere that they expect from an alpine hut. Efficiency ratings A typical way of rating lighting efficiency is in lumens per watt. While this number accounts for all of the light produced by a bulb, it does not necessarily show how much light will be thrown on your work area, since most bulbs put off light in many directions. The type of reflectors and fixtures used can play a major role in this, but some lights, like LEDs, are very directional on their own. So, depending on the application, lights that have a lower efficiency in lumens/watt may still save energy depending on the application. Table 1 provides a summary of efficiency rating for various bulbs for comparison. Table 1 Summary of efficiency rating for various bulbs Bulb Type Lumens/Watt 32 Watt T8 Fluorescent 85 - 95 Standard F40T12 Cool white fluorescent 60 - 65 Compact fluorescent 30 60 T3 Tubular halogen 20 Super bright White LED 15 - 19 Luxeon 1-Watt 40 100 Watt incandescent 17 Incandescent night light bulb (7 Watt) 6 Incandescent flashlight bulbs <6
(otherpower.com, 2004a)
Phosphorescence Phosphorescence is the production of light by certain products that have absorbed energy. It is a possible option for low-level safety lighting that requires no energy source. Glow-in-the-dark products, such as paints and sticks, have been on the market for a number of years. New crystals of phosphorescent pigments, made from strontium aluminate, produce a brighter glow that lasts longer than previous products, some as long as 12 hours. Only a few minutes of daylight are required to charge the phosphorescent action of the paint. Areas such as staircases, exits and walls of latrines could be painted with phosphorescent products to reduce the need for other lighting systems, while ensuring the safety of hut occupants. It might also create an enjoyable mood that adds to the romantic backcountry atmosphere. Day lighting (skylights) Standard skylights Skylights are essentially windows on the roof. They allow for light at higher sun angles to penetrate the building and, therefore, increase the capture of available daylight. Skylights are a good way to light hallways, stairwells and lofts and they add to the aesthetics of a room by adding light and sky views. Though many models of skylight exist, including those that claim weather tightness and energy efficiency, their use in high alpine huts may pose some challenges. Heavy snow loads,
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condensation and the risk of failure or poor installation make this option a less attractive one for providing day lighting. Tubular skylights Tubular skylights, or sun tunnels, provide natural light where conventional skylights cannot or should not be installed. They are an efficient way to provide natural lighting and they reduce the need for electric lighting. Generally, tubular skylights have a roof-mounted light collector and a reflective sun scoop in the rooftop assembly that directs sunlight into a highly reflective metal or plastic tube. Sunlight is then guided through the tube to a diffuser lens mounted on the interior ceiling surface. This light diffusion sets tubular skylights apart from standard skylights because it allows the light to be distributed more evenly throughout the room and reduces potential UV ray damage to carpets and furniture. Tubular skylights also minimize heat loss in the winter and heat gain in summer since the system is well sealed and the rooftop solar collector has a small surface area (ToolBase Services, 2004). The performance of tubular skylights varies among brands but tests have shown that one 13-inch skylight has the light output equivalent of one 700 watt incandescent bulb in December and one 1200 watt bulb in June. While tubular skylights are easier than standard skylights to install, one disadvantage of using them is that they fail to offer the view that hut users would receive from standard skylights.
Heating
Current practices Wood stove Coal burning stove Electric heater Oil heater No heat provided Analysis of options Wood stove Wood stoves provide a certain ambience and atmosphere that is highly valued by hut users. The ambient heat from a wood stove is generally more than sufficient for heating the huts, including the larger ones. Air-tight wood stoves are provided in the common area and/or in the cabin where people sleep if this is a separate building. Wood stoves also can pose a safety issue if not maintained properly. Burning wood will produce creosote, therefore, chimney fires can be a concern. They are also expensive to operate. Wood is supplied to the huts and delivered by helicopter, greatly increasing the financial cost of heating the huts. Burning wood also contributes to air pollution from noxious gases including carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen, and a range of organic compounds, some of which are toxic or carcinogenic (EPA, 2004). Coal burning stove Some of the ACCs alpine huts are equipped with a coal-burning stove for heat. As is the case with wood stoves, coal is provided to the huts and is delivered by helicopter, at a significant financial cost. Coal burning stoves are not as easy to start as wood stoves and some users find them cumbersome. There are also some basic maintenance issues with coal burning stoves. An accumulation of ashes can impede
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the flow of combustion air into the fire, and excess ash in the pan can cause the fire to extinguish. Though chimney fires are not a concern with coal burning stoves, fly ash can clog elbows or heat exchangers. As sulphur residue can build up from a coal burning stove, the stovepipe and chimney systems tend to deteriorate much faster than when burning wood (HearthNet, 2004). Coal has a high carbon content and, therefore, contributes to air pollution through the release of carbon dioxide (Jones, 1991). Electric heater Electric heat is used at only one of ACCs huts. The Kokanee Cabin runs a microhydro station which generates enough energy to power electric base-board heaters throughout the cabin. Electric heat generated in this manner is cheap, clean and abundant. The micro-hydro station, however, requires a full-time custodian stationed at the cabin to ensure that all systems are maintained and running properly. Small, high efficiency, low-wattage electric heaters may be considered in huts where some electric energy can be generated. Oil heater Though not in widespread use, an oil heater is used at one of the ACC huts. Fuel is supplied by the users and must be flown in with the party. The oil heater uses home heating fuel or standard diesel fuel and consumes about four litres a day in the winter and 1.5 litres a day in the summer. If such a system of heat generation were to be used throughout the ACC hut system, oil would need to be flown in to the huts at a significant financial cost to the Club. The oil heater requires some competence in lighting and instructions need to be followed closely for proper shut-off. In addition, home heating fuel and diesel fuel are not particularly clean energy sources and will contribute to air pollution through the release of combustibles and particulates. No heat provided Some of the ACCs huts do not provide heat. These are generally smaller huts where body heat, lanterns, some cooking activity, and good insulation are sufficient to maintain an acceptable indoor temperature. This is a convenient and no-cost solution, however, is not appropriate for larger huts or huts with low visitation where, even when the hut is at capacity, there is not enough heat generated by users to keep the hut a comfortable temperature. Alternative technologies Double wall insulation Passive solar Propane heater Heat exchanger Double wall insulation The quality of thermal insulation affects the performance of the building in terms of energy conservation, heating systems and occupant comfort level. In order to prevent infiltration, exfiltration and convection, the continuity and integrity of the insulation materials is very important. Thermal bridges, or areas of high heat conductivity, are often found at lintels, jambs, sills and junctions between walls and roof or floor. For instance, a thermal bridge is created when heat from inside the building flows through a stud which has a lower R value than insulation. This can be
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addressed in two ways. First, a thermal bridge is prevented by using external insulation which stops heat conduction through wall materials. This is an ideal retrofit to existing buildings because the interior requires no renovations and loses no square footage and the function of the building is uninterrupted during insulation installation (Cofaigh et al., 1999). Another method uses double wall construction which eliminates any contiguous materials having a low R value, bridging the interior and exterior surfaces of the wall (Schwolsky and Williams, 1982). Passive solar Passive solar heating incorporates the collection, distribution and storage of energy into the design of a building. Passive solar offers a number of advantages in that the components often serve a dual purpose, such as windows or metal cladding (solar collectors and part of building enclosure), and the costs associated with design and implementation are minimal (Lee, 1991). In addition, passive solar requires no maintenance above what would already be required for the building itself and no additional costs once the components are incorporated. Passive solar is also a clean energy source for heating, with zero environmental foot-print. Propane heater Propane heaters, though not currently used in any of ACCs huts, are easy to operate and produce and maintain sufficient heat for the needs of hut users. Propane heaters are quiet and clean burning, and many models exist to work with various sizes of tanks. Their main draw-back is the high consumption of fuel, which must be delivered to the huts via helicopter at a significant financial cost to the ACC. Heat exchangers Heat exchangers could be utilized to remove the heat from waste gases before they are expelled from the building. These could be incorporated with the exhaust pipes for wood stove, capturing wasted heat and utilizing it either in other parts of the huts or converting it to electricity.
Waste Management Human Waste

Current practices Composting Dehydration Blue bag (user carry-out) Vault toilet with fly-out Pit toilet Analysis of options Composting Waste is composted with a process very similar to that of a household food waste composting system. The primary goals of composting are pathogen reduction or elimination and a reduction in the mass of the waste. The output of the composting process should be a biologically safe, pathogen free humus, usable as fertilizer for gardens. Waste can be composted in two ways:
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Thermophilic composting This is high temperature composting, where the pile temperature will be 500 C 750 C. The activity of micro organisms acting on the waste is responsible for the temperature increase and consequential pathogen destruction. Exposure to these temperatures for several hours (less than one day) may totally eliminate dangerous pathogens (Ketcham, 2002). The minimum ambient temperature surrounding the pile for this method of composting is 130 C. Mesophilic composting This is low temperature composting which relies on microorganism breakdown over time, rather than temperature, to destroy pathogens (Ketcham, 2002). This form of composting is slower, but more appropriate in settings with lower ambient air temperatures (Phoenix web, 2004). The minimum ambient temperature surrounding the pile is 40 C (Ketcham, 2002). Best practices for human waste management in the backcountry strongly favour composting as a preferred option (Ketcham, 2002). There are some potential drawbacks to composting in high alpine environments that should be noted. For instance, the air temperature surrounding the pile is critical to the success of the composting process and, as a result, may be a limiting factor to its use in cold environments. It is important to note that technologies such as insulation and supplemental heating (solar, electric, propane, etc) can be used to boost the air temperature. Also, if not managed properly, composting toilets may pose a health risk to humans. Incomplete composting may result in portions of the waste containing dangerous pathogens and, while the waste mass may be safe to handle, it is important to remember that the potential for infection still exists. Some jurisdictions have requirements that dictate the removal of waste from the area even after being composted. This may still require removal by helicopter; however, the mass to be removed should be greatly reduced. Dehydration Waste is dehydrated, greatly reducing its mass and volume, as well as starving pathogens of moisture. Pathogen elimination cannot be totally achieved in a reasonable amount of time with this method, as giardia can survive in very dry conditions (Redlinger et al., 2002). However, some reduction of pathogens is still very useful to the practice of waste management. Dehydration, as a waste management method in the high alpine, may not be ideal since very low temperatures resulting in waste pile freezing will essentially stop the dehydration process. Fortunately, however, dehydration will resume once the pile thaws. When dehydration does not occur as expected, large heavy masses of human waste must be transported to an appropriate waste treatment facility. To facilitate transportation in the event of this situation, the dehydration unit should have a removable tank. The tank should allow for simple and safe removal of the human waste from the site (e.g. via helicopter). Without such a tank, maintenance staff will have the unpleasant and dangerous task of shovelling human waste between holding tanks. Another issue associated with dehydration is that systems that do not manage air flow properly (i.e. directed away from the user) will experience odour problems.
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Blue bag user carry-out This system has the user carry out his or her own waste in puncture proof, sealable, double bags (Brief Relief Field Lavatories, 2004). Commercial products for this purpose may contain biologically active substances to break down the waste in the bag and render it eligible for landfill disposal. Urine containers house a substance to gel the liquid, preventing any leakage. This method solves the most expensive and complicated part of the waste disposal problem. Users move their own waste to an area where ground transportation can be economically used to move waste to a landfill or appropriate sanitation facility. User compliance is the key consideration for the success of this practice and noncompliance may result in randomly placed waste. This could pose health risks, as well as detract from the beauty of the alpine setting. As with any other user compliance issue, it will take time and proper planning to encourage users to change old habits and begin to use this system. If users do not comply, human waste may be deposited across the landscape, possibly polluting surface water. A voluntary system of carry-out with an alternative consisting of fly-out vault toilets may work best in the beginning. Vault toilet with fly-out This system consists of a vault or holding tank to collect waste. The tank is removable and is easily moved (usually rollers) to an area which can be accessed by helicopter long-line. When several tanks are full, a helicopter is used to fly the waste to a lower altitude area where it can be transported via truck to a proper waste disposal facility. The strength of this solution is that it totally removes waste from sensitive alpine ecosystems using a straightforward method. While flying waste out of alpine areas has some benefits, there are a number of issues surrounding the use of helicopters in the backcountry. For instance, helicopter time is costly at approximately $1200/hr (Hannigan, 2003) and the organisation may not be able to bear future increased cost. There is an additional fee to have the waste trucked and treated at an appropriate facility. Also, as discussed in key issues, the noise created by helicopters may disturb backcountry users seeking solitude and may negatively affect wildlife. Agency policies also dictate that flights must be planned to avoid sensitive areas, times of critical wildlife activity and peak times for human use. Other risks associated with flying waste out include the potential for spills of human waste during transport which could result in the pollution of surface water (Donelon, 2004). Dangerous static discharge and other risks involved with operating a helicopter in the mountains must also be considered. Pit toilets A pit toilet consists of a hole in the ground that is deep enough to hold a significant amount of waste, but not deep enough to penetrate the water table. The pit has some type of outhouse structure on top containing the toilet device. When the pit is full, it is covered and the outhouse is moved over a new pit. In areas with a high water table (where the hole cannot be deep enough to hold a reasonable amount of waste without penetrating the water table) pit toilets are inappropriate. Pit toilets should also not be used in areas without a significant layer of biologically active soil, as it is the micro organisms in the soil that eventually break
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down the waste. Alpine areas generally have little top soil and shallow rock layers making the digging of pits prohibitive, if not impossible. Additionally, active pathogens have been detected in cat holes (essentially shallow pit toilets) years after deposition (Temple et al., 1982). During times of flooding, these contaminated areas may pollute surface water. Alternative technologies Incinerating toilets Incinerating toilets Incineration methods have two clear advantages when compared with other methods. First, there is no waste to remove when the process is complete, except a few cups of ash. Second, pathogen destruction is almost certain with a complete incineration cycle. Incineration uses a substantial amount of energy, however, modern commercial incinerators are reasonably efficient and low maintenance. This method of human waste management may significantly reduce the number of helicopter flights related to waste treatment, when compared to the current fly-out method. The reduction makes this alternative financially and environmentally attractive. One important disadvantage is the creation of air pollutants created by incineration which could negatively impact users and the surrounding landscape. Appendix 5 presents a summary inventory table of human waste technological options for easy reference and a comparison of each systems features.
Waste Management Solid Waste (garbage)

Current practices Pack-in, pack-out Incineration Analysis of options Pack-in, pack-out ACC hut system rules state that hut users must be responsible for their garbage, including food waste, fuel containers and paper garbage (Haberl, 1995). In some cases, paper waste and food scraps may be burned in a wood stove while all other garbage must be carried out with the hut user; in other words, whatever the user packs-in, they must also pack-out. Food waste can be a substantial problem if left in or around the huts because it attracts rodents and can lead to increased instances of interaction between humans and wildlife. For example, bears may be drawn to huts by leftover food waste which may result in the bear becoming food conditioned and exhibiting problem bear behaviour by returning to the site (Ciarniello et al., 1997). Unfortunately, this sometimes results in the bear being destroyed or relocated. The ACC encourages hut users to keep the pack-in, pack-out policy in mind when they are planning meals at the hut so that they bring only what is necessary. Visitors are also encouraged to carry out any garbage that has been left behind by previous hut users.
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Incineration The ACC does allow the burning of paper waste and food scraps at some of its huts, provided they contain a wood burning stove (Haberl, 1995). This reduces the amount of waste by removing combustibles. Energy can then be recycled in the form of heat. At the Elizabeth Parker hut, paper and food waste may be incinerated but all other garbage and unused food must be packed-out. Garbage can be deposited in Parks Canada containers at the campground and recycling is done by the Lake OHara Lodge. In some cases, visitors are asked to remove ashes from the woodstove and take them out of the hut with them when they leave. While incineration does reduce the amount of waste to be carried out, it can pose some problems. Paper and food waste may contain chemicals that will react if burned together. As a result, certain pollutants may be released into the atmosphere, affecting humans and wildlife in the area. Dioxin is a highly toxic chemical that may be formed by burning garbage in a wood stove. Airborne dioxin does not decompose and may settle in soils and on vegetation and can build up in the bones of humans and animals (The Wood Heat Organization, 2004). Dioxin can also concentrate in the residual ashes and become a problem when they are later disposed in a landfill. Additionally, wood stoves are generally designed to burn wood only and using a wood stove to incinerate large amounts of food and paper waste can damage the stove and prevent it from functioning properly.
Water - Water Provision

Current practices No water provision Water collected from flowing streams, glacier run-off Snow collected and melted Personal filters, iodine tablets Analysis of options No water provision Providing water to hut users will likely encourage increased water usage and, hence, increased load on the grey water system. It is generally accepted as part of the hut experience to collect water from nearby water sources for personal use. This is a low-energy, low-impact and no-maintenance option. If users have not packed-in a personal filtration device, then water is often boiled on the stove in order to destroy any existing pathogens. In the winter, snow is collected and melted over the stove. Water purification through sustained boiling and snow melting both require significant fuel which increases the rate at which fuel consumption occurs at the hut. Personal filters/iodine tablets Many outdoor recreationists rely upon personal water filtration devices to ensure a safe drink of water along the trail and at their final destination. There are a number of commercial microfilters available at a range of prices. Exstream Purifiers manufactures a flask style personal water purifier, claimed to be effective against protozoa, bacteria and viruses. Katadyn Endurance Series Microfilters also offer a complete line of filters, as does Mountain Safety Research (MSR).
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Iodine tablets are another method of purifying drinking water. Iodine is somewhat effective in protecting against exposure to Giardia, but may not be effective in controlling Cryptosporidium. A tincture of iodine is formulated by adding five drops of two percent tincture iodine to each quart of clear water. For cloudy water ten drops are added. The solution should be let to stand for at least 30 minutes before consumption. Commercially prepared iodine tablets containing the appropriate dosage of iodine for preparation of drinking water disinfection can be obtained at drug and sporting goods stores. Alternative technologies Sand filter Sand filter A sand filtration system can be used to filter out existing pathogens and provide safe, clean and clear drinking water for hut users. This will eliminate the need to boil water and therefore reduce the fuel consumption at the hut. Existing commercial sand filtration systems may be suitable for use in the ACCs system of high alpine huts. A Calgary-based company, Davnor has a model in use at the Elk Lakes Cabin. The MS60-DEC has a 60 litre per hour capacity and operates entirely manually with minimal maintenance. As the sand filter requires no energy to operate, cold temperatures would require the filter to be either de-commissioned for the winter season or left as a frozen mass until the following spring went it could thaw and continue water filtration. A period of freeze-thaw would not be detrimental to the sand filtration system.
Water Grey Water Management

Current practices Grey water pit/sump Grey water disposal field Porous rock field Grey water is wastewater that comes from a washing machine, dishwasher, sink, or shower. While grey water does not include urine or fecal matter, it may contain large amounts of organic material such as food particles, grease, suspended solids, phosphorus compounds and residues. The amount of oxygen required by bacteria to oxidize the waste materials in a given volume of wastewater is a measure of the pollution potential of water. In fact, the Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) of household grey water can reach levels as high as that of mixed sewage. Although grey water may contain pathogenic organisms, it has a much lower probability of doing so than sewage. As such, grey water should always be properly disposed of to prevent health hazards (Van der Ryn and Wendell, 1999). Analysis of options Grey water pit/sump A grey water pit is a relatively deep disposal trench or bed, or a cylindrical excavation, usually backfilled with aggregate, or sometimes provided with specially fabricated liners. If the grey water produced by the hut users is first filtered to remove food solids the sump can be an acceptable means of disposing of grey water. One problem can arise with grease which runs through the filter and later
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solidifies into impervious mats, floating at the surface of the grey water and later sinking to the bottom as the grey water is displaced through the rocks. These mats can resist breakdown by the normal micro-organisms in the environment and can clog the grey water sump. A grease trap is one possible solution by slowing down the flow of warm/hot greasy water and allowing it to cool. As the water cools, the grease and oil separate and float to the top of the grease trap. The cooler water containing less grease continues to flow down the pipe to the sump. The grease is trapped by baffles, which cover the inlet and outlet of the tank, containing grease within the trap (1999; Plumbing Supply.com, 2004). Periodically cleaning out the grease trap will keep it functioning properly. Grey water disposal field A grey water disposal field is a system of disposal trenches, beds, or pits, or a combination designed for the subsurface disposal of grey water into soils. The challenge with a grey water disposal field in the high alpine is the limited and shallow soil mantle. The Bow Hut, located in the Wapta Icefields at 2,350m elevation, uses a graded gravel field with 15 input pipes for disposal of grey water. As with the grey water sump, grease can also be an issue with a disposal field. Again, the use of a grease trap to contain the grease before releasing the effluent to the disposal field can help mitigate this problem. Porous rock field Where no grey water disposal system is in place, strained water is dumped into a surrounding porous rock field and any food residue packed out or burned. At sites with low visitation, poor to no soil and extensive rock fields, this can be an acceptable manner to dispose of grey water. Of course this is also dependant on users complying with the practice of straining their grey water in order to capture any solids and in turn, packing out the solid material with the rest of their garbage. Alternative technologies Grey water treatment tank Aeration system Willow bank Grey water treatment tank A grey water treatment tank conditions grey water so that it may be more readily infiltrated into the subsurface soil. It does so by removing solids, biologically treating the solids and storing the sludge and scum produced with grey water. As grey water enters the treatment tank suspended solids in the liquid sink to the bottom or rise to the surface and only the clarified effluent is discharged. The remaining solids and liquids in the tank are subjected to anaerobic decomposition by bacterial and natural processes. The end product of sludge and scum remains in the tank and will need to be cleaned periodically (Winneberger, 1974). A grey water treatment tank is used in combination with a disposal sump or field. Aeration system Aeration systems use aerobic bacteria to purify grey water. The process in an aeration system is generally similar to a grey water treatment tank in its initial stages. Solids first settle out of the grey water in the first chamber. The effluent is then forced into a second chamber through a pipe equipped with a filter or baffle by
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incoming grey water. Next, the effluent in aerated with fine bubbles of air, facilitating the growth of aerobic bacteria which feed on the organic nutrients and decompose them. Afterwards, the partially treated effluent flows into a settling chamber. Bacteria settle to the bottom of the chamber, where a sloping floor returns them to the first chamber to continue biodegradation (America Ground Water Trust, 2004). An aeration system will require electricity to diffuse the air bubbles into the tank. As well, aeration systems will require more maintenance than a simple grey water treatment tank. Therefore, this option should only be considered where appropriate power can be generated and a custodian is on-site. Willow bank The willow bank consists of a pile of bark peelings or wood shavings 5-10 square metres in area and at least 1.5 metres deep, retained by a frame, usually a living structure woven out of willows. Grey water is piped into the middle of the pile and solid matter is filtered out, while the liquid passes down through the pile. The infiltration of the liquid promotes breakdown of the wood shavings into compost which acts as an effective water-cleaning agent. The roots of the willows and surrounding trees seek out the water and leached nutrients emerging from the bottom under the heap. This is a low maintenance option as the wood shavings need topping up or renewing every few years, and the willows or shrubs should be cut back yearly. A simple and effective method, the willow bank could be adapted for use in the high alpine. The main issues would be around the living frame that retains the bark peelings or wood shavings. Finding a suitable surface with some soils in order to plant appropriate vegetation may be difficult. Vegetation used must be native and occur naturally in the area.
Energy Sources
Current practices White gas (Naptha) Propane Electricity Electricity is supplied to only two ACC huts: Kokanee Glacier and Cain, both from micro-hydro systems. Micro-hydro is clean and efficient, but is unfortunately not feasible in the high alpine do to insufficient year-round water supply Analysis of options White gas (Naptha) White gas is used as an energy source in order to provide for cooking and lighting in many of ACCs alpine huts. It has a number of advantages in that it is well known, versatile, with a wide range of appliances that can run off it, and it is generally a reliable energy source. White gas also has some drawbacks. It can be dirty to use, and there are significant safety issues associated with its extreme flammability. In addition, white gas can soot up and contribute to poor indoor air quality (Jones, 1991). Propane Propane is environmentally superior to white gas as an energy source and does not have the same associations with poor air quality. It is also easy to light and easy to
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maintain. There are a number of drawbacks however. Propane appliances need to run off the large propane cylinders which require some mechanical competence to hook up and change. In order to prevent leaks and subsequent collection of free propane in depressions, care must be exercised. Finally, the weight of propane tanks, which need to be flown both in and out of the ACCs huts, adds considerable cost to the ACCs operation. Alternative technologies Non-Electric Passive Solar Electric Photovoltaics (Solar) Wind Static electricity Peltier thermo-generators Any electrical generation systems utilized in the alpine should provide clean energy: that is, they should utilize on-site energy sources and be nonpolluting. This automatically excludes the use of internal combustion and thermo-electric generators. Power storage Non-Electric Passive solar Passive solar utilizes the suns energy without converting it to electricity. It may used for heating the interior of the building and could be used in combination with a thermal mass in order to store the heat and later release it when it is most needed. Passive solar is also used for lighting, providing day lighting through the strategic placement of windows or skylights. Electric Photovoltaic (PV) PV technology directly converts solar radiation into electricity. PV systems are very reliable, due to the fact that they have no moving parts. They are clean, simple, and quiet, requiring minimal maintenance. Costs have dropped dramatically, with 32 Watt panels costing around $350, and 64 Watt panels costing around $550 (Energy Alternatives, 2004). PV is a natural choice for fans used to operate passive solar systems, as they only need to run when the sun is shining. Of course, charging controls and batteries would be required if the system is to be used for lighting, as it wouldnt make sense to only provide lights while the sun is shining. This, of course, increases the cost and complexity of a system. Wind Most high alpine areas are quite windy, providing a ready source of energy. There are problems with harvesting it, however. Most wind turbines are quite noisy, and this, along with the visual impact, could interfere with visitors enjoyment of the alpine setting. There are also concerns amongst some conservationists that wind turbines are hazardous to birds, particularly birds of prey. Wind turbines are also mechanical devices with several moving parts, making them vulnerable to breakdown and requiring regular maintenance. Nevertheless, windmill technology is now quite
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advanced and reliable, with 400-Watt wind generators available for $650 US. Like solar power, wind power is variable, and thus a battery system would be required. Static Electricity The only information that could be found on harvesting this source of energy is as yet unconfirmed. An article in The Technical Journal detailed how to build an effective battery charger from scrounged parts for only a few dollars. The charger has no moving parts, has no generator, and works day or night (Mitch, 1999). A length of insulated wire acts as a capacitor to collect static energy, which is used to charge a battery. The article claims that a car battery can be fully charged in 2-3 days with 200 feet of wire, faster with a longer piece of wire. While the amount of electricity collected is modest, with a good storage system and careful use it could be used for lighting and communications in a hut. Peltier thermo-generator Small amounts of power can be generated through the utilization of thermo-electric technology, which converts heat energy into electricity. This technology has been utilized successfully in remote Swedish homes utilizing wood stoves as the heat source (Hi-Z Technology Inc., 2004a), providing several hundred watt-hours per day of electric power. Currently, there do not seem to be any commercially available systems, only components, although at least one company is currently prototyping a system that mounts directly to a metal stovepipe to convert the chimney heat to electricity (Hi-Z Technology Inc., 2004b). An added bonus of these systems is that they require built-in fans, which help to circulate the air in the building, making the building more comfortable and perhaps decreasing fuel consumption. Components would cost around $400 US for a 35-Watt system without a power storage system (Hi-Z Technology Inc., 2004c). As an alternative, a thermopile could be used on a wood or propane heater to simply run a fan for a heat exchanger, thus making the heater more efficient and reducing the amount of fuel consumed. This would also require only a few watts and no batteries, dramatically decreasing the cost of the system. Power Storage Unfortunately, none of the methods of supplying electricity mentioned here are continuous. For some requirements this is acceptable, but if power-on-demand is required (as it is for lights), some method for storing electricity is required. The natural choice is batteries. According to Otherpower.com, the battery bank is THE MOST important part of your remote power system your system is only as good as the battery bank! (Other Power.com, 2004b) For a comparison of batteries suitable for remote locations, see Other Powers Battery Comparisons For Remote Power Systems. A major concern for battery banks in the high alpine is related to cold weather. Batteries are less efficient in cold temperatures, and can be damaged by extreme cold. It is unclear whether good insulation would overcome these difficulties; it may be necessary to provide heating for the battery banks. Another area of concern is maintenance: for best performance and endurance, batteries should be serviced quarterly.
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International Innovations
As part of our research, the team looked at case studies from around the world which illustrate innovative ways to provide light, heat, water, and waste management in alpine huts in other parts of the world. Information gathered from these case studies offered insight into how hut operators around the world are dealing with the challenges of providing basic services to hut users in extreme environments. This information also helped the team develop the infrastructure design concepts which are presented later in the document. Austria Solar 4 alpine model Alpine huts have a long tradition in the alpine regions of Austria, which has more than 500 huts. As part of a design competition, architects developed an alpine hut design for the Austrian Tourists Club that focuses on the use of renewable energy. The Solar 4 Alpine Model exemplifies autarkic building maintenance, which means that most of the electric energy, including for heating and warm water supply, is produced by solar panels. The building is designed to provide the most basic standard of comfort and, since it will not receive visitors year-round, it is divided into two thermal zones. One is the basic thermal supply zone and the other will surround this central area and only be heated when needed to conserve energy. The site chosen for the design is the "Schiestl-Haus" on the "Hochschwab Mountain" in Styria which is at approximately 2,100m in elevation. Since this mountain area provides water to two Austrian cities, the hut must not contribute any pollution to the water supply (Haus der Zukunft, 2004). Tasmania cradle huts A system of huts has been established in Tasmania which can be used by visitors wishing to take part in guided walking tours of the Tasmanian Wilderness World Heritage Area (Cradle Huts Pty Ltd., 2004). The huts were designed to have as little impact as possible on the fragile alpine environment, which includes glaciated landscapes and a number of threatened rare and endemic plant species, and can actually be easily dismantled and removed at any time. Cradle huts provide visitors with only the very basic comforts. Energy conservation is an important aspect of the design and operation of the huts. As a result, heating is provided only in the amenities area and not in the bedrooms. Windows are used for day lighting and candles and gas lamps provide additional lighting at night. Solar power is used to operate fans for ventilation in the composting toilets and water is supplied to hut users through a roof rainwater collection system. Showers are provided in the huts but guests are limited to a single two minute long shower per day. A sand filtering process is used to treat grey water from the kitchen and bathroom which is then absorbed in trenches on the site. Austria Ingolstaedter Haus Environmentally compatible technology developed by Seimens has been adopted for operating the German Alpine Associations Ingolstaedter Haus, a mountain refuge situated at a height of 2,119 meters in elevation on the Steinernes Meer plateau of Austrias Berchtesgadener Alps. Built in 1928-29, this hut is being equipped with brand new power and water supply systems and a biological waste water purification system.
30 Infrastructure Guidelines for High Alpine Huts
Originally, the hut relied on meltwater and rainwater for its water supply, however, this did not provide an adequate supply of water since the hut receives more than 6000 visitors per year. An advanced energy-saving water purification plant which uses filters of quartz grit and activated carbon and a UV de-germination process guarantee water purity. Large storage tanks ensure an adequate supply. To conserve water, waste water is biologically purified and stored in a separate container and can be used to flush toilets in times of water shortage. The rest of the purified waste water is allowed to seep away and the solid matter remaining is composted. Among the huts other innovations is the use of vegetable-oil-fired generators to produce an electricity output of 28 kilowatts and a thermal output of 48 kilowatts. The waste heat is reused to produce hot water and to heat the building, thus further improving overall efficiency. The generator provides the huts basic power supply and produces around 80 percent of its electricity. Solar modules together with batteries and the requisite rectifiers and inverters supply the remaining 20 percent (PhysOrg.com, 2004). Canada Mount Washington Alpine Resort Mt. Washington Alpine Resort is located on Vancouver Island adjacent to Strathcona Provincial Park. In 1999, the resort implemented a number of environmental initiatives and, as a result, was the winner of the 2001 Starfish Award for Environmentally Responsible Tourism. The resorts initiatives include the use of recycled grey water to flush toilets and urinals and the addition of interpretive signage on trails to inform visitors about the surroundings and views. External energy requirements are minimized due to the extensive glazing on the main lodge's southern face provides passive solar heating and lighting. The facility also has a state of the art sewage treatment plant that treats sewage from both the resort and neighbouring condominiums and the bio-sludge that is produced is applied to the fields of a local farm. A pilot project to reduce the bulk of wet food waste through a drying process has been established and a program is in place to recycle cardboard, glass, metal, and plastic. Additionally, a plan is being considered to replace port-a-potties with composting toilets (Mount Washington Alpine Resort, 2004). Scotland Charles Inglis Clark Memorial Hut The Hut, situated at a height of 680 metres on the north face of Ben Nevis, is supposed to be the only true mountain hut in Britain and has been used by generations of mountaineers as an advanced base for routes on the north face. It is owned by the Scottish Mountaineering Club (SMC) but is mainly used by members of other clubs, mainly from Britain but also from overseas. The radio (which is an intrinsic part of the emergency services network over a large area of the Central Highlands) and its batteries are located inside the Hut. It is powered by a 75 watt wind generator which also supplies two low voltage lights inside the hut. Its remote situation and the harsh climatic conditions create problems in providing services for hut users. At present, the hut is supplied with propane gas for lighting, heating, cooking and a drying room. Water is obtained from an outside pipe and there are no sanitation facilities. The main lighting system uses low-pressure propane feeding mantles which have ceramic bases. There is one high-pressure
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gas lamp. This is more efficient, giving a brighter light, and uses cheaper mantles which are readily available. However, the use of relatively high-pressure gas inside the hut is potentially more hazardous than the low-pressure supply. The excess capacity from the small wind generator owned by Lochaber MRT is used to charge 12volt batteries which supply two small fluorescent lights in the main room of the hut. These have been found useful and the SMC has installed a second small wind generator to increase the supply.
Survey Findings
Our team opted to carry out a survey of Alpine Club members to gain a better understanding of their satisfaction with systems currently provided within huts. The information we required concerned the attitudes and values of current Alpine Club members, which was not available in published literature. We specifically sought to determine hut users needs and assess the infrastructure features that are of most importance and desirability to alpine hut patrons. We felt that this information was vital to inform the decision-making process regarding the most appropriate solutions to propose to our client. Summary of key findings Four common themes were observed through the responses. First, hut users are concerned about fire hazards associated with the systems that require fuels. Second, a number of comments suggested that current systems are acceptable, but if alternatives were available that produce less impacts on the wilderness, then they would favour exploring the viability of those options. Third, additional technologies should not increase the rental cost of the huts. A key concern is that increased rental fees will limit opportunities for members with limited funds available. A dual mandate for new technologies would be to protect the environment while maintaining hut operation costs as low as possible to make access feasible for all members. The last theme that emerged from the survey analysis concerns the characteristic of the hut experience. Users want to escape the built environment of cities and expect that the hut experience will provide a rustic and convivial environment. Most did not want to hear the sound of motors or have infrastructure systems that would take away from the isolation that huts provide, particularly for those small huts that are difficult to reach. Additional information and instructions regarding use and maintenance of hut equipment appeared to be another area for potential improvement. There were numerous comments suggesting that first-time or novice users have difficulty operating current systems. Lighting propane lanterns, starting a fire in wood stoves, changing the latrine barrels, and properly disposing of grey water in the winter appeared to be areas of most concern. The information currently provided does not seem to be sufficient to ensure that novice users can efficiently operate the equipment or find grey water disposal areas in winter. The most important aspect that should overarch all decision-making for future improvements is the overwhelming need to maintain the backcountry, rustic character of the hut experience which is so critical to many users. Further details are provided in Appendix 6.
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Proposed Guidelines
Established principles by agencies with authority for managing all activities on lands occupied by ACC huts must be recognised and adopted into current guidelines. For this reason, we have divided our guideline statements into three sections. These are Existing operational principles, Performance criteria, and Suggested practices. The section titled Existing operational principles presents current principles adopted by governing agencies. These form an inherent part of the current guidelines. The second section, titled Performance criteria, presents the basic functions that each system is intended to accomplish. These describe what the systems should deliver, not the means by which they will deliver them. They are also the means by which alternatives will be evaluated to develop suggested practices. The last section, titled Suggested practices discusses the particular systems recommended by this team. These are the systems that respond best to operational principles, present the best options under specific circumstances and should be selected for the ACC when considering redevelopment of existing huts or building of new facilities.
General Principles
Parks Canadas Operational Guidelines for Backcountry Lodges and Huts provide guiding principles that address a broad spectrum related to hut development and operation. These are divided into six categories: ecological integrity; general operations; buildings and facilities; cultural resources; environmental stewardship; and, visitor or client experience. Excerpts pertinent to alpine hut operation are provided in Appendix 6. These guidelines state general principles to which the building envelope must adhere. These are: Due to the extreme alpine environment, alpine huts above treeline must be able to withstand harsh climatic conditions; therefore, design requirements may significantly differ between backcountry lodges. Where applicable, Federal and Provincial Regulations and building codes relating to health and safety must be met. General requirements for alpine huts above tree line: low construction profile, single storey, may include loft wood frame construction, sealed and insulated metal will be the primary material for exterior siding and roofing decks to be made of treated wood foundation can be a combination of rock, concrete and timbers buildings, privy may be secured by steel guy wires interior walls and floors clean and well maintained outhouse to be made of similar material as hut (Parks Canada, 1999). BC Parks is currently developing guidelines for the development of new huts and the redevelopment of existing huts.
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Suggested additional considerations The responses to our survey indicated three areas of concern to hut users that are beyond the scope of this project, but we felt were important to take into consideration for future hut improvements. These are: Ensure that each hut has a fire extinguisher of appropriate size and type and that it is in good working order. If electrical systems are added to a hut, consider installing radio communication systems that can be used in case of emergency. Empress upon users, through interpretive materials at the hut, the importance of a clean hut site and the critical need for each user to do their part in preventing wildlife habituation to food waste, particularly for rodents.
Lighting
Existing operational principles Agencies do not have established principles pertaining to lighting within facilities. Performance criteria Operation and maintenance of systems should be clearly explained and should be easy to understand even for first time users. Operation of system should pose minimal safety hazard (e.g. fire and smoke) for users. Lighting should enhance, not detract from user experience. Lighting in common living areas should be sufficient to safely perform tasks such as cooking. System should require minimal energy to operate. Systems should be capable of functioning properly in freezing conditions. System should minimize the need for fossil fuels and other non-renewable sources of energy such as disposable batteries. Suggested systems options The lighting system should be flexible, allowing users to direct light where they need it. Light specific areas to allow the performance of tasks, rather than trying to light an entire room. Utilize day lighting where possible to avoid the need for power consumption during the day: windows in common area, tubular skylights in loft and other areas difficult to light with windows. Improve day lighting in existing huts with tubular skylights where necessary. Maintain gas lantern use in smaller huts with low annual usage (bednights). In larger huts, where costs can be justified, utilize electricity for lighting at night. Keep lighting to a minimum in order to conserve energy and preserve ambience. Consider the use of timers to avoid the draining of batteries when users forget to turn lights off. LEDs are recommended for general use Small halogen lights are recommended task lights in areas where more light is required (eg. cooking area). Where heating is sufficient, small fluorescent tubes are recommended.
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Heating
Existing operational principles Agencies do not have established principles pertaining to heating within facilities. Performance criteria Heating should only provide sufficient warmth to ensure minimal comfort for occupants. Operation and maintenance tasks that users are required to perform should be clear and simple, even for first time users. Systems should reduce the amount of fuels needed (e.g. wood or fossil). Systems should use clean energy sources when available. Systems should reduce or eliminate the need for helicopters to fly in fuels. Building envelope should be well insulated. Suggested systems options Where combustion-type heating devices are used, utilize a heat exchanger to extract heat from waste gases before they are discharged from the building, and use a small thermoelectric system to drive a fan to increase heat circulation and decrease fuel consumption. Utilize passive-solar heating in new huts. Some existing huts may be suitable for retro-fitting, depending on building style and location. Do not provide heating for smaller huts. Encourage users, through interpretive materials at the hut, to use heating conservatively and dress appropriately. Insulate to a minimum of R-30. New construction should be R-60. High-efficiency windows should be used to reduce heat loss.
Waste Management Human Waste

Existing operational principles Parks Canada (1999) suggests the following operational practices: Operators shall construct and provide either pit privies or a barrel/holding tank and sewage fly-out system. Parks may consider approved septic systems and fields for year round operations. Where sewage is flown out, additional urine separation systems are encouraged. Pit privies shall be located in areas above the water table, a minimum of 50 metres from surface water and ideally, downstream from drinking water sources. Outhouse structures shall be maintained in a way that prevents rodents from entering the dug pit. Stove ashes or lime are the only acceptable additives to be deposited in pit privies; no grey water, chemicals or food products shall be added. For fly-out systems such as the ones used by the Alpine Club of Canada, the procedures to change collection barrels under the toilet must have clear instructions provided on-site and must be easy to accomplish by unfamiliar users (e.g. alpine huts where no full-time custodian is present). Barrel lids must be securely fastened. The Operator is responsible to ensure a schedule is in place to determine when all barrels are full and flying is required. A local protocol shall establish disposal procedures for flown out full barrels. The cost of flying barrels in and out shall be the
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responsibility of the Operator unless stipulated otherwise in the License of Occupation or Lease Agreement (Parks Canada, 1999). Performance criteria Sanitary facilities should provide aesthetically pleasing and comfortable conditions for users. Operation and maintenance tasks that users are required to perform should be clear and simple, even for first time users. The facilities should aide in preventing the transmission of pathogens in the backcountry via effective sanitation management. Systems should reduce the cost of operations (environmental and financial). Removal or transfer of waste from facilities should not expose custodians or users to health risks. Systems should ensure that the latrine facilities are blended with the overall design of the hut and do not detract from the users overall experience. Systems should be robust and able to withstand harsh environmental conditions. Latrine facilities provided at alpine huts should be of a design that requires relatively minimal annual maintenance. Systems included within the facilities should require minimal or no energy sources to operate and should be capable of functioning properly in freezing conditions. Systems should reduce or eliminate the need for helicopters to fly out waste. Suggested systems options Wherever possible, use a method to break down waste on-site [eg: composting technology with supplemental heat] The process shall: reduce waste bulk and weight significantly. reduce operating costs (financial and environmental). Waste material not completely broken down shall be relocated to lower altitude location with proper waste treatment facilities. Manual transfer methods are discouraged (e.g.: shovelling waste). A sealable container which is movable between toilet facilities and transportation is recommended. Where low annual usage or small size of hut reduces the viability of dehydrating or composting systems, use a removal process such as helicopter fly out. When fly out is used, desiccation should be employed to reduce the bulk and mass of the material this should result in less flights, and consequently less harm to the environment and reduce expenses for the ACC. Ensure proper ventilation and use urine separation or dehydration methods to reduce odours. Consider the durability, suitability and longevity of the materials used in the construction of the toilet facility. Use the simplest and most robust possible technology. Consider the use of incineration toilets which may reduce the number of helicopter flights and potentially the total amount of fuel used (see analysis in Appendix 5).
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Waste Management Solid Waste

Existing operational principles Parks Canada suggests the following operational practices: Food Garbage All food wastes and associated packaging shall be either completely burnt in a contained "burn barrel" or packed out of the backcountry for disposal. All cans, glass and rigid plastic containers shall be washed and packed out and disposed of through a recycling program, if available. Only wet household garbage and plain paper wrap shall be burnt. Dry plastic wrap, Styrofoam and mixed plastic/ paper/ aluminium containers and packaging shall be packed out. Remaining food packaging waste shall be stored in a secure area until its removal, which will occur at least once a week (Parks Canada, 1999). Performance criteria All solid waste should be removed on a regular basis from the huts, particularly food items which could cause wildlife to become habituated. If food is incinerated, it should be complete, leaving only ashes, to prevent habituation of wildlife. Suggested systems options Users must be strongly encouraged to pack out all solid waste and dispose of it appropriately. Users should be encouraged to pack in minimal supplies. Incineration of refuse should be discouraged through the use of interpretive panels at the huts. Impress upon users, through the use of interpretive panels at the huts, the need and importance for everyone to do their part to keep the beauty of the mountains intact by packing out their garbage.
Water Water Provision

Existing operational principles Parks Canada suggests the following operational practices: Potable Water Backcountry lodges will provide an annual water quality test report on drinking water to Parks Canada upon request. It is the Operator's responsibility to ensure potential external pollutants (e.g., wastewater) from its operation do not pollute drinking water sources (Parks Canada, 1999). Performance criteria Potable water Systems should make use of on-site water sources when available. Suggested systems options Potable water Water should not be provided in small huts with low annual use. If water is provided, a filtration system such as the Ecosphere Technologies Ltd biosand filtration system should be used.
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Remind users, through the use of interpretive panels at the huts, the need and importance to filter locally acquired water.
Water Grey Water Treatment

Parks Canada suggests the following operational practices: Grey Water Facilities with a capacity of eight people-or less will require basic grey water management. After straining out food particles, grey water may be dispersed at a minimum of 50 metres from surface water sources. Facilities with a capacity greater than eight people will require a grey water management system able to trap and remove food particles and grease, and able to filter out contaminants that may otherwise reach water courses. The system must be covered to prevent access from wildlife. Pit filters combined with a screen to catch food particles, have proven effective in preventing pollution and removing food attractant for wildlife. During winter operations, simplified systems may be used (e.g. food strainer and broadcast dispersal). System designs shall be approved by Parks Canada prior to construction. Alterations may be required in the event the system is found to be ineffective (Parks Canada, 1999). Performance criteria Grey water Operation and maintenance tasks that users are required to perform should be clear and simple, even for first time users. Solid waste particles should be filtered from grey water prior to disposal. Grey water should be disposed in a manner that does not attract wildlife. Grey water disposal should not adversely affect adjacent water bodies. Grey water treatment and disposal system will require minimal or no energy. System should be capable of functioning properly in freezing conditions. Suggested systems options Grey water Where there are favourable conditions, consider the use of a tile field for treatment and disposal of grey water. All grey water should first be strained to remove any solid waste particles. Properly built and maintained, the tile field will be sufficient for the treatment and disposal of grey water generated by larger huts with greater annual visitation. Where tile fields are not applicable, consider the use of a grey water treatment tank. Again, all grey water must first be strained to remove any solid waste particles. This will be most appropriate at huts with greater annual visitation. This system will require minimal maintenance with annual or bi-annual cleaning depending on the load on the system. At huts with moderate visitation, consider the use of a grey water sump or pit. As above, any grey water received by the sump should first be strained to remove any solid waste particles.
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At huts with low annual visitation, it is sufficient to distribute strained grey water over porous rock fields at a minimum distance of 50 metres from the hut and away from any standing or flowing water body.
Energy Sources
Existing operational principles Parks Canada suggests the following operational practices: Internal Combustion Engines For reasons of noise and air pollution, internal combustion generators are not appropriate in backcountry settings(Parks Canada, 1999). Performance criteria Operation and maintenance tasks that users are required to perform should be clear and simple, even for first time users. System design should support user experience, not detract from the natural beauty of the landscapes. When using appliances that rely on non-renewable energy, use the most efficient and least polluting type available. Ensure that energy production systems blend into the overall design of the hut. Energy production systems should be clean, non-polluting, make use of on-site energy sources and make minimal use of fuels (e.g. wood and fossil). Systems should require minimal annual maintenance. Systems should be robust and able to withstand harsh environmental conditions. Systems will consider and minimize potential negative effects on wildlife. Systems should reduce or eliminate the need for helicopters to in fly fuel. Suggested systems options Use photovoltaic panels and batteries to run fans for latrines and solar heating systems. Use solar or wire capacitance chargers and batteries to power lighting systems when the batteries can be kept from being damaged by the cold. Energy production systems should not be developed for small huts with low annual usage. In huts with high annual usage that have electrical power systems installed, provide propane space heaters and lighting systems to be used as back-up only. Use a passive solar system to provide basic heating needs for all facilities
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Design Implementation
General Characteristics
As stated in the section titled Objectives of the Project, the design concepts provided here are meant to exemplify the guidelines for identified infrastructure in high alpine huts. While the objective also states that design concepts will be suitable for both new and existing huts, it is unreasonable to think that any one solution could be applicable to all huts, since every building and hut location are different. However, in order to gauge the applicability of the design, the team decided it was necessary to choose a specific setting. To this end, a hypothetical site that embodies many of the characteristics of a typical alpine environment and typical for ACC hut locations, was created. Our building is also large enough to comfortably house 20 guests. The design solutions were selected as examples of potential solutions, but do not represent the only appropriate solutions available. We opted to make the selected design concepts suitable for a site with low electricity production capacity, which implies that the potential for production of electricity are limited and systems will require little or no electrical power to operate appropriately. Building site The setting for our hypothetical building has characteristics that are likely to be found in a typical alpine environment. The site is located at latitude 513655 N and longitude 116305 W at an elevation of approximately 2,500 metres. The climate is continental, with a large range of temperatures throughout the year. The average temperature during the winter months (December March) is -16 0C and can go as high as 25 0C in July. Snow depth throughout the area is not consistent and it generally experiences more precipitation and more wind than sites at lower elevations. Vegetation in the area consists of low or prostrate plants that can withstand heavy winds and snowfall. These include grasses, shrubs and a variety of alpine wildflowers. The geology of the site is characterized by bedrock, predominantly limestone and dolomite. The main source of water in the area is a glacial outflow stream. The site receives a substantial amount of sunlight since it is not blocked by neighbouring peaks. Guiding principles The creation of performance criteria provided a set of guiding principles for the design work in the four infrastructure areas. To focus the teams work, it was decided that one key issue should be addressed: the use of helicopters in the supply and maintenance of high alpine huts (see Summary of Key Issues, p. 13). Figure 4 is a representation of the building envelope that would be suitable to house the proposed infrastructure systems. We sought to address the aspect of hut operation that we felt would produce the most benefits for the ACC. Our team decided that reducing the number of helicopters flights to service the huts would make a positive contribution.
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a.
b.
c.
Figure 4 building enveloped showing (a) a front elevation, (b) a rear elevation, and (c) floor plan
Lighting Concepts
Ideally, fluorescent tubes would be used to provide general lighting, as they are the most efficient lighting available. Unfortunately, fluorescents do not work well in the cold, making them a poor choice in the high alpine without an abundant heat source. General lighting is inherently inefficient, since it spreads the light from a bulb over a broad area. In addition, this type of lighting would provide an abundance of light that could detract from the user experience. For this reason, it was decided that bright lights will only be used as task lights, and will be limited to areas where they are a necessity, such as in the kitchen. Surface-mounted lights Instead of one powerful bulb lighting the entire kitchen, a number of smaller bulbs will be used. Twelve-volt halogen bulbs are recommended, as shown in figure 100, and can be purchased in 3, 5, 10 and 20 watts. To help compensate for low wattage, fixtures will be mounted on the wall instead of the ceiling to bring the light closer to
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where it is required. Fixtures will have reflectors that capture the light and direct it to the area that is needed. Fixtures will also be adjustable, allowing the light to be directed where it is needed. Many fixtures fitting these specifications can be purchased, including the one illustrated in figure 100. Similar lights will be used in the snow room.
(Swego, 2004) Portable lights We propose a portable lantern in response to the need for flexible lighting that allows users to direct light where they need it. By making the light portable, less wattage is necessary since the light source can be placed precisely where it is required. The portable lights have two functions: ambient lighting and task lighting. Figure 5 provides an illustration of the proposed lighting system and Figure 6 shows more technical details. The proposed rechargeable lantern delivers ambient lighting and task lighting. Ambient lighting is ensured by the main body of the device using a 1.3 Watt LED bulb that has an average life of 100,000 hours and a lighting capacity of 37 lumens. As the quality of light offered by LEDs tends to be bright and cold, the central semi-translucent plastic tube, tinted with a warm color, acts as a colour filter to create a convivial lighting. The lantern can be hung on a wall to provide ambient lighting or when using the directed task light and it can be placed on a table for more intense light. The bottom of the device is equipped with a compact LED bulb and a circular deflector to provide directed task lighting. This second 1.3 Watt bulb has a lighting capacity of 32 lumens and an average life span of 30,000 hours. Both bulbs are highly efficient in term of the quantity of emitted light and in terms of required energy.
Figure 5 Proposed portable lighting system
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a.
b.
c.
Figure 6 Proposed portable lighting system details with (a) side view, (b) interior and top views, and (c) front view Similar products are already available on the market. However, most of these solar powered lamps use fluorescent tubes. As mentioned in the former section, fluorescent tubes are not efficient in cold temperatures. For this reason, the team has developed a portable lantern adapted to the alpine hut environment. The team also felt that it would be useful to equip the lamp with the task lighting feature. In terms of material, all of the components are either standard parts that can easily be found on the market, or parts that can be produced on a small scale with minimum financial investment. The proposed lantern is made primarily from anodised aluminium and polypropylene. The upper and lower aluminium parts could be produced by spinning before being anodised in order to increase their mechanical resistance. The main body is composed of a polypropylene tube. The assembly of the system is simple and designed to use standard components. The device is relatively large to reduce the possibility of theft. Because of the size, it would be cumbersome to carry out in a backpack. In addition, the charging system could be developed using components that are not compatible with common or residential systems. Information panels at the huts could inform patrons of this particular feature. Meeting Performance Criteria The team feels that this lighting system would: Enhance, not detract from user experience; Require minimal energy to operate; Function properly in freezing conditions; and, Minimize the need for fossil fuels and other non-renewable sources of energy such as disposable batteries.
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Skylights Skylights could be used to provide general lighting in areas such as the sleeping quarters where electrical lights would not be installed. In addition to providing sufficient lighting during the day, this system has a better insulation value than windows and can be placed in areas where windows would be inappropriate. Figure 7 illustrates the concepts associated with tubular skylights. In addition Table 2 provides technical specifications regarding the amount of light produced by various lengths of tubular skylights. Features of DayLite Tubular Skylights (DayLite Co, 2004) complete full spectrum, cool white light, providing even distribution of light in interior spaces, up to 738 watts (equivalent incandescent wattage) of light. Rated as R-22, these lights will give maintenance free light for the life of your roof. 100% color rendering index may result in reduced eye strain and lower incidences of seasonal affective disorder Units are used successfully in areas receiving high snow loads such as Montana. Top dome can be raised up to 2 above roofline to prevent snow from covering the light aperture. Table 2 Luminous flux and incandescent wattage delivered under various daylight conditions 8 DayLite Efficiencies
(DayLite Co, 2004) Meeting Performance Criteria The team feels that this system would: Enhance, not detract from user experience; Require no energy source to operate; and, Function properly in freezing conditions.
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DayLite Figure 7 Tubular skylights Phosphorescence One source of commercially available phosphorescent powder and paint products is the manufacturer and distributor Ready Set Glo in Manitoba. The products are offered in various glow colours, where green offers the brightest afterglow and aquablue the longest lasting. Table 3 presents a few of the technical details of the products. The team thinks that high quality phosphorescent paint could provide adequate lighting in certain rooms within the hut, namely the snow room, staircases, exits and walls of latrines to reduce the need for other lighting systems, while ensuring the safety of hut occupants. Table 3 Summary of technical specifications phosphorescent paint Typical physical properties Day appearance Pale yellow (almost clear) Composition Alkaline rare earth metal silicate-aluminate oxide europium doped, water-based or oilbased paints Odor Slight typical paint Typical luminescent properties Yellow Green 25914 mcd/m2 UV, whitelight (any visible light) Wavelength 200-450nm 520 nm over 1 year (Ready Set Glow, 2004)
Glow color Brightness rating Excitation Wavelength Peak value Shelf life
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Meeting Performance Criteria The team feels that this system would: Enhance, not detract from user experience; Require no energy source to operate; and, Function properly in freezing conditions. Timers All lights will be on timers to prevent accidental drainage of the battery should the lights be left on. Of course, it is not desirable to have the light suddenly switch off while in the middle of performing a task. A warning system should be employed to give the user time to reset the lights: this could be done by having the lights flash for a period of time before turning off completely.
Heating Concepts
The most common method of heating in the huts is wood or propane, both of which are flown in by helicopter. The solution proffered for the example hut does not consume any fuel whatsoever, utilizing natural on-site energy instead; this makes it possible to heat the hut without requiring any helicopter flights for fuel. Heating, in this case, is relative. Most people in the high alpine have different expectations than people in their homes. It is expected that users will wear a jacket or sweater and hut booties, thus, temperatures do not have to be as high as the typical home. Passive solar Passive solar energy may be used to heat, or supplement the heating load of a building as illustrated in figure 8. The design concept presented uses passive solar heat collection from external cladding to heat the floor of the hut. Air channels in the dark coloured external cladding collect warm air from the suns rays striking the building. The warm air is drawn into a pipe using a low-voltage fan, and forced into the floor of the building. For this method to be effective, the floor must have a significant thermal mass to absorb and retain this heat energy. The system will emit thermal energy for several hours after the sun has stopped shining due to the energy retained in the floors thermal mass. It is important to note that, at high latitudes with a low sun angle in the winter months, this method is not likely to replace a huts current heating system. While this system will reduce the amount, supplemental heat in the form of wood or propane may still be required.
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(Adapted from CMHC, 2004) Figure 8 Passive solar heating through heat capture from space between hut wall and second exterior metal cladding Meeting Performance Criteria The team feels that this system would: Provide sufficient warmth to ensure minimal comfort for occupants; Reduce the amount of fuels needed (e.g. wood or fossil); and, Reduce the need for helicopters to fly in fuels. Insulation Thermal buffers A snow room in the form of a draught lobby has been incorporated into the design concept. This room not only allows for the removal of wet gear before entering the main hut area, it provides thermal buffering for the entrance to the main building. Thermal buffering is a method to achieve heat loss reduction and its effects can be quite significant, especially for poorly insulated buildings. Unheated spaces, such as conservatories, garages or draught lobbies should be attached to the main building to take advantage of this phenomenon. If this is done, the unheated spaces will have a higher temperature than the outside due to heat bleed from the main building. Also, thermal buffering reduces the rate of heat loss since there is less of a temperature difference between the main building and the unheated space than there is between the main building and the outside. If the unheated structure benefits from passive solar gains, the effects of thermal buffering will be magnified. Thermal buffering can also be accomplished through the use of earth shelters, which involves covering the external structure with mounds of earth. Building on sloped sites offers a great opportunity to exploit earth shelters by cutting into the slope, and backfilling against the building this will lower the rate of heat loss, especially when
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the north or windward side of the building is covered. It should be noted that while the structures used to thermally buffer the main building act as a form of insulation, they are not a substitute for proper thermal insulation (Yannas, 1994). Thermal insulation Based on comments received in the survey, it became clear that insulation of the building was an important component. It also was essential to consider this aspect of the facility to ensure that minimal energy requirements were required to heat the building. Maximizing the efficiency of thermal insulation should be a priority. The quality of thermal insulation has a significant effect on a buildings energy conservation, heating systems, and occupant comfort level (Yannas, 1994). The continuity and integrity of the insulation materials is very important to prevent infiltration, ex-filtration, and convection. Thermal bridges (areas of high heat conductivity) may result at lintels, jambs, sills, and junctions between walls and roof or floor and condensation may form in air cavities and roof spaces if care is not taken to provide adequate ventilation. Figure 9 provides details of the wall construction to prevent heat loss.
(Adapted from Yannas, 1994) Figure 9 Insulation to prevent thermal bridges Increased levels of insulation will reduce heat loss, however, the law of diminishing returns applies. For instance, energy savings from increasing insulation thickness from 4 to 6cm are comparable to those when thickness is increased from 6 to 12cm (Cofaigh et. al., 1999). Transparent insulation material will allow light to pass, but impedes heat loss in a similar manner to typical building insulation this material is ideal in cold climates and on the colder (north) aspect of buildings Adding insulation to the external envelope is an ideal retrofit to existing huts because the inner part of the building does not require renovations and loses no volume. Also, the building can remain in use during installation and the addition of insulation does not prevent the thermal mass of the building from being used to moderate indoor temperature variations by storing heat (as internal insulation would). Finally, the entire envelope of the building is covered eliminating any issues with thermal bridging (Cofaigh et. al., 1999).
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Meeting Performance Criteria The team feels that this system would: Aid the effectiveness of the passive solar heating system; Provide sufficient warmth to ensure minimal comfort for occupants; Reduce the amount of fuels needed (e.g. wood or fossil); and, Reduce the need for helicopters to fly in fuels.
Waste Management Concepts

Desiccating toilet As part of our design concept the team has chosen to suggest the use of a dessicating toilet to manage human waste in the high alpine. The model described here is the Sani-Alpine, which has proven to be very effective in high alpine environments similar to those occupied by ACC huts, including: Evarist Chancel lodge High Alps, France (2550 m) Mont-Blanc telepheric - Helbronner Point, Italy (3600 m) Chamanna Lischana hut Switzerland (2500 m) The following paragraphs illustrate how this system operates. A chamber is located under the area that contains the toilet. Faeces, toilet paper and urine fall onto an inclined, moving belt located under the toilet seat. The belt is put into motion when the user depresses a pedal. Urine simply drains toward a ditch in the floor at the bottom of the belt and faeces are carried up by the rotation of the belt. Reaching the top of the belt, faecal matter is scraped off by a stainless steel brush and falls into specially constructed bags which are arranged in a circular drum. The drum rotates, coordinated by the motion of the belt, so that the bags fill up slowly (Figure 10). The contents of the bags are dried by a fan to ensure proper ventilation. The fan requires an electric energy source, which can be a photovoltaic system as is suggested by the team. One photovoltaic panel of about 1 metre2 capable of producing 100 Watts of energy is sufficient to operate the fan. In addition, the area in which the drum is placed must be warm. This can be accomplished by installing one glass wall in the structure and allowing passive solar energy to warm the area. Dried contents can be incinerated in place or transported off-site. For a hut with a maximum capacity of 20 people per day, only one toilet is needed and the bags may need maintenance only once per year.
Sani-Alpine Figure 10 Illustration of the moving belt and drum that contains the bags.
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Two systems provide odour control and reduce visual impact of the facility to ensure user comfort. The first is the small fan that continuously moves air within the chamber in which the drum is placed. Second, users cannot see the moving belt because it is black and kept in a dark area of the chamber and low-level lighting is located near the floor. Figures 11 and 12 illustrate the principle components of the system.
Sani-Alpine Figure 11 Description of the principle components of the system
Sani-Alpine Figure 12 Perspectives of the technical chamber under the toilet
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Approximate costs The cost for the system, including equipment and installation is approximately $17,000. This cost does not include transportation costs from France to Canada and is also exclusive of the costs associated with purchasing and installing a photovoltaic panel. A technician will also need to come to Canada from France to install the first toilet. This technician would be charged with ensuring proper training of a local person to oversee maintenance and operation of the system. Structural considerations The chamber under the toilet must be large enough to house the drum and all other equipment. The ventilation pipe must be about 16 cm to ensure proper ventilation of the space. This ventilation pipe must exhaust in the roof of the structure because of the often violent and circling winds typical of high alpine areas. The chamber must be completely sealed except for the toilet hole and the exhaust fan. Heat speeds up the dehydration process. The south facing wall that receives direct sunlight should have windows to take advantage of passive solar heat. Windows should be between 1 and 2 metre2. North facing walls should not be used for this application. Proper insulation should be applied to the walls of the chamber and all surfaces could be painted a dark colour or black to add to the heating process. The floor of the chamber should have a slight incline of about 2 or 3 degrees towards a ditch designed to collect urine and any water that may infiltrate the chamber. The chamber should be at least 1.1 metre high to facilitate maintenance and provide enough headroom for a person to walk. Figure 13 provides a perspective view of the building
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Adapted from Sani-Alpine Figure 13 Cross-section of the facility to house the Sani-Alpine desiccating toilet Meeting Performance Criteria The team feels that this system would: Provide aesthetically pleasing and comfortable conditions for users; Have clear and simple operation and maintenance tasks that users are required to perform; Aide in preventing the transmission of pathogens in the backcountry via effective sanitation management; Reduce the cost of operations (environmental and financial) by requiring relatively minimal annual maintenance; Not expose custodians or users to health risks during removal or transfer operations; and
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Require minimal or no energy sources to operate and should be capable of functioning properly in freezing conditions; and Reduce or eliminate the need for helicopters to fly out waste.
Water Provision Concept

Sand filter The team believes that the Davnor sand filtration system shown in figure 14 and discussed in the water treatment section of our Review and Discussion of Infrastructure Alternatives, is a good option for treating grey water in the high alpine. The system is robust, easy to maintain and effective at filtering parasites, bacteria and viruses, along with some suspended solids. This sand filter requires no energy to operate and is not harmed by cold temperatures.
Davnor Figure 14 Davnor biosand water filtration system Process The water enters the top of the filter where it is diffused by a basin, which prevents the surface of the sand from being disturbed. The water flows through the sand to the under-drain, into the standpipe and through the outlet. An accumulation of organic and particulate material (e.g. iron and iron bacteria) forms at the surface of the sand. The filter uses a combination of biologic processes, which occur in top layer, and filtration processes in the lower layer. Maintenance Lift lid Agitate the very surface of the sand Scoop up surface water with cup and throw out (into grey water system) This is a very fast and efficient There are no consumables no disposable media, no chemicals
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If you want to de-commission for winter o Drain o Allow to freeze o To re-start Fill bottom of filter with about 10 litres of clean water Wait 10 minutes Run a pail of water through filter Done!
Dimensions Roughly 65-70 cm tall and 35-40 cm wide Cost About $350 per unit Meeting Performance Criteria The team feels that this system would: Make use of on-site water sources when available; and Reduce the need for fuel to melt snow.
Energy Source Concepts

The lighting, heating, and waste management solutions all have 12-volt DC electrical systems, the heating and human waste management systems have fans that run from the power provided by photovoltaic panels and the toilet fans need to run continuously. Therefore, an electrical storage system is required during night time hours or on cloudy days when the sun isnt shining. The heating system only runs when the sun is shining, so no electrical storage capacity is required other than a small amount to run a thermostat. Photovoltaic (PV) panels The heating and waste management systems proposed both utilize PV panels to generate necessary electricity. The team has estimated that 100 watts of power will be required to power the fans required. BP Solar brand photovoltaic panels lead the market today for performance and price (Northern Arizona Wind and Sun, 2004). Our recommended panel is the 125 Watt Solar Panel BP3125X costing $502.00(USD) for 2 panels (only sold in pairs for this price, the package of 2 could be used to outfit 2 huts; energy cost approx = $2 USD/watt). Due to the high latitude and mountainous location of the huts, the efficiency of photovoltaics will be reduced. To make the most of the panels, it is important to pay attention to their orientation. Optimizing photovoltaic panel orientation The most efficient orientation of photovoltaic panels (solar panels) relative to the sun is perpendicular. If the suns rays strike at 90 to the panels, the most efficient production of electricity is achieved. Orienting solar panels is complicated by the fact that the sun moves through the sky during the day, and the over the seasons of the year. At any given time of the day, or day of the year, a different optimum angle for a panel at a given location on the earths surface applies.
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Fortunately, the problem of orientation can be simplified by breaking it down into two smaller problems: azimuth and declination. The sun moves from the east to the western sky throughout the day. The angle formed between the sun and the southern sky relative to a fixed point in the northern hemisphere is known as the azimuth. Motorized devices used to track the suns azimuth are known as trackers and can increase the output of the photovoltaics by 25% to 30% (Perez and Coleman, 1993). The declination of the sun changes with the seasons. Declination is the angle formed between the surface of the earth and the sun for a given point on the earth. Devices used to adjust photovoltaic panels for declination can increase output by up to 10% (Perez and Coleman, 1993). Figure 15 presents a chart that can assist in finding the correct solar panel angle at a given latitude for any day of the year. Due to the complexity and cost of trackers, their applicability in remote backcountry areas is questionable. The simplest increase in efficiency can be gained with a manual adjustment made seasonally (4 times per year) to account for the change in declination of the sun. If maintenance staff neglect to make this adjustment, only 10% output is lost, and the panels are still relatively efficient when fixed at an angle matching their latitude (Perez and Coleman, 1993).
(Perez and Coleman, 1993) Figure 15 Optimum angle for photovoltaic panels at various latitudes
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Electrical storage Battery Type Lead-acid batteries are recommended for the hut heating and fixed lighting systems for a number of reasons: they are well-understood; servicing and recycling facilities are widely available; almost all of the renewable energy equipment on the market is designed to work within their typical voltage range; and they provide the greatest bang for the buck of any battery. Deep cycle batteries are recommended, as they are built for the type of cycle service likely to be encountered in alpine huts. The cycle refers to the amount of discharge between charges. Regular batteries can only withstand shallow discharges of 1015% of the batteries total capacity without damage, while deep cycle batteries can withstand 50-80% discharges without damage. No battery can cycle 100% without severe damage. Since shallow-cycle batteries cannot tolerate any deep cycles without internal damage, they are simply not suitable for independent power systems. Sizing Batteries Battery banks charged by PV systems should be sized to provide enough stored power for three to five days of autonomy during cloudy weather (Pratt, 2004). A battery bank smaller than three days' capacity will get cycled deeply on a regular basis, which will lead to shortened battery life. A larger battery bank cycled less deeply will cost less in the long run, due to increased battery life. Battery storage Lead-acid batteries can sustain severe damage if they are allowed to freeze. A fully charged battery will withstand -40C temperatures without freezing, but as the battery is discharged the freezing temperature rises. A battery will freeze at 15C At 50% discharge levels: the batteries should not be discharged below this point, even if they are deep-cycle. Even if batteries dont freeze, they become less efficient in the cold. For this reason, batteries should be kept indoors. This is a bit problematic with lead-acid batteries, since they produce hydrogen gas while they are charging, creating a fire or explosion hazard. For this reason, the hydrogen must be vented outside. A simple enclosure, like the one shown in figure 16 (Pratt, 2004), should be sufficient to contain the gasses and ensure the batteries do not freeze. (Pratt, 2004) Figure 16 Battery enclosure
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Wire capacitance battery charger Lighting will be a greater power draw than the waste management or heating systems. In addition, the less sunlight there is, the greater the demand for lights will be. Because of this problem, the use of PV cells to charge the lighting system would not be practical without increasing the size of the battery bank, increasing the cost of the system dramatically. It would be preferable to have a charger that functions well in all kinds of weather, night and day. For this reason it was decided to use a wire capacitance battery charger. The lighting electrical system utilizes a wire capacitance battery charger to harvest the static electricity in the air. There are no moving parts to break down, making batteries the only source of concern for maintenance. The sole information source that could be found on harvesting this source of energy is as yet unconfirmed. An article in The Technical Journal detailed how to build an effective battery charger from scrounged parts for only a few dollars. The charger has no moving parts, has no generator, and works day or night (Mitch, 1999). A length of insulated wire acts as a capacitor to collect static energy, which is used to charge a battery. The article claims that a car battery can be fully charged in 2-3 days with 200 feet of wire, faster with a longer piece of wire. While the amount of electricity collected is modest, with a good storage system and careful use it could be used for lighting and communications in a hut. A basic charger, as shown in figure 17 for a very low price (our cost was about $25.00). However, in order to function well, a device will need to be added to control charging. The design or specification of these electrical controls is beyond the scope of this project and the skill set of the team members. This type of charger is still in the experimental stages but the team decided to use it in the design regardless. If it works out, this type of charger could be the source of an abundant supply of cheap, maintenance free power.
(Adapted from Mitch, 1999) Figure 17 Schematic drawings of a wire capacitance battery charger
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Meeting Performance Criteria The team feels that this system would: Require minimal operation and maintenance tasks from users; Support user experience, not detract from the natural beauty of the landscapes; Ensure that energy production systems blend into the overall design of the hut; Produce electricity that is clean, non-polluting, and make use of on-site energy sources; Make minimal use of fuels (e.g. wood and fossil); Require minimal annual maintenance; Withstand harsh environmental conditions; Minimize potential negative effects on wildlife; and Reduce or eliminate the need for helicopters to in fly fuel.
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Glossary
Access The freedom and ability to participate in mountaineering, to enter lands and utilize the mountain environment for the purposes of mountaineering3 Alpine Situated at about 2200 m, which varies depending on the aspect, latitude, and the nature of the topography Dominant land forms are moraines and glacial outwash plains Sparse vegetation in very high areas, lichens, saxifrages, snow willows, mountain avens and alpine bearberry are some of the low growing plants the can be found2 Alpine hut A roofed structure at or above the tree line; used primarily as a support facility by mountaineering groups. Huts are normally operated by the Alpine Club of Canada under a Licence of Occupation1 A fully enclosed building that has as its principal purpose providing overnight sleeping accommodation for users of the backcountry.5 Ecological With respect to a park, a condition that is determined to be integrity characteristic of its natural region and likely to persist, including abiotic components and the composition and abundance of native species and biological communities, rates of change and supporting processes.4 Sub-alpine Below 2200 m May consist of more diversified habitats including krummholz and diverse plant communities of varying heights2 Mountaineering Includes rock and ice climbing, hiking, bouldering, camping, trekking, or ski touring, wilderness snowboarding and snowshoe touring as well as Mountaineering mountaineering as it is generally understood.3 Activities
1 2
Parks Canada. 1999. Operational Guidelines for Backcountry Lodges and Huts Rollins, Jon and C. Yonge. 1994. An Inventory of Hut Sites in the Canadian Rockies and Northern Selkirks. 3 Access and Environment Policy. 2000. Alpine Club of Canada 4 Canada National Parks Act. 2000 c.32. Parks Canada Agency, Government of Canada 5 Hut Service Standards, 2004, Department of Conservation, Government of New Zealand, http://www.doc.govt.nz/Explore/003~Huts-Cabins-and-Campsites/index.asp
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Company References
DayLite Company Tel: 805-981-8003 Toll Free: 1-888-DAYLITE (329.5483) Fax: 805-981-8004 Website: www.dayliteco.com Davnor Water Shop 7015 8 Street N.E. Calgary, Alberta, Canada T2E 8A2 Tel: (403) 219-3363 Toll Free 1-888-313-3033 Fax: (403) 219-3373 Email: davnorwatershop@davnor.com Website: www.davnorwatershop.com Ecosphre Technologies (Sani Alpine ) La Condamine, 26100 Saint Ferreol Trente Pas France Tel:04 75-26-10-44 Fax: 04-75-26-05-60 Email: saniverte@aol.com Website: www.saniverte.com Ready Set Glo 21 Royal Rd, Gimli, MB Canada R0C1B0 Tel: (204) 997-4GLO (4456) Fax: (204) 642-4556 EMail: support@readysetglo.com Website: www.readysetglo.com Swego International Inc Sarasota, FL Tel:877-230-7352 Email: customerservice@swego.com Website: www.swego.com
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Department of Conservation. 2004. Hut Service Standards, Government of New Zealand. Retrieved from http://www.doc.govt.nz/Explore/003~Huts-Cabins-andCampsites/index.asp. Last accessed October 19, 2004. Donelon, S. 2004. Personal communication. Steve Donelon - Kananaskis Country AB Community Development - Parks & Protected Areas Energy Alternatives. Catalogue. Retrieved from http://www.energyalternatives.ca/catalogue/A2_Catalogue.asp?Category=47&level= 3. Last accessed November 16, 2004. Energytech.at. Solar4.alpine. Retrieved from http://www.energytech.at/%28de%29/architektur/results/id1723.html#h4. Last accessed October 29, 2004. Ewart, A. 1985. Why people climb: the relationship of participant motives and experience level to mountaineering, Journal of Leisure Research,vol. 17(3): 241250. Ewart, A. and J. Shultis. 1999. Technology and backcountry recreation: boon to recreation or bust for management, The Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, vol. 70(8): 23. Fuller, M. 1989. Mountains: A Natural History and Hiking Guide. Wiley Nature Editions. John Wiley & Sons, INC: New York. Gadd, Ben. 1995. Handbook of the Canadian Rockies. Corax Press. Jasper, Alberta, Canada. Haberl, K. 1995. Alpine Huts: A Guide to the Facilities of the Alpine Club of Canada. The Alpine Club of Canada: Canmore, Alberta. Hannigan, C. 2003. Personal communication. Vice President of Facilities, Alpine Club of Canada HearthNet. Coal Burning Tips. Retrieved from http://hearth.com/what/coaltips.html#anchor315300. Last accessed November 27, 2004. Henry, J. 1990. Waste treatment for the Kluane Lake Research Station. The Arctic Institute of North America Hi-Z Technology, Inc. 2004a. A power source for remote areas. Retrieved from http://www.hi-z.com/websit10.htm. Last accessed November 16, 2004. Hi-Z Technology, Inc. 2004b. Generator for a wood stove. Retrieved from http://www.hi-z.com/websit13.htm. Last accessed November 16, 2004. Hi-Z Technology, Inc. 2004c. Price List. Retrieved from http://www.hi-z.com/websit40.htm. Last accessed November 16, 2004. Jones, Trevor. 1991. Alternate Energy Sources. In Water, Energy and Waste Management in Alpine Shelters Symposium, Notes from a Canadian Conference. October 27-28, Chateau Lake Louise Alberta, pp. 137-144. Kershaw, L., A. MacKinnon, and J. Pojar. 1998. Plants of the Rocky Mountains. Lone Pine Publishing.: Edmonton, Alberta. Ketcham, P. 2002. Backcountry Sanitation Manual. Appalachian Trail Conference Green Mountain Club. Retrieved from http://www.appalachiantrail.org/protect/pdfs/sanmanB.pdf. Last accessed October 28, 2004. Korner, Christian. 2003. Alpine Plant Life Functional Plant Ecology of High Mountain Ecosystems. Springer: New York. Harper, P. and L. Halestrap. 1999. Lifting the Lid: an Ecological Approach to Toilet Systems. Centre for Alternative Technology Publications. Powys: United Kingdom.
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Haus der Zukunft. Solar4.alpine. Retrieved from http://www.hausderzukunft.at/results.html?id=1723. Last accessed November 1, 2004. Lee, 1991. Photovoltaic, Solar and Wind Energy Systems. In Water, Energy and Waste Management in Alpine Shelters symposium, Notes from a Canadian Conference, October 27-28, Chateau Lake Louise, Alberta, pp. 113-122 Mendler, S. and W. Odell. 2000. The HOK Guidebook to Sustainable Design, J. Wiley Publisher: New York. Mitch, 1999 Wire Capacitance. Retrieved from http://www.fortunecity.com/greenfield/bp/16/capcharg.html. Last Accessed December 5, 2004 Mount Washington Alpine Resort. Mt. Washington Alpine Resort Wins Starfish Award. Retrieved from http://www.mtwashington.bc.ca/winter05/news/press_details.cfm?prID=22. Last accessed November 12, 2004. Northern Arizona Wind and Sun. Retrieved from http://www.solarelectric.com/bpso125wasop.html. Last accessed November 16, 2004. OtherPower.com. 2004a. Efficient Lighting. Retrieved from http://www.otherpower.com/otherpower_lighting.html. Last accessed October 11, 2004. OtherPower.com. 2004b. Storage batteries. Retrieved from http://www.otherpower.com/otherpower_battery.html. Last accessed November 16, 2004. Parks Canada. 2000. Jasper National Park Management Plan. Parks Canada Agency. Government of Canada. Parks Canada. 2002. Human Use Management Strategy, Banff National Park. Parks Canada Agency. Government of Canada. Parks Canada. 1999. Operational Guidelines for Backcountry Lodges and Huts. Parks Canada Agency. Government of Canada. Parks Canada. 1997. Parks Canada Guiding Principles and Operational Policies. Parks Canada Agency. Government of Canada. Perez, R. and S. Coleman. 1993. PV Module Angles. Home Power #36, August/September 1993. Retrieved from http://www.homepower.com/files/pvangles.pdf. Phoenix web. Advanced Composting Systems, Inc. Retrieved from http://www.compostingtoilet.com/index.htm. Last accessed October 14, 2004. PhysOrg.com. Siemens brings high tech to new heights: alpine huts with environmentally compatible water and power supplies. Retrieved from http://www.physorg.com/news455.html. Last accessed November 20, 2004. Plumbing Supply.com. Retrieved from http://purl.access.gpo.www.plumbingsupply.com/. Last Accessed November 16, 2004. Pratt, Doug. 2004, http://www.solareco.com/articles/article.cfm/id/40, Last Accessed November 18, 2004 Ready Set Glo. http://www.readysetglo.com. Last accessed November 16, 2004. Redlinger, T., V. Corella-Berud, J. Graham, and R. Avitia. 2002. Dry Composting Toilets in Hot Arid Climates. Department of Biological Sciences and Center for Environmental Resource Management. Rollins, J. and C. Yonge. 1994. An Inventory of Hut Sites in the Canadian Rockies and Northern Selkirks. Schwolsky, R. and J.I. Williams. 1982. The Builders Guide to Solar Construction. McGraw Hill, Inc.
65
Swego International Inc. http://www.Swego.com Last Accessed November 18, 2004 Temple, K, A. Camper, and R. Lucas1982. Potential health hazards from human waste disposal in wilderness. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 37(6):357-359. Tesitel, J., D. Kusova and M. Bartos. 2003. Tourists reasons for visiting mountain areas: a case study of the Sumava Mountains, Landscape Research, vol. 28(3): 317-322. The Wood Heat Organization. 2004. When you burn garbage, you make poison! Retrieved from http://www.woodheat.org/environment/garbage.htm. Last accessed November 16, 2004. Tierney, R. 2004. Personal communication. Recreation Section Head, Kootenay Region. BC Ministry of Water, Land and Air Protection. ToolBase Services. 2004. Tubular skylights. Retrieved from http://www.toolbase.org/tertiaryT.asp?TrackID=&CategoryID=1282&DocumentID=20 24. Last accessed November 20, 2004. Union Internationale des Associations dAlpinism. Environmental Objectives and Guidelines. Retrieved from http://www.uiaa.ch/web.test/visual/MouPrCom/guideA5.pdf. Last accessed September 2004. United States Environmental Protection Agency, Department of Environment and Conservation. Why is wood smoke a problem? Retrieved from http://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/woodsmoke/index.htm. Last accessed on November 27, 2004. University of Vermont. 1996. The backcountry toilet mailing list. Retrieved from http://www.uvm.edu/~rlachape/BT_MAIL.htm. Last accessed November 16, 2004. Van der Ryn, S. and B. Wendell. 1999. The Toilet Papers: Recycling Waste and Conserving Water Ecological Design Press: California. Winneberger, J. H. T., 1974. Manual of grey water treatment practice. Ann Arbor Science Publishers Inc. Yannas, S. 1994. Solar Energy and Housing Design Volume 1: Principles, Objectives, Guidelines. Architectural Association Publications: London.
66
Appendix 1 Inventory of existing systems used in Alpine Club huts

Jurisdiction Altitude (m) Waste Winter use y/n Capacity Lighting/ cooking Heating Siding Human Source Solid Water Treatment
Sump Grey water disposal bed Grey water disposal bed None None None Sump 67
Hut Name
ALPINE HUTS Abbot Pass
Banff NP
2926
24
Stone
Propane lights and stove
Wood stove (wood supplied) None, relies on insulation
Balfour
Banff NP
2470
16
Tan metal
Lantern/ Coleman Propane stove
Barrel, flyout & standup urinal drain on-site Barrel, flyout
Snow melt
Snow melt
Bow
Banff NP
2500
30
Propane lighting and stove
Wood stove in common area
Mt Alberta
Jasp er NP
2720
Tancoloure d metal
Lantern/ Coleman Propane stove
None
Barrel, flyout & standup urinal barrel (flyout) Desiccation outhouse
incinerat or
Neil Colgan
Banff NP Banff NP
2940
16
Tan metal Tan metal
Peter & Catharine Whyte (Peyto) Scott Duncan
2502
30
Lantern/ Coleman Propane stove Propane lighting and stove Lantern/ Propane stove
None, relies on insulation None, relies on insulation None, relies on insulation
Barrel, flyout Barrel, flyout with drain away urinal Barrel, flyout
Glacial outflow stream & snow melt Snow melt & proglacial stream Gully & snow melt Lake & snow melt Snow melt
Banff NP
2773
12
Tan metal
Jurisdiction
Altitude (m)
Waste Winter use y/n Capacity Lighting/ cooking Heating Siding Human Source Solid
Water Treatment
None Sump Sump Pipe from hut to cistern None Sump
Hut Name
SUBALPINE HUTS Asulkan
Castle Mountain Elizabeth Parker
Glacier NP PC hut Banff NP Yoho NP
2100
12
Propane
Propane
2390 2040
n y
6 20
White metal Log
Lantern/ Coleman stove Propane
Propane
Fay Fairy Meadow
Kootenay NP B.C. Forests
2108 2050 y
12 20
Log Log Propane Wood stove
Pit, deposit on a ledge Pit with removable basket for solids Barrel, flyout Barrel fly-out
Gully Hose pipe from creek Creek Hose pipe from glacierfed creek Creek from glacier
Great Cairn Kain Kokanee
B.C. Forests Bugaboo PP Kokanee Glacier PP

Clemence au Icefield
1830
Stone
Wood stove
Pit
40 20 Log
Lawrence Grassi Mt Colin
y 2020 n
18 6
Jasper NP
Tan metal Log
Oil burning stove Lantern/ Coleman stove Pit Springfed creek
68
Silver Spray Sydney Valance (Fryatt) Stanley Mitchell WaitesGibson Wheeler Woodbury
Kokanee Glacier PP Jasper NP Yoho NP Jasper NP Glacier NP Kokanee Glacier PP
10
Propane
Propane
1980
12
Log
Propane
Wood stove
Barrel, flyout Pit Pit Cistern pump-out Springfed creek Outpost Lake Creek
Sump
2055 1900 1250
y y y
26 25 30 8
Log Log Log
Propane Propane Propane
Wood stove Wood stove Wood stove
Sump Sump Sump
69
Appendix 2 Records of overnight use of Alpine Club huts

High alpine huts from 1988 to 2002
Abbot Pass Neil Cogan Mt. Alberta Scott Duncan 0 86 155 229 201 126 221 209 261 253 260 328 339 308 402 Balfour Peyto 0 225 463 431 361 361 447 626 823 693 745 762 816 984 1079 Bow 0 648 1395 1405 1650 1497 2233 2298 2434 2455 2801 2723 2895 2991 3022
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
673 566 851 781 412 375 592 538 442 566 787 431 622 784 741
0 68 350 474 352 243 308 321 506 504 436 490 491 504 619
0 0 0 0 28 25 23 9 41 19 37 38 86 35 50
181 152 99 329 213 213 218 300 305 376 400 341 262 339 352
70
All ACC huts from 1999 to 2004 High Alpine huts are marked with an *
1999 BC Parks Huts
Kain Kokanee Grassi Silver Spray Woodbury 0 98 0 213 0 1305 1797 1554 1453 1021 145 9 6 1730 63 433 453 2663 92 46 3155 461 229 38 339 728 325 2397 978 1972 2084 198 620 518 2830 140 51 3443 438 363 86 264 851 341 2223 1288 2401 3154 114 788 1294 496 2977 121 56 3750 476 449 35 339 972 304 2036 1114 2056 2524 138 741 1318 576 3009 124 62 4073 544 511 50 339 1076 398 2498 1165 2446 2963 36 842 1128 452 2759 132 71 3993 250 512 48 285 967 291 2247 1204 2560 1601 340 119 3 2 2880 96 790 1247 508 2915 126 63 3939 423 491 44 321 1005 331 2260 1161 2354
2000
2001
2002
2003
3 Year Average
BC Crown Land Huts

Fairy Meadow Great Cairn
National Parks Huts

* Abbot Asulkan * Balfour * Bow Castle Colin E. Parker Fay Fryatt * Mt. Alberta * Neil Colgan * Peyto * Scott Duncan S. Mitchell Wates-Gibson Wheeler
Total Huts
14309
15857
24264
24850
25456
24852
71
Appendix 3 Monthly overnight use for high alpine huts in 2003 and 2004
Nov
Abbot Balfour Bow Mt. Alberta Neil Colgan Peter & Catharine Whyte (Peyto) Scott Duncan 2002 / 03 2003 / 04 2002 / 03 2003 / 04 2002 / 03 2003 / 04 2002 / 03 2003 / 04 2002 / 03 2003 / 04 2002 / 03 2003 / 04 2002 / 03 2003 / 04 0 0 26 20 118 102 0 0 12 0 22 44 4 0
Dec
0 0 42 15 151 165 0 0 1 0 31 16 8 0
Jan
0 0 14 6 58 77 0 0 0 0 19 42 6 8
Feb
0 0 104 73 264 224 0 0 0 0 81 82 64 51
Mar
0 0 70 146 278 347 0 2 0 0 53 131 53 118
Apr
0 0 139 211 268 444 0 0 0 0 203 224 103 168
May
0 0 40 29 77 35 0 0 0 0 20 17 18 22
Jun
19 11 0 7 258 87 0 0 35 4 16 7 0 7
Jul
218 342 12 56 298 436 21 4 188 42 166 119 12 21
Aug
403 311 26 19 337 377 21 14 51 106 266 51 31 24
Sep
175 102 12 6 415 360 3 4 8 13 79 24 0 6
Oct
29 2 n/a 0 239 78 3 0 3 0 4 12 4 0
Total
844 768 485 588 2761 2732 48 24 298 165 960 769 303 425
72
Appendix 4 Goals, Objectives and Key Actions from National Parks Management Plans
Banff National Park Management Plan 5.6.1 Strategic Goals To encourage and support backcountry use. To provide a range of backcountry opportunities. To manage human use to ensure the ecosystem continues to support viable populations of carnivores (wolves and bears). 5.6.2 Objectives to coordinate backcountry management with Yoho, Kootenay and Jasper National Parks and with other neighbouring jurisdictions; to offer a range of backcountry opportunities, including facilities and large tracts of wilderness with no facilities; to encourage activities that relate directly to the park's natural and cultural heritage; to apply the principles of human use management described below (Key Action #2) to all backcountry activities; and to charge user fees for backcountry use in keeping with Parks Canada's principles on user fees (see Section 5.3). 5.6.3 Key Actions 6. Allow the Alpine Club of Canada to maintain huts in specific locations, at or above treeline, as support or emergency facilities for mountaineering activities. prohibit the construction of new alpine huts; apply the Redevelopment of Existing Alpine Huts and Backcountry Shelters (1994) to any proposed redevelopment of existing huts; prohibit the use of helicopters to transport visitors and their supplies to the huts; and allow helicopters and oversnow vehicles to service the huts. Jasper National Park Management Plan Getting away from facilities and roads, or travelling further into the wilderness are important opportunities that will continue to be available. Parks Canada will use the following parameters to manage its wilderness areas: controlled human use will not damage ecological integrity; visitors will experience a sense of freedom, solitude and challenge; vast expanses of protected landscapes will support viable populations of wildlife; a range of backcountry opportunities will require little or no infrastructure; infrastructure that is provided will be consistent with zoning and Backcountry Opportunity Spectrum; the majority of visitors will be self-reliant and will not depend on mechanized equipment, group tours, or commercial guides; small groups will predominate; and commercial and non-profit groups will help visitors in some areas learn the skills necessary to enjoy the backcountry.
73
5.6.1 Strategic Goal Visitors experience the park without impairing its ecological and commemorative integrity. 5.6.2 Objectives To integrate ecological and visitor experience goals To provide opportunities for high quality, appropriate wilderness experiences To coordinate human use management strategies with Yoho, Kootenay and Banf National Parks and with other neighbouring jurisdictions 5.6.3 Key Actions 18. Prohibit new mechanized means of travelling to the backcountry 21. Prohibit new alpine huts or shelters. Minor expansion may be allowed where it is consistent with LMU objectives. 25. Allow specific non-profit organizations (e.g. the Alpine Club of Canada), that have been traditionally allowed to use the backcountry in groups of more than 10 people, to continue this practice. Include details such as group size, frequency of use, campground rotation, and location in agreements with these organizations. Kootenay National Park Management Plan Getting away from facilities and roads, or travelling further into the wilderness are important opportunities that will continue to be available. Parks Canada will use the following parameters to manage its wilderness areas: controlled human use will not damage ecological integrity; visitors will experience a sense of freedom, solitude and challenge; vast expanses of protected landscapes will support viable populations of wildlife; a range of backcountry opportunities will require little or no infrastructure; infrastructure that is provided will be consistent with zoning and Backcountry Opportunity Spectrum; the majority of visitors will be self-reliant and will not depend on mechanized equipment, group tours, or commercial guides; small groups will predominate; and commercial and non-profit groups will help visitors in some areas learn the skills necessary to enjoy the backcountry. Parks Canada will provide opportunities for high quality, appropriate wilderness experiences. This will emphasize traditional means of travel, self-reliance, appropriate numbers of people, building understanding of the impacts of human use on ecological systems and encouraging appropriate visitor behaviour. A wide range of backcountry opportunities will continue to be provided including semiprimitive, primitive and wildland experiences. These categories of backcountry opportunities vary with respect to facilities, infrastructure, degree of management and ease of access. Ecological and human experience goals will determine where each type of experience will be provided. Semi-primitive areas provide the greatest support for visitors. At the opposite end of the spectrum are wildlands where there are no facilities and trails and if they exist at all, they receive little maintenance. This Backcountry Opportunity Spectrum (BOS) is based on the recognition that a combination of ecological, physical, sociological and administrative conditions gives value to an area and shapes a visitor's experience.
74
Long-standing means of travelling through wilderness such as hiking, cross-country skiing, snow-shoeing and horseback riding will receive preference. 5.6.1 Strategic Goals Visitors experience the park without impairing its ecological integrity and important cultural resources. Ecological and social objectives are met for each landscape management unit by assessing and managing human use. 5.6.2 Objectives To integrate ecological and visitor experience goals. To provide opportunities for high quality, appropriate wilderness experiences. To coordinate human use management strategies with Jasper, Yoho and Banff National Parks of Canada and with other neighbouring jurisdictions. Backcountry Allow the Alpine Club of Canada to maintain existing huts for climbers and hikers. prohibit new alpine huts or shelters prohibit expansion of the Fay Hut consider minor improvements to the remaining huts where there are demonstrated ecological gains Prohibit the use of helicopters to transport visitors and their supplies to the huts. Allow access by helicopter to service the huts. Prohibit new commercial facilities and the expansion of existing commercial backcountry facilities. Yoho National Park Management Plan 5.6 Effective Human Use Management Strategic Goals: Visitors experience the park without impairing its ecological integrity and important cultural resources. This section pertains primarily to backcountry opportunities. The plan sets out a number of principles and actions for the backcountry at the broad level and at the landscape management unit level. Emerald Lake and Little Yoho Valley continue to be popular day use destinations within the park. Monitoring in 2002, through traffic and trail counters, will be used to determine current human use levels in this LMU. Levels of use remain low in the Amiskwi, Porcupine and Ice River LMUs. Lake O'Hara continues to be one of the premier hiking areas in the mountain parks.
75
Appendix 5 Inventory of human waste treatment technological options

Technology Method used to Eliminate pathogens Burn pathogens Output product and container Sterile Ash, no nutrients remaining. *No fertilizer potential Energy source and quantity Propane or Natural gas 100 lbs propane per 500 uses Operating Temps Maintenance requirements Odour Issues? Potential Issues Bed nights/year
Incinerating Toilet
All
Trigger incineration cycle every 60 uses. Approx once per weekend + Clean burner Move outhouse when pile is full
Closed chamber during burn. Guarantee against smell. Not when functioning properly
Mouldering composting toilet (continuous composting)
Heated chamber composting toilet
TIME not temperature. Local decomposers & red worms break down waste Thermophilic composting (high temperature)
Ideally sterile compost. Removable tank not likely as pile needs air. Ideally sterile compost. No Removable tank in most commercial brands.
Nil
Operates above 4 C, but not damaged at <4 C Minimum ambient air temp = 13 C, ideal =19 C. Suppleme ntal heat and insulated tank may be required Higher ambient temperatur es yield better
Fuel consumption is considerable, but may reduce helicopter flights compared to fly-out method May not be enough months above 4 C to facilitate breakdown Sufficient temperature, no removable tank. Incomplete process necessitates fly out of container.
2500 bed nights/ 500lbs propane tank (Storburn brand)
500 uses over 20 week season. Highly dependant on model used. Uses per day (year) at 13 C = 25 (9,000) At 19 C 50 (18,000) [http://www.comp
ostingtoilet.com/ Public/Ap_Guide/ Ap_Guide.htm]
Supplemental heat, photovoltaics, wind, microhydro, passive solar
Add bulking agent, turn pile with crank
Not when functioning properly
Dehydration toilet
Dehydration will reduce but not eliminate pathogens.
Volume and mass of waste will be reduced greatly.
Sometimes a small ventilation fan, photovoltaics
Once or twice a year, depending on use, replace full sacs with
Not when functioning properly
A sturdy removable waste container is critical in the case of
76
Waste must be removed from site
Blue bag carry out
Isolation and removal of pathogens from site.
Some brands have removable container. Puncture proof double bag. Sometimes with desiccant material.
are sufficient for electricity.
desiccatio n.
empty ones.
incomplete dehydration.
Nil
All
Pick up of bags at trailhead, and transport to landfill.
Nil
User compliance
Only limited by trailhead collection facility.
Technology Incinerating Toilet Mouldering composting toilet (continuous composting) Heated chamber composting toilet Dehydration toilet Blue bag carry out
Precedents Kluane Lake Research Station.
Cost and brands $4000 StorBurn 44807

http://www.realgoods.com/renew/shop/product.cfm?dp=2400& ts=1044806
- Little Rock Pond Shelter on the Long Trail/Appalachian Trail in the Green Mountain National Forest in Vermont in September 1997 - Breckenridge Colorado, ski resort, elevation 3600m (http://www.clivusmultrum.com/projects/ski_areas/index.html) Elbow lake, Rocky mountain park - Colorado
Custom made - Very basic and affordable, approx $600 or Clivus Multrum - Commercially designed continuous composting system, approx $20,000
Phoenix model 202,

http://www.compostingtoilet.com/Public/Ap_Guide/Ap_Guide.h tm
Used through-out the mountains of Europe at elevations above 3000 m - Mount Hood, Mount Olympus, and Mount Shasta (USA) (http://www.uvm.edu /~rlachape/BT_MAIL.htm) - Kluane National Park (Canada) - Tatshenshini Alsek wilderness area (British Columbia, Canada)
Ecosphere Technologie - Sani-Alpines

http://www.briefrelief.com/br_main.php?page=products&sub=p roducts2
$2 bag for liquid waste, with desiccant/treatment $3 bag for solid waste, with desiccant/treatment
77
Analysis of incineration versus fly-out approaches to the treatment of human waste in alpine regions.
Henry (1990) recommended a waste incinerating system (with heat recovery to supplement building heating) for the Kluane Lake Research station. Several elements of the human and geographical context for high alpine huts are similar to those found at Kluane Lake Research station (low annual mean temperature, remote location, lack of on-site expertise, etc). With further research recommended, this method of waste treatment was determined to be the most feasible for the research station, and may also be a good option for Alpine Club huts. The incineration approach to treating human waste has two clear advantages when compared with other methods: 1. there is no waste to remove when the process is complete (except a few cups of ash), 2. pathogen destruction is almost certain with a complete incineration cycle. Incineration however, uses a substantial amount of energy. Fortunately modern commercial incinerators are reasonably efficient and low maintenance. This method of human waste management may significantly reduce the number of helicopter flights related to waste treatment (when compared to the current fly-out method). The ACCs primary method of waste treatment (fly-out) is estimated to require one outbound helicopter flight per 318 user nights (assuming urine separation and two barrels of waste per Long Ranger helicopter flight) (Wates-Gibson outhouse and fuel analysis, ACC, 2003). Store and burn incineration technology can process approximately five user nights per pound of propane (adjusted for high altitude). This ratio equates to 5000 uses per 1000 lbs of propane. The Long Ranger helicopter can carry 1000 lbs of cargo which equates to two 500 lb propane tanks and 5000 user nights per flight. The incineration method could result in up to 15 times less outbound helicopter flights. The reduction makes this alternative financially and environmentally attractive. Reducing outbound flights will only be beneficial if there is a reduction in the total number of flights. In scenarios where cargo is carried for both inbound and outbound segments of a flight, reducing the outbound cargo requirements will be irrelevant. However if hut maintenance requires transportation of outbound cargo only, incineration could significantly reduce the total number of flights. Huts with large firewood requirements (many inbound flights) are not likely to benefit from the incineration method. Recommendations elsewhere in this report that address the reduction of firewood consumption may be paired with incineration to reduce the total number of helicopter flights. One aspect not dealt with in this analysis, is the financial and environmental cost of the propane to fuel the incinerator. However, the complete combustion of propane is very clean compared to many other forms of energy. The cost of fuel would be offset to a degree by the reduction of helicopter time, and no longer having to transport and treat the waste once it is flown to front-country areas.
78
Appendix 6 Ethics certificate, Questionnaire and Survey Findings
79
User Questionnaire Compilation of received data

General information and user profile (Place an X in the appropriate box) Have you used one of the Alpine Clubs huts in the Rockies in the last Yes No 5 years? 232 46 If no, thank you for your time. The rest of the questionnaire pertains to activities, interests and needs of alpine hut users. If yes, please indicate approximately how many nights you use a hut in an average year. Only once 2 to 5 6 to 10 More than 10 19 106 76 31 In what season do you primarily access the huts? Summer Winter 144 113 What primary activity(ies) were you engaging in at the time you used the hut? Place an X below those that apply. Rock Alpine Hiking Ice-climbing Ski-touring Other climbing climbing activity* 20 112 108 12 132 11 *Please describe the activity: scrambling, caving, glacial travels Lighting Please indicate your level of satisfaction with the type and quantity of lighting currently provided. Place an X above the number that best represents your opinion. Satisfied 107 74 34 12 5 Dissatisfied 1 2 3 4 5 Please describe why you are satisfied or dissatisfied
Where should lighting be provided? Lighting in cooking or common areas only? Lighting in all areas of the hut? Lighting in sleeping quarters? What type of lighting system do you prefer? Place an X below those that apply. Head lamps Electric Propane Candles 93 60 186 16 *If you feel some improvements are needed, please describe: white gas lanterns (3), more windows, LED and other solar powered lights
Yes 204 Yes 47 Yes 25
No 5 No 136 No 159
Other* 13
80
Heating Please indicate your level of satisfaction with the types of heating currently provided (propane and wood). Place an X above the number that best represents your opinion. Satisfied 118 68 31 8 1 2 3 4 Please describe why you are satisfied or dissatisfied
0 5
Dissatisfied
Where should heating be provided? Heat sleeping quarters only. Heat common area only. Heat the entire space. What type of heating system do you prefer? Place an X below those that apply. Wood stove Propane heater Coal 178 115 12 *If you feel some improvements are needed, please describe:
Yes 7 Yes 160 Yes 60
No 118 No 14 No 111
Electric 8
None 3
Waste Management (human waste) Do you find that current toilet facilities provided are sufficient? Place an X above the number that best represents your opinion. Satisfied 99 71 37 11 3 1 2 3 4 5 What type of toilets should be provided? Place an X below those that apply. Pit Toilets Composting Fly-out Flush toilet Pack-out Toilets toilets 61 167 153 9 4 If you feel some improvements are needed, please describe:
Dissatisfied
Other 0
81
Water Treatment Should drinking water be provided? Do you find that current water supply provided is sufficient? Place an X above the number that best represents your opinion. Satisfied 126 65 25 11 1 2 3 4 Do you feel that grey water treatment services are sufficient? Place an X above the number that best represents your opinion. Satisfied 63 78 52 20 1 2 3 4 Do you feel a grey water disposal system should be in place?
Yes 99
No 118
0 5
Dissatisfied
4 5
Dissatisfied Yes 193 No 14
If you feel some improvements are needed, please describe:
Energy Sources Do you feel that energy should be supplied at the huts? If yes, what type of production system would you most support? Place an X below those that apply. Wind Micro-hydro Solar Human-power (bicycle) 54 53 98 20 If you feel some improvements are needed, please describe: Geothermal and fuel cells
Yes 106
No 121
Other 2
82
Details of survey findings

Survey procedures Participants were recruited by using the Alpine Clubs members email address list. Participants selected typically engage in wilderness or adventure-type activities and have made use of the Alpine Clubs huts in the past five years. The survey was carried out by electronic means only. An email note requesting participation of hut users was sent out with a questionnaire and consent letter as an attachment by ACC staff. Replies were received by an ACC volunteer who collected the completed questionnaires and forwarded them to a member of our team for analysis. This ensured anonymity to respondents and fulfilled the promise made by the ACC Board to keep member information confidential. Participants were encouraged to read the informed consent form prior to beginning the survey. Participants could withdraw at any time; no special procedures were required due to the low risk nature of the investigation. They had the opportunity to read the entire survey questionnaire and could choose not to respond. Completion and return of the survey indicated that participants understood, to their satisfaction, the information regarding participation in the research project and agreed to participate. A number of benefits were gained from the administration of this survey. Alpine hut patrons benefited by ensuring that huts continue to meet their needs. The information provided by hut users also helped to tailor the services provided within alpine huts to suit their changing needs. The Alpine Club benefited from a better understanding of the relative importance to users of various infrastructure systems provided in alpine huts. This will help the Club make informed decisions regarding improvements required to meet current and future needs of users while being able to justify expenditures to potential funding organizations. Student researchers acquired valuable insights into user preferences to inform the development of guidelines and design concepts. They also gained a better appreciation for the application of informal surveys as social research method. The Alpine Club of Canada has 5,930 members across Canada. The survey was successfully emailed to 4,832 members and 284 responded which represents a response rate of 5.9%. Although the response rate is statistically significant, the nature of the questions and the way in which they were posed allows only limited quantitative analysis. The qualitative information derived from the comments included in the survey yielded valuable information regarding user preferences and attitudes. There were 46 responses which indicated that respondents had not used ACC huts in the last five years and 6 were unusable because the electronic files were corrupted. The following survey findings are based on the 232 completed surveys received by November 22, our cut-off time for this project. More surveys were received by the ACC after this time but unfortunately could not be included in this analysis because of time considerations. Satisfaction and preferences Respondents were asked several questions of a general nature to obtain further details on hut user profile. They were asked the number of times each year that they use an ACC hut. Figure 18 illustrates the percentage of respondents for each category. A large proportion of respondents (106 responses) use the huts 2 to 5 times each year. Thirty one respondents use the huts more than 10 times per year, and their comments indicated that they are active
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and dedicated alpinists while 19 respondents only use the hut once per year. Based on the comments submitted by these respondents, they appeared to be novices or occasional backcountry enthusiasts.
Number of annual visits to ACC huts 13.4% 8.2%
32.8%
45.7%
Only once/ yr
2 to 5 times / yr
6 to 10 times / yr
More than 10 times / yr
Figure 18 Number of annual visits to ACC huts expressed in percentage of the 232 respondents who completed the survey. Respondents were also asked to indicate their preferred season and the type of activities in which they engage while they are at the huts. A number of respondents indicated that they use the huts equally in summer and in winter while most have a preferred season during which they engage in their mountain activities. Overall, respondents use the huts almost equally to support summer and winter activities. Ski-touring, alpine climbing and hiking were the activities of choice for a great number of users. Figure 19 illustrates the number of responses obtained for each activity listed in the multiple choice question.
Activities enjoyed by ACC hut users 11 132 20 112
12
Rock climbing Ice-climbing
108
Alpine climbing Ski-touring Hiking Other activity*
Figure 19 Number of respondents who indicated particular activities enjoyed while at ACC huts
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Lighting Respondents were asked to indicate their level of satisfaction with the type and quantity of lighting currently provided at high alpine huts. Patrons seem to be satisfied with the propane lights currently provided (figure 20 (a)). Although the level of lighting this system provides appears adequate for most users, some deficiencies were noted. Some respondents indicated that there was not enough light. They mentioned that too much of the hut was dark which made it difficult for them to comfortably prepare meals, repair equipment, read maps or relax with a book. The system may also be difficult to operate for first-time users as indicated by some respondents who were unsure how to light the lanterns. Others mentioned that replacement mantles were not always available. There were also concerns expressed regarding the fire hazard posed by propane and the negative health effects of inhaling the gases from burning the fuel indoors. Another question asked respondents to indicate locations in the hut where light should be provided. Based on the comments received, users do not want light in the sleeping areas. Many commented on how difficult it is to get a good nights sleep in the huts and did not wish to be awoken by other users engaged in activities in the sleeping quarters. Some users did note that it was difficult to find their way in a dark hut for late night trips to the latrine. Comments also indicated that lights should be strategically positioned in the common areas to facilitate the preparation of meals, equipment repair and reading. This is most important in larger huts where light must be shared among many users engaged in different activities all at once. Hut users were asked to indicate, among a list of options, the type of lighting system preferred (figure 21 (a)). Users indicated that they prefer propane lights followed by headlamps. A number of comments suggested that, should improvements to the lighting systems be needed, then electrical lights powered by renewable energy sources would be considered appropriate. LED lights were suggested as potentially viable alternatives if the costs can be kept down, particularly for larger huts. Some of the considerations noted related to the operation of the system. It should be easy to turn on, for example using an on/off switch; it should have the least amount of environmental impacts; and may be on a timer which would automatically turn lights off to ensure that they are not inadvertently left on after the departure of occupants. Additional windows or natural lighting was also mentioned as a desirable asset. Heating Respondents were asked to indicate their level of satisfaction with the type and quantity of heating currently provided at high alpine huts. Patrons are very satisfied with the wood and propane stoves currently provided (figure 20 (b). Comments reflected the desire to maintain wood stoves because of the ambiance created and the sense of camaraderie that develops during the performance of tasks such as chopping and staking wood. Overwhelmingly, respondents do not want to have the entire hut space heated. They commented on the disagreements that erupt from differing opinions on appropriate heating levels, particularly in larger huts. Many suggested that heating would not be necessary if the building was well insulated, while others suggested that only heating the common areas would be acceptable if the warmth can spread to the sleeping quarters.
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As shown in figure 21(b), wood stoves are clear favourites with hut users followed by propane heaters. Wood stoves were seen as contributing to the ambiance and charm of the hut experience. Concerns were expressed regarding the maintenance of the stoves and chimneys. Some users were concerned with fire hazards associated with improperly maintained chimneys, while others suggested that not all users are adept at starting fires and this creates large amounts of smoke in the hut. A number of respondents suggested that high efficiency or pellet stoves could be considered when replacing old units. For larger huts, propane units were considered viable alternatives. These are seen to be safer and easier to operate, particularly in huts that are easily accessible and used by many novice hut patrons. Having the system on a timer for automatic shut-off was a suggested addition if these heaters are installed. Comments also expressed concern regarding the lack or degraded insulation of some huts. This aspect was seen as an important feature particularly in high alpine huts that have no heat source. Waste management human waste The issue of human waste management generated numerous comments and user satisfaction is not as high as with other systems (figure 20(c)). The barrel fly-out system is seen as an improvement over previous latrine facilities, but changing the barrel is a major concern. The weight of the barrel, the unpleasantness of the task and health-related concerns all contribute to making this an issue that requires careful attention. This issue appears to be particularly important for huts that are used by organised groups. Tour leaders may not be as diligent about changing the barrels in a timely manner resulting in overflowing barrels, which contribute to making the task even more unpleasant for individual users. In addition, respondents had mixed views about helicopter flights needed to service the huts and expressed unease about leaving large amounts of material in sensitive environments. Composting is an option that generated many comments from respondents. It is seen as a preferred option, as illustrated in figure 21 (c). Respondents did note that this system might not work in high alpine and cold situations or where the level of use would not produce sufficient bulk of materials. Nevertheless, respondents were interested in further exploring this option as a viable alternative to fly-out for certain situations. They suggested that technological options should not only be appropriate for the size of hut, but also be rugged enough to withstand environmental conditions, be easy to keep clean and operate, and not result in increased rental fees. Water provision The question we posed was confusing to a number of respondents. Figure 20 (d) shows that most respondents were satisfied with the current system. Many respondents indicated that they did not need water to be piped into the hut but rather would be satisfied with clear direction to a reliable source of drinking water near the hut. Information should be provided not only at the hut, but the actual drinking water location should be signed to prevent grey water contamination of the site.
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Grey water management Comments provided by respondents indicated that the protocols for grey water disposal are not always clear. Figure 20 (e) shows divergent satisfaction levels with current methods. Winter time disposal procedures appear to be most problematic. Several respondents indicated that it was very difficult to find the grey water disposal fields in the snow. In addition, many users do not use the pails to bring their grey water to the designated location, opting to simply clean dishes near the hut. Respondents suggested that this behaviour contributes to increasing rodent populations around hut sites. Another issue noted in the comments relate to the disposal of cooking grease. This issue appears to affect mostly high use huts that have grey water disposal systems built into the kitchen sinks. The pipes become clogged and sinks overflow. Additional information and instructions regarding the importance of proper grey water disposal was mentioned as one alternative to address the issues. Energy sources This question was open to different interpretations by respondents and could have been stated more clearly. Despite this limitation, valuable and thoughtful comments were provided by respondents. An equal number of respondents answered that they thought energy, meaning electricity, should be supplied to the huts. A number of respondents commented that they would favour the introduction of electrical systems if it meant a reduction in the overall environmental impacts of the huts without incurring substantial expenses. The comments stipulated that electricity should only be supplied to support improvements to the huts systems. Improvements considered reasonable addressed the need for better lighting and the potential use for emergency communication systems. The electrical production system should make use of clean and renewable energy sources that do not affect the rustic nature of the hut experience. Figure 21 (d) demonstrates that solar power was a favoured electrical production system. There were considerable concerns expressed regarding the provision of electricity inside the hut. Respondents were opposed to the notion of providing electrical outlets inside the hut. Users are concerned that other patrons might plug in CD players or laptop computers, destroying the sense of isolation and rustic wilderness experience sought.
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a.
Lighting - Satisfaction 107 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 1 More 2 3 Satisfied 4 5 Less 34 12 5 74
d.
Water Provision - Satisfaction 126 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 1 More 2 3 Satisfied 4 5 Less 25 11 0 65
b.
118 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 1 More 2 3 Satisfied 4 5 Less 31 8 0 68 Heating - Satisfaction
e.
Grey Water Services - Satisfaction 78 63 80 60 40 20 0 1 More 2 3 Satisfied 4 5 Less 20 4 52
c.
100
99
Waste Management - Satisfaction
71 80 60 40 20 0 1 More 2 3 Satisfied 4 5 Less 37 11 3
Figure 20 Hut user satisfaction with current (a) lighting, (b) heating, (c) human waste management, (d) water provision and (e) grey water treatment systems.
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a.
Lighting Preferences
16 13 93
c.
Waste Management Preferences

9 4 61
153
186
60
167
Pit Toilets Fly-Out Pack-out Composting Toilets Flush
Headlamps
Electric
Propane
Candles
Other
b.
Heating Preferences
12 8 3
d.
Energy Preferences
20 2
54
115
178
98
Wind Micro-Hyrdro Other Solar
53
Wood stove
Propane Heater
Coal
Electric
None
Human Power
Figure 21 Hut user preferences for (a) lighting, (b) heating, (c) human waste management and (d) energy systems options
89
Appendix 7 Operational Guidelines excerpts from Parks Canada Operational Guidelines for Backcountry Lodges and Huts.
1.0 Ecological Integrity 1.2 Maintaining Ecological Integrity Holders of a Licence of Occupation or a Lease Agreement will share the responsibility for maintaining ecological integrity with Parks Canada and are expected to make a fair contribution to ecosystem monitoring, mitigating operational impacts, and modifying commercial activities as deemed necessary by the Superintendent. 1.3 Ecosystem Management Goals The following assumptions regarding the environmental impact of backcountry lodges and alpine huts have been made. Backcountry lodges and alpine huts are compatible with National Park values Any type of human activity in the backcountry will have some impact on the environment. It is the responsibility of park managers to determine what level of impact is acceptable, and to set standards and thresholds to ensure ecological integrity is maintained. The environmental impacts of a backcountry lodge extend beyond the licensed area and Operators share responsibility for impacts which occur as a result of their business activities. Our knowledge of ecosystems is incomplete; therefore, management strategies will change with our evolving understanding of ecosystems. Impacts have incremental and cumulative effects; therefore, they should not be viewed in isolation. All management decisions about human use must be based on the principle of precaution. The following list of ecosystem health considerations bring science into the land use decision making process. 1.3.1 Wildlife, fish and invertebrates disturbance of sensitive, rare or endangered species, as well as species which are key indicators of ecosystem health human / wildlife conflicts barriers to wildlife movement and habitat fragmentation disturbances to predator / prey relationships stress on wildlife, fish and invertebrates during critical times such as breeding / spawning season and natal seasons introduction of non-native species into the land or water base 1.3.2Vegetation disturbance of rare, endangered or sensitive species disturbances to plant communities, species composition or successional stages by: overgrazing or trampling by horses introducing plants which are not native to the area
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the collection and use of firewood 1.3.3 Water quality contamination of lakes, streams and groundwater; includes pollutants, as well as factors which add nutrients to the water siltation caused by soil disturbance 1.3.4 Air quality the reduction of air quality as a result of smoke from heating and other domestic purposes toxic gases or other toxic substances being transported in the atmosphere through the improper handling of domestic materials and garbage (e.g., burning of waste). 1.3.5 Soil quality contamination of soils with pollutants or nutrients . soil compaction resulting from human activity soil loss due to erosion or wind transportation 2.0 General Operations 2.1 Trails and Trail Maintenance Parks Canada is responsible for all designated access trails to lodges and huts. The backcountry Operator is responsible for all trail maintenance within their licensed or leased boundary. Operators are expected to manage the trail network inside their boundary, and to minimize human impact using a variety of methods including the hardening of trail surfaces, and/or rehabilitating redundant or unnecessary connector trails. The Operator may undertake site specific maintenance or reconstruction projects on designated park trails with written authorization from Parks Canada. 2.2 Search and Rescue Services Properly licensed businesses and their employees, agents and contractors will be provided emergency services at no cost. Visitors and clients of backcountry lodges and huts may be invoiced by Parks Canada for the provision of emergency services under circumstances where visitors and clients were required to purchase a Wilderness Pass in addition to paying hut or lodge fees, but had not. 2.3 Emergency Communications Backcountry lodges and alpine huts support various recreational activities in wilderness settings. Clients or employees suffering illness or injury commonly require the use of local emergency services. In addition, Parks Canada occasionally needs to inform backcountry Operators of area warnings, restrictions and closures. Heavily used alpine huts will be encouraged to develop emergency reporting capability. 2.4 Season of Operation Season or period of operation will be governed through the terms and conditions of the respective Licenses of Occupation or Lease Agreement. In the absence of specific
91
references, it is assumed that year-round operations may occur. 2.5 Access and Servicing Helicopters and snowmobiles will not be permitted for the transportation of guests or their duffel to backcountry lodges and alpine huts. Restricted Activity Permits are required for the use of helicopters and snowmobiles for servicing requirements. These permits are subject to environmental assessment and visitor use considerations. Servicing of backcountry lodges and huts is limited to provision of fuel, housekeeping supplies, food, repair materials, and the removal of garbage and other wastes. 2.6 Landscaping All unbuilt areas not used for structures or visitor circulation will be left as natural vegetation. Existing vegetation and terrain will be retained and protected after consideration of fuel hazard reduction (see section 3.3 Wildfire Protection). In visitor circulation areas and horse holding facilities, appropriate site hardening techniques may be used to reduce impacts, upon Parks Canada's approval. The facility must be designed and constructed in harmony with the surrounding natural landscape. Any planting of vegetation will use species which occur naturally in the surrounding area. 2.7 Public Health Water supplies for backcountry lodges must meet applicable Provincial or Federal Canadian Drinking Water Quality Guidelines. Public Health standards indicate water should contain less than 10 total coliform organisms per 100 mL, none of which shall be faecal. Operators are required to have potable water tested at a certified laboratory at their expense with the results made available to Parks Canada upon request. Parks Canada may also request the Operator to test surface water below backcountry lodges and huts where it is suspected that pollution from faecal waste, urine, or grey water may have occurred. Alpine huts Operators will be required to inform users, through signage posted in highly visible areas, that untreated drinking water may contain harmful bacteria and that it is recommended that all water used for human consumption be treated prior to use either by boiling or filtering. 3.0 Buildings and Facilities Backcountry lodges and alpine huts offer overnight accommodation in wilderness settings. These facilities have a long history in the mountain national parks and complement the broad range of experiences available to park visitors. The appearance and quality of these facilities greatly influence the visitor experience. Operators are responsible for proper care and maintenance within the following parameters.
92
3.1 Backcountry Lodge and Alpine Hut Maintenance Guidelines Many of the backcountry lodges were constructed prior to the development of modern Provincial or Federal Construction, Health and Safety Codes. A number of existing backcountry lodges within the mountain national parks have a distinct rustic character, and have received formal recognition of their cultural heritage value. National historic sites such as Skoki Lodge, Twin Falls Chalet and Abbot Pass Hut, require the highest level of protection and must be conserved and maintained in a state reflecting the period during which they were constructed. Other structures are officially recognized as cultural resources of lesser importance. As such, the conservation and maintenance of them is less stringent. Due to the extreme alpine environment, alpine huts above treeline must be able to withstand harsh climatic conditions; therefore, design requirements may significantly differ between backcountry lodges. Where applicable, Federal and Provincial Regulations and building codes relating to health and safety must be met The following guidelines will be applied on a site by site basis. However the principle of providing safe backcountry facilities shall be a primary requirement for all facility operators. General requirements for alpine huts above tree line: low construction profile, single storey, may include loft wood frame construction, sealed and insulated metal will be the primary material for exterior siding and roofing . decks to be made of treated wood foundation can be a combination of rock, concrete and timbers . buildings, privy may be secured by steel guy wires interior walls and floors clean and well maintained outhouse to made of similar material as hut 3.2 Public Safety Requirements Backcountry lodges and alpine huts are accepted as existing construction and therefore, in some cases may not be in complete compliance with all Federal and Provincial Building Safety Regulations and Codes. However, in the repair and maintenance of these structures, the level of safety and building performance shall not be decreased. The backcountry Operator must ensure the following requirements are met, in addition to meeting the applicable Federal and Provincial Building Safety Regulations and Codes (Section I Authority) : Structural integrity: sound, stable plumb, level and true design must be able to support snow loads Stairways and floors: uniform treads and risers, slip resistant handrails required for three risers or more guards required where elevations exceed 600 mm
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floor surfaces: even, true sufficient lighting of stairways, exits and corridors guards and handrails securely fastened to resist imposed loads . posted warnings where hazards exist identified exits Structural fire protection: fuel fired stoves, heaters, chimneys and lighting shall be CSA approved and maintained and serviced to manufacturers' specifications combustion air and ventilation as per code strict adherence to clearance from combustible materials replacement roofing materials shall be metal, or treated wooden shakes only chimneys shall be fitted with approved spark arresters roofs shall be cleared annually of combustible litter decks shall be sheathed in, vents and openings screened with 6 mm mesh Fire safety: portable extinguishers shall be installed in all buildings use of noncombustible materials may be required at some locations . smoke alarms shall be installed fire exits provided (where applicable) 3.3 Wildfire Protection Fire can spread from surrounding forests to backcountry facilities or the reverse. Implementing fire protection measures will reduce the chance that backcountry facilities will ignite given a wildfire, and will also significantly reduce the costs and difficulty of protecting such facilities from wildfire in remote areas of the park. 3.4Redevelopment of Backcountry Lodges and Alpine Huts Redevelopment or renovation to an existing building, or a change in use (or intensity of use) of a backcountry lodge or alpine hut may require a development permit and building permit from Parks Canada. All development proposals are subject to the National Parks Act, the park management plan and other regulatory plans and regulations. We recommend that you contact the Parks Canada Administration Office or Development Office to determine if your project requires a development permit, and to discuss your plans before submitting an application. An Environmental Assessment under the Canadian Environmental Assessment Act may be. required for your project even if you do not require a development or building permit A Development Permit application package is available from park administration offices. Massing: The maximum height for alpine huts; the maximum height of any building shall not exceed a single story (which may include a loft), or five metres. Site development considerations will encourage the maintenance of a low density, unobtrusive development which complements the natural surroundings. Each redevelopment proposal is subject to site-specific evaluation as part of the approval process.
94
Visual quality: Buildings are to be of a design and scale in harmony with the natural surroundings. Natural shades of brown, green and greys must predominate. 4.0 Cultural Resources 4.1 Built Resources Backcountry lodges and alpine huts have long played a significant role in providing park visitors with a National Park wilderness experience. Many of these structures are recognized for their architectural quality, their use of locally obtained materials, and their excellent representation of the rustic design tradition in the National Parks. Buildings under the Licence of Occupation or Lease Agreement which are 40 or more years old will be evaluated by Parks Canada to determine their heritage character. Should buildings be determined to have historic or cultural value, Parks Canada and the Operator will develop formal agreements to ensure that cultural integrity is maintained. Agreements will address the following: protecting the rustic character and all elements that constitute that character (exterior and interior), such as the early fixtures and finishes and relationships among major components of the buildings; effectively communicating the significance of the heritage buildings and cultural landscape to the public; developing maintenance manuals for the long tenn care and maintenance of heritage structures; and fostering proper care and respect for the site and surrounding area from all who may affect it. This is the primary responsibility of the Licensee, the lodge Operator, and associated site staff 5.0 Environmental Stewardship Operators must comply and promote to their clients a strong "wilderness code of ethics". 5.1 Food Garbage All food wastes and associated packaging shall be either completely burnt in a contained "burn barrel" or packed out of the backcountry for disposal.. All cans, glass and rigid plastic containers shall be washed and packed out and disposed of through a recycling program, if available, . Only wet household garbage and plain paper wrap shall be burnt. Dry plastic wrap, Styrofoam and mixed plastic/ paper/ aluminium containers and packaging shall be packed out. Remaining food packaging waste shall be stored in a secure area until its removal, which will occur at least once a week. 5.2 Food Storage Food shall be stored in a manner preventing wildlife from obtaining any human food supplies. Any food not stored in a kitchen or main lodge shall be secured in a bear proof
95
container or building. Any access to human food by bears shall be reported to Parks Canada immediately. 5.3 Potable Water Backcountry lodges will provide an annual water quality test report on drinking water to Parks Canada upon request. It is the Operator's responsibility to ensure potential external pollutants (e.g., wastewater) from its operation do not pollute drinking water sources. See also section 2.7 Public Health. 5.4 Human Waste At trailheads shared by both the public and commercial lodge Operators, toilet facilities will be the responsibility of Parks Canada. However, at a trailhead used primarily by an Operator, toilet facilities shall be built and maintained by the Operator. Operators shall construct and provide either pit privies or a barrel/holding tank and sewage fly-out system. Parks may consider approved septic systems and fields for year round operations. Where sewage is flown out, additional urine separation systems are encouraged. Pit privies shall be located in areas above the water table, a minimum of 50 metres from surface water and ideally, downstream from drinking water sources. Outhouse structures shall be maintained in a way that prevents rodents from entering the dug pit. Stove ashes or lime are the only acceptable additives to be deposited in pit privies; no grey water, chemicals or food products shall be added. For fly-out systems such as the ones used by the Alpine Club of Canada, the procedures to change collection barrels under the toilet must have clear instructions provided on-site and must be easy to accomplish by unfamiliar users (e.g., alpine huts where no full-time custodian is present). Barrel lids must be securely fastened. The Operator is responsible to ensure a schedule is in place to determine when all barrels are full and flying is required A local protocol shall establish disposal procedures for flown out full barrels. The cost of flying barrels in and out shall be the responsibility of the Operator unless stipulated otherwise in the License of Occupation or Lease Agreement. 5.5 Grey Water Facilities with a capacity of' eight people-or less will require basic grey water management. After straining out food particles, grey water may be dispersed at a minimum of 50 metres from surface water sources. Facilities with a capacity greater than eight people will require a grey water management system able to trap and remove food particles and grease, and able to filter out contaminants that may otherwise reach water courses. The system must be covered to prevent access from wildlife. Pit filters combined with a screen to catch food particles, have proven effective in preventing pollution and removing food attractant for wildlife. During winter operations, simplified systems may be used (e.g., food strainer and
96
broadcast dispersal). System designs shall be approved by Parks Canada prior to construction. Alterations may be required in the event the system is found to be ineffective. 5.6 Fire Use A Permit shall be required for the collection of timber in areas nearby for heating and cooking use. Permits issued on an annual basis will stipulate locations where wood can be collected and the number of trees or cords. where there is little or no wood suitable for heating and cooking, Parks may prohibit firewood collection. Operators may be required to fly / sling in firewood or other types of fuel at their expense. Campfires shall be contained in either manufactured or lined fire pits. 5.7 Non-native Plant Control The introduction of non-native plant species into the backcountry is incompatible with ecosystem integrity goals for Parks Canada. Exotics threaten native species, and in some cases outcompete them. Backcountry Operators shall be responsible for control of non-native plants found within the license or lease boundary. Parks Canada will inspect and identify species requiring control and outline associated methods for eliminating the problem. Herbicides will be viewed as a last resort and will only be used with special permission from Parks Canada. No pesticides will be used without a permit. 5.8 Internal Combustion Engines For reasons of noise and air pollution, internal combustion generators are not appropriate in backcountry settings. Chainsaws will be permitted for use during those periods when disturbance to humans and wildlife is minimal. 5.9 Horse Feed & Salt Horse feed such as oats and pellets shall be stored in bear proof containers or secure buildings that are bear proof. Feed shall be stored in containers or buildings that are also rodent proof. Oats should be rolled prior to their transport into the backcountry, and efforts should be made to prevent spillage of feed onto the ground where it may become a wildlife attractant. Salt shall be placed in solid wood boxes (not plywood) or plastic tubs, either on the ground or on elevated stands. The use of carved out stumps to hold salt shall be eliminated and any such existing stumps removed Salt shall be stored inside when horses are not present. 5.10 Cleaning Products Cleaning products used for dishes, floors, clothing and bathing shall be low in, or free of chlorine and phosphates. 5.11 Pesticides The use of poisons, insecticides and herbicides will be prohibited unless approved by Parks Canada.
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5.12 Construction and Trade Waste Only untreated wood scraps are permitted to be burnt. Items such as asphalt roofing, treated timber (e.g., CCA or creosote), plastic rubber and so. forth, shall be removed from the backcountry and disposed of in the manner prescribed by Federal Regulations. The use of untreated wood for exterior and interior applications is strongly encouraged. Treated wood or timber and plastics shall be removed from the backcountry and disposed of in the manner prescribed by the local jurisdiction. Burning of these types of materials is prohibited. Using plywood for exposed exterior applications is not recommended. Porcupines and other small mammals are attracted to these materials and become ,nuisances. Toxic wastes such as paints, solvents, fuels, cleaners etc. will be packed out and disposed in accordance with regulation requirements. 5.13 Problem Wildlife Eliminating building entry points is the best solution to all small mammal problems. If this has been attempted without success, contact Parks Canada to deal with animals such as squirrels, marmots, pack rats, bats and martens. Trapping and relocation of various species (mice exempt), may be conducted with Parks Canada's authorization. Parks Canada will manage large mammals such as bears, elk and wolverine in a manner consistent with various Parks Canada plans. Backcountry lodges may play an important role in species conservation strategies and may be requested to adjust business operations to reduce the potential for human / wildlife conflicts. In the event of human / wildlife conflicts, the lodge Operator shall inform Parks Canada warden service of the incident as soon as it is reasonable to do so. Bear / human encounters are of particular concern and shall be reported immediately. As well as informing lodge guests and employees of the problem or danger, Parks Canada may require the Operator to take additional measures to mitigate the problem and reduce the risk to people. Parks Canada may enter the occupied land to conduct investigations, to restrict or to close areas of the park to human activity as deemed necessary by the Superintendent. Criteria for restrictions or closure for bear problems are set out in Bear Management Plans and Bear / Human Conflict Management Plans. 6.0 Visitor or Client Experience Backcountry Lodge and Alpine Hut Operators working in co-operation with Parks Canada will offer high quality visitor services that are consistent with national park objectives. Parks Canada may periodically require the Licensee to monitor and conduct client surveys, designed in conjunction with Parks Canada, to assess levels of service performance and overall visitor satisfaction. Parks Canada and the Licensee / Lessee will share survey data and results.
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Establishing Infrastructure Guidelines for High Alpine Huts in the Canadian Rockies and Selkirks

Infrastructure Guidelines for High Alpine Huts

Infrastructure Guidelines for High Alpine Huts

Infrastructure Guidelines for High Alpine Huts

Infrastructure Guidelines for High Alpine Huts

Infrastructure Guidelines for High Alpine Huts

Context of the Project

Infrastructure Guidelines for High Alpine Huts

Jasper National Park

Mount Amethyst Lakes Robson Waites-Gibson

Sydney Valance (Fryatt)

Banff National Park

Fairy Meadow Great Cairn

E Bow E Balfour E Scott Duncan

Banff National Park

Marl Creek Burges & James Gadsden

Yoho National Park

Glacier National Park

Kootenay National Park

Mount Ass iniboine Kilometres

Alpine Hut Sub-Alpine Hut Provincial Park National Park

Infrastructure Guidelines for High Alpine Huts

Infrastructure Guidelines for High Alpine Huts

Infrastructure Guidelines for High Alpine Huts

Monthly overnight use of high alpine huts in 2003-04

Infrastructure Guidelines for High Alpine Huts

Infrastructure Guidelines for High Alpine Huts

Infrastructure Guidelines for High Alpine Huts

Infrastructure Guidelines for High Alpine Huts

Infrastructure Guidelines for High Alpine Huts

Summary of Key Issues

Infrastructure Guidelines for High Alpine Huts

Infrastructure Guidelines for High Alpine Huts

Objectives of the Project

Infrastructure Guidelines for High Alpine Huts

Methods Research tourism documents related to adventure tourism as well as research

Infrastructure Guidelines for High Alpine Huts

Review and Discussion of Infrastructure Alternatives

Infrastructure Guidelines for High Alpine Huts

Infrastructure Guidelines for High Alpine Huts

Infrastructure Guidelines for High Alpine Huts

Infrastructure Guidelines for High Alpine Huts

Infrastructure Guidelines for High Alpine Huts

Waste Management Human Waste

Infrastructure Guidelines for High Alpine Huts

Infrastructure Guidelines for High Alpine Huts

Infrastructure Guidelines for High Alpine Huts

Waste Management Solid Waste (garbage)

Infrastructure Guidelines for High Alpine Huts

Water - Water Provision

Infrastructure Guidelines for High Alpine Huts

Water Grey Water Management

Infrastructure Guidelines for High Alpine Huts

Infrastructure Guidelines for High Alpine Huts

Infrastructure Guidelines for High Alpine Huts

Infrastructure Guidelines for High Alpine Huts

Infrastructure Guidelines for High Alpine Huts

Infrastructure Guidelines for High Alpine Huts

Infrastructure Guidelines for High Alpine Huts

Infrastructure Guidelines for High Alpine Huts

Infrastructure Guidelines for High Alpine Huts

Waste Management Human Waste

Infrastructure Guidelines for High Alpine Huts

Infrastructure Guidelines for High Alpine Huts