Factors Which Influence Selection of Comminution Circuits

Chapter 1
FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE SELECTION OF COMMINUTION CIRCUITS

D. J. B a r r a t t M. A. Sochocky
Wright Engineers Limited Vancouver, B.C. Canada
Dravo Engineers P i t t s b u r g h , PA. U.S.A.
INTRODUCTION Summary of F a c t o r s I n f l u e n c i n g Comminution C i r c u i t Design The s e l e c t i o n o f a n a p p r o p r i a t e comminution c i r c u i t f o r a s p e c i f i c o r e is one o f t h e most i m p o r t a n t decisions i n t h e design of a processing p l a n t . The importance i s related t o the f a c t t h a t the c a p i t a l and o p e r a t i n g c o s t s f o r c r u s h i n g and grinding plant generally represent, a s is w e l l known, t h e major p o r t i o n of the plant costs. This chapter w i l l , t h e r e f o r e , i d e n t i f y a s many a s possible of the factors which influence the selection of a comminution c i r c u i t . The number of f a c t o r s which w i l l have t o be c o n s i d e r e d f o r any comminution p r o j e c t will depend, among o t h e r t h i n g s , on t h e t y p e o f project. If, f o r example, the p r o j e c t i s a n e n t i r e l y new mining development, t h e n most, if n o t a l l , t h e f a c t o r s i d e n t i f i e d w i l l have t o be analyzed. If t h e p r o j e c t i s a n expansion o f a developed mining o p e r a t i o n o r i f t h e new orebody i s adjacent t o a viable operation, then t h e existing operation w i l l influence t h e choice o f f a c t o r s o r d e s i g n constraints which need to be considered. The e x i s t i n g i n f r a s t r u c -
t u r e o r s u p p o r t i n g systems may be q u i t e a d e q u a t e t o accommodate t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f any expansion o r new development. Hence, t h o s e f a c t o r s may n o t have t o be c o n s i d e r e d . To c o v e r , however, t h e w i d e s t spectrum o f p r o j e c t s , t h e f a c t o r s which have been i d e n t i f i e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r a r e those which will have to be c o n s i d e r e d f o r t h e most complex o f projects, t h a t of developing a n e n t i r e l y new mining o p e r a t i o n . The r a n g e o f f a c t o r s i s a s broad a s t h e range o f d i f f e r e n t o r e types. Thus, each development must be treated with individualized care. The most i m p o r t a n t s t e p i n t h e development i s t h e a n a l y s i s and understanding o f t h e o r e c h a r a c t e r i s tics. The h a r d n e s s o f t h e o r e , i t s abrasiveness, friability, moisture content, grade, mineralization i n c l u d i n g gangue m i n e r a l i z a t i o n , l i b e r a t i o n s i z e , c h e m i s t r y , and o t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s should be t h e first t o be a n a l y z e d i n t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n . The n e x t should be t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of f a c t o r s such a s p l a n t s i z e , throughput, location, climate, a c c e s s i b i l i t y , and a v a i l a b i l i t y o f water. The s e l e c t i o n o f samples f o r i n i t i a l bench s c a l e work and b u l k sampling (when needed) f o r f u r t h e r
DESIGN, INSTALLATION OF COMMINUTION CIRCUITS

testing, such as larger scale laboratory investigations up to pilot plant scale, are very critical. The importance of careful sampling cannot be over-emphasized. With the development of the first metallurgical flowsheet the comminution engineer will obtain the design criteria for liberation. He will determine the circuit configuration for stages of crushing and grinding and any intermediate beneficiation steps. If media competency tests show that autogenous grinding is possible, various comminution circuits will have to be tested and economically evaluated. In many cases it will be the comminution engineer who will dictate the grinding stages rather than the metallurgist. The advantages and disadvantages of the various comminution circuits are many, but the final analysis involves practical considerations as well as economics. These considerations could be the availability of items such as good media, good straight rods, 10-12.7 cm (4-5in.) balls in a remote geographical area, or trained people to run a sophisticated plant. Finally, it is very important to have a proper understanding of current practices in similar or related industries, to find out why others did what they did, and to learn from their experience. Outline of Various Comminution Circuits under Consideration The variety of possible circuits provides greater challenges for the comminution engineer. To simplify the analyses in this chapter, only the most basic circuits predominantly used and accepted by the mining industry have been considered. These are as follows:
Single Stage Autogenous Autogenous-Ball Mill Autogenous-Pebble Mill Single Stage Semi-Autogenous Semi-Autogenous-Ball Mill Autogenous-Ball Mill-Crusher
Each circuit has its advantages and disadvantages. However, for any particular ore, a specific evaluation has to be made, and when it is shown that the advantages outweigh the disadvantages, that particular circuit should be given additional scrutiny. This does not mean that each of the above circuits should be tested. Needless to say, this would be extremely time consuming and costly. Relatively simple preliminary tests such as media competency tests and Bond crushing impact tests are available and can be used to eliminate a number of the above possibilities. Discussion of Project Development Sequence as it affects the Choice of Factors under Consideration It is a pre-requisite for a successful plant design that a comminution engineer be specifically assigned to a project to work right from the beginning with the metallurgical staff. The process of gathering design criteria and the evaluation of this data can be done either by the owner's staff or by an independent consulting firm. In either case, the starting point is the geologists8 report. This will delineate the orebody and provide a guide to initial sample acquisition. The quantity of the ore sample is usually limited at this point and studies are done on a bench scale to determine basic starting parameters. These bench scale tests, together with what one may call the "experience factor", will allow the metallurgist to propose a few preliminary flowschemes for treating the ore. At this point a preliminary economic viability study should be
Crusher-Rod Mill-Ball Mill Crusher-Ball Mill-Ball Mill Crusher-Rod Mill-Pebble Mill Crusher-Single Stage Ball Mill
prepared which would take into account some f a c t o r s r e l a t i v e t o p l a n t l o c a t i o n , o r e t y p e , product tonnage and q u a l i t y , even i f many f a c t o r s have t o b e o n l y assumptions W e need t o o r educated guesses. concern o u r s e l v e s w i t h t h i s c r i t e r i a only inasmuch a s i t a f f e c t s t h e comminution system design. The m e t a l l u r g i c a l flowsheet w i l l s p e c i f y t h e f i n e n e s s o f g r i n d r e q u i r e d and perhaps t h e need f o r m u l t i - s t a g e g r i n d i n g with i n t e r m e d i a t e concentration steps between grinding stages. Based on t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n , the comminution engineer should conduct the appropriate Bond For t h e purpose g r i n d a b i l i t y tests. of t h i s i n i t i a l f e a s i b i l i t y study, a c o n v e n t i o n a l , crushing-rod m i l l - b a l l m i l l c i r c u i t can b e assumed. T h i s i s a practical first step and f a c i l i t a t e s the evaluation process when c o n s i d e r i n g a l t e r n a t i v e schemes. Samples should a l s o b e s e n t a s soon as possible to an accredited l a b o r a t o r y f o r media competency tests and abrasion index testing. Assuming, o f c o u r s e , t h a t t h e i n i t i a l economic e v a l u a t i o n was f a v o u r a b l e , a more d e t a i l e d f u l l s c a l e f e a s i b i l i t y s t u d y should now be s t a r t e d .
will require a This study thorough i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f a l l t h e f a c t o r s . Depending upon t h e l o c a t i o n and s i z e o f t h e p r o j e c t and t y p e o f d e p o s i t , t h e development w i l l r e q u i r e the acquisition of a larger r e p r e s e n t a t i v e sample, o r sequence of samples, more thorough bench s c a l e work, and perhaps a pilot scale investigation. Many plant d e c i s i o n s w i l l have t o be made a t this point by the comminution engineer. H e should by t h e n have t h e r e s u l t s of t h e media competency tests. The d e c i s i o n w i l l have t o be reached a s t o which comminution c i r c u i t s should be t e s t e d and a l s o a s t o t h e l e v e l of e f f o r t r e q u i r e d . Each c i r c u i t t e s t e d w i l l have t o be evaluated taking into account economic, m e t a l l u r g i c a l , and pract i c a l considerations with regard t o equipment sizing. The final
s e l e c t i o n should be t h e consensus of t h e b e s t knowledge a v a i l a b l e ( 1 , 2). IDENTIFICATION OF FACTORS P r o p e r t i e s o f t h e Orebody o r S e l e c t e d C i r c u i t Feed Geological I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f D r i l l Core and Bulk Samples. The i n i t i a l information gathering process should s t a r t with the geologists1 report. Sampling methods for feasibility studies depend on geological c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e deposit. Initial sample acquisition methods may v a r y and s h o u l d b e a d a p t e d t o each p a r t i c u l a r d e p o s i t , but a t t h i s s t a g e of t h e p r o j e c t development, t h e m e t a l l u r g i s t would most l i k e l y have diamond d r i l l c o r e samples and p o s s i b l y s u r f a c e g r a b samples o r t r e n c h samples t o t e s t f o r development o f d e s i g n p a r a m e t e r s ( 3, 4). The f a c t o r o f i n t e r e s t t o a comminution engineer, from the g e o l o g i s t s 1 r e p o r t , would be t h e identification of mineral c o n s t i t u e n t s present, t h e i r r e l a t i v e q u a n t i t y and d e g r e e o f d i s s e m i n a t i o n , t h e number o f d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e o r e z o n e s and t h e main c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of each. The f o l l o w i n g f a c t o r s s h o u l d be e v a l u a t e d t o p r o v i d e t h e i n i t i a l background i n f o r m a t i o n f o r f u r t h e r d e c i s i o n making. M i n e r a l o ~ i c a l Analysis. Examination o f m i n e r a l s ~ e c i m e n s can d e t e r m i n e the i d e n t i t y , character, grain s i z e r a n g e and middling a s s o c i a t i o n s of t h e o r e m i n e r a l s and c o n s t i t u e n t s of gangue rock ( 3 , 4 1. Such i n f o r m a t i o n w i l l provide l i b e r a t i o n s i z e analyses f o r primary, intermediate o r r e g r i n d a p p l i c a t i o n s of g r i n d i n g and t h e appropriate concentration steps. The examination method g e n e r a l l y u s e d is based on r e f l e c t e d l i g h t optical microscopy for polished s e c t i o n s o r stereoscopy f o r mineral

grains. Where m i n e r a l s have t o b e more s p e c i f i c a l l y i d e n t i f i e d , X-ray diffraction can be used. Occasionally t h e minerals present i n the ore are in such complex a s s o c i a t i o n s t h a t they cannot be i d e n t i f i e d by s i m p l e o p t i c a l o r X-ray d i f f r a c t i o n techniques. In these c a s e s , e l e c t r o n p r o b e a n a l y s i s can be used to determine the mineral c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f the element(s) i n question (5). Chemical Analysis. A complete chemical analysis is always a valuable tool. While i t i s more relevant t o the design of the beneficiation flowsheet, i t might p r o v i d e t h e comminution e n g i n e e r w i t h t h e first c l u e s t o p o s s i b l e problems i n comminution c i r c u i t d e s i g n and t o the need for additional circuit design parameters.
If, for instance, there is e v i d e n c e of a l k a l i e s o r s u l p h a t e s , s l i m i n g may b e a problem and s h o u l d be anticipated. S u l p h a t e s may a l s o produce a n a c i d i c s l u r r y which would result in high media wear or u n d e r l i n e t h e need f o r a n o r e washing s t a g e i n t h e flowsheet.
Bond g r i n d a b i l i t y t e s t s , a b r a s i o n tests, and autogenous media competency t e s t s . It should b e emphasized that all the aforementioned t e s t s r e q u i r e a small amount o f sample. The r e s u l t s , w h i l e o b v i o u s l y used a s t o o l s t o o b t a i n f i n a l q u a n t i t a t i v e design parameters, a l s o enable the metallurgical staff t o c h a r t a c o u r s e of a c t i o n through a better understanding o f t h e o r e characteristics. Analysis of t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n should e v e n t u a l l y narrow the number of circuit options available.
It s h o u l d b e emphasized t h a t i f a n orebody i s n o t homogenous (and what o r e i s ? ) t h e d i s t i n c t o r e t y p e s s h o u l d b e sampled s e p a r a t e l y . Bond g r i n d a b i l i t y t e s t s , a b r a s i o n tests and media competency tests should b e r u n on e a c h o r e t y p e which t h e mining p l a n shows could b e , a t any t i m e , a major p o r t i o n o f t h e m i l l feed. It i s recommended t h a t each t y p e o f o r e be t e s t e d s e p a r a t e l y . Testing of i n d i v i d u a l ore types w i l l give an i n d i c a t i o n a s t o t h e degree o f f l u c t u a t i o n t h a t c a n b e expected i n mill performance. Testing of c o m p o s i t e s should b e done i n t h e p i l o t t e s t i n g phase (6).
Physical Properties (hardness, friability, grain size distribution). The f i r s t v i s u a l o b s e r v a t i o n s c a n immediately g i v e a n i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e h a r d n e s s , b l o c k i n e s s and f r i a b i l i t y o f t h e o r e and o f t h e amount o f primary fines or clay-type constituents, and other physical properties. These o b s e r v a t i o n s c a n p r o v i d e c l u e s t o p o s s i b l e problems i n c r u s h i n g , s c r e e n i n g and g r i n d i n g and can influence flowsheet design. Examples a r e : t h e a v o i d a n c e o f s l i m e generation when processing tin, tungsten, lead, chromite, o r tantalum o r e s ; t h e r e l e a s e o f molybdenite a t a c o a r s e g r i n d from f r a c t u r e p l a n e s i n a blocky granodiorite; the e l i m i n a t i o n of problems i n a f i n e c r u s h i n g p l a n t by u s e o f semia u t o g e n o u s g r i n d i n g when p r o c e s s i n g a clayey ore. However, f u r t h e r t e s t samples s h o u l d b e made a v a i l a b l e f o r
Design Requirements Review o f C i r c u i t Feed Parameters (mine o u t p u t , p r o d u c t i o n s c h e d u l e s , t h r o u g h p u t and s i z e a n a l y s i s ) . It i s essential that the comminution engineer have a clear overall u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e p r o j e c t and i t s conception. He s h o u l d b e f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e mining p l a n s , s c h e d u l e s , m i n i n g r a t e s , minj.ng methods and equipment s i z e s , e t c . These c a n a f f e c t t h e s i z e and/or choice of processing equipment, particularly f o r c r u s h i n g o r primary m i l l i n g , a s w e l l a s o p e r a t i n g h o u r s i n primary o r f i n e crushing, necessity f o r ore s t o r a g e , manpower r e q u i r e m e n t s and t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e crushing o r grinding plant. The primary c r u s h e r i s normally
SELECTION OF COMMINUTION CIRCUITS

p a r t o f any proposed p l a n t . It i s i n most c a s e s a primary g y r a t o r y l o c a t e d on s u r f a c e o r , f o r underground mines, u s u a l l y a jaw c r u s h e r . The s i z e o f these crushers w i l l be d i c t a t e d n o t o n l y by t h e mining r a t e and t h e t o p s i z e o f t h e mined r o c k which w i l l b e d e l i v e r e d , b u t a l s o by t h e p r o d u c t size required. For instance, depending upon t h e s i z e o f the autogenous m i l l s b e i n g c o n t e m p l a t e d , a feed size parameter of 15.25-30.50 cm (6-12 i n . ) may be desirable. Another i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r which t h e comminution e n a i n e e r h a s t o know i n the early stages of circuit p l a n n i n g i s t h e tonnage t h r o u g h p u t requirements. These a r e determined i n due c o u r s e by economic f e a s i b i l i t y s t u d i e s which a s c e r t a i n t h e q u a l i t y and q u a n t i t y o f t h e p r o d u c t which w i l l b e needed f o r p r o j e c t v i a b i l i t y . These numbers a r e a v a i l a b l e s o o n e r , b u t perhaps w i t h less a c c u r a c y , from t h e head a s s a y o f t h e o r e and from e x p e r i e n c e which c a n p r e d i c t t h e p r o d u c t s p e c i f i c a t i o n and tonnage requirements.
r e q u i r e d t o o b t a i n Bond work i n d i c e s f o r rod m i l l i n g and b a l l m i l l i n g and lump samples c a p a b l e o f g e n e r a t i n g 7.7 cm ( 3 i n . ) cubes a r e n e c e s s a r y If a n f o r c r u s h e r impact t e s t s . economic ore deposit has been e s t a b l i s h e d and p r e l i m i n a r y bench s c a l e work shows promising r e s u l t s , f u r t h e r sampling w i l l b e needed. A l s o , i f p r e l i m i n a r y media competency t e s t s have i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e o r e h a s autogenous or semi-autogenous potential, samples have to be obtained t o t e s t t h i s further. For e i t h e r a n open p i t o r underground mining o p e r a t i o n , p r e l i m i n a r y mine development work o f t e n c o n s i s t s of driving adits o r shafts i n t o the deposit. Typically f o r autogenous m i l l t e s t i n g , 22,700 45,400 k g (2550 t o n s ) o f r e p r e s e n t a t i v e sample f o r each o r e type a r e r e q u i r e d for p r o c e s s i n g t h r o u g h a 1.7-1.8 m (5-1/2 o r 6 f t . ) diameter p i l o t m i l l . The samples should be run-of-mine p r e p a r e d i n t h e normal manner by d r i l l i n g and b l a s t i n g t o a b o u t a 20.3 cm ( 8 i n . ) t o p s i z e .
Review Of Requirements for Testing Various Circuits. The and q u a n t i t y o f sample may v a r y . It cannot b e s t r e s s e d - o f t e n -enough t h a t any p r o c e s s f o r a n y g i v e n orebody i s o n l y a s r e l i a b l e a s t h e sample upon A company would which i t i s based. be well advised t o i n v e s t t h e time and money t o o b t a i n p r o p e r samples. The q u a n t i t y of sample required cannot be d e f i n e d . The t y p e o r d e p o s i t and t h e m i n e r a l i z a t i o n w i l l d i c t a t e t h e sampling programme needs.
A s h a s been a l r e a d y mentioned i n a previous section, preliminary samples a r e usually obtained as d r i l l i n g progresses t o d e l i n e a t e t h e orebody. The c o r e s a r e s p l i t i n h a l f and one h a l f g o e s f o r m e t a l l u r g i c a l testing. Sometimes s u r f a c e g r a b sampling o r t r e n c h i n g is a l s o used a t t h i s point t o g e t material for preliminary testwork. Generally, (50 lb.) o f sample is 22.7 kg
The r e l a t i v e c o s t s o f o b t a i n i n g s a m p l e s , t e s t i n g them and t h e time taken a r e significant f a c t o r s i n t h e of c i r c u i t t o b e i n v e s t i g a t e d . Identification of Contiguous Processes, t h e i r Requirements and Inter-relationships with Identified Comminution S t e p s . Each p i e c e o f comminution equipment has its inherent characteristics. Thus, o n e s a y s t h a t rod m i l l s p r o d u c e fewer fines than ball mills; closedcircuiting reduces overgrinding; autogenous m i l l s break o r e a l o n g g r a i n b o u n d a r i e s and c o n s e q u e n t l y c a n l i b e r a t e values a t coarser s i z e s . These b a s i c t e n e t s , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e particular properties of the ore, i n f l u e n c e t h e comminution e n g i n e e r ' s thinking when he is selecting equipment which must produce a product that has characteristics compatible with those required i n t h e feed f o r t h e subsequent c o n c e n t r a t i o n process. If a n o r e h a s t h e t e n d e n c y t o slime, t h e c i r c u i t may i n c o r p o r a t e

high-efficiency classification in closed-circuit with a grinding m i l l . This high-efficiency classification may c a l l f o r high-speed s c r e e n s o r two-stage cyclone classification. Removal of a troublesome clay c o n s t i t u e n t may r e q u i r e d r y g r i n d i n g and p r e - c o n c e n t r a t i o n b e f o r e t h e o r e c a n b e wetted. Conversely, the beneficiation f l o w s h e e t might have t o accommodate a mesh Of grind that a piece Of comminution equipment naturally grinds This is true with autogenous m i l l s . This consideration can be illustrated by a recent plant flowsheet f o r a t a c o n i t e i r o n ore. Comminution c i r c u i t s f o r a t a c o n i t e o r e would commonly b e d e s i g n e d a s two-stage systems incorporating e i t h e r a rod m i l l - b a l l m i l l c i r c u i t o r autogenous g r i n d i n g f o l l o w e d by ball mills. The r e c e n t f l o w s h e e t , however, incorporated single-stage autogenous grinding i n c l o s e d - c i r c u i t with magnetic separators and cyclones. While t h e power e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e g r i n d i n g c i r c u i t was n o t a s f a v o u r a b l e a s t h a t o f t h e more common two-stage p l a n t , t h e s i m p l i c i t y o f flowsheet offsetting the capital c o s t s o f g r i n d i n g m i l l s made o v e r a l l economic s e n s e ( 7 ) . Thus i t becomes c l e a r t h a t t h e comminution a s p e c t s o f t h e f l o w s h e e t a r e closely i n t e r - r e l a t e d with t h e beneficiation processes and close cooperation i n designing t h e s e is indispensable. I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f Feed and P r o d u c t S p e c i f i c a t i o n s f o r Each Comminution S t e p i n t h e Process. Feed and product s p e c i f i c a t i o n s begin a t t h e earliest stages of flowsheet development. Size analysis of the p l a n t f e e d o r mine o u t p u t i s t h e f i r s t item t o be determined, s i n c e t h e proportion o f f i n e s can influence t h e necessity f o r screening a f t e r primary crushing. Open p i t mines c a n a d j u s t t h e run-of-mine top size t o t h e p r i m a r y c r u s h e r requirements. In underground mines, e s p e c i a l l y if t h e p r i m a r y c r u s h e r is underground, t h e mine p r o d u c t may be much f i n e r a s d i c t a t e d by t h e h a n d l i n g c a p a b i l i t i e s o f h a u l i n g o r h o i s t i n g equipment. P r o c e s s development work might a l s o be providing t h e f i r s t indications of t h e ground p r o d u c t s p e c i f i c a t i o n . Most comminution equipment i s designed to work in a specific size r a n g e . However, a s u s u a l , g r a y a r e a s exist and t h i s makes l i f e f o r a comminution e n g i n e e r both c h a l l e n g i n g and i n t e r e s t i n g . How fine to crush before g r i n d i n g i s one o f t h o s e a r e a s . Recent developments in highe f f i c i e n c y c r u s h i n g c i r c u i t s make i t more a c c e p t a b l e t o do away w i t h rod m i l l s and proceed d i r e c t l y t o b a l l m i l l s which do n o t have t h e same product and equipment size l i m i t a t i o n s (8, 9, 10). I f rod m i l l i n g is used, i t i s p r e f e r a b l e t o prepare t h e feed with closed-circuit c r u s h i n g i n o r d e r t o a v o i d problems caused by s e g r e g a t e d o v e r s i z e ( i . e . forcing rods apart). I f crushing i s done underground and t h e mine p r o d u c t size is too small for primary autogenous m i l l i n g , a s practiced i n North America, the more even 1ength:diameter r a t i o type of m i l l , as used in South African or S c a n d i n a v i a n p r a c t i c e , may be t h e answer. The Importance of Work Index and Abrasion Index. The Bond work i n d e x method is a very useful and c o n v e n i e n t t o o l f o r a comminution engineer. Application of test r e s u l t s t o t h e Bond work i n d e x formula provides the initial i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e u n i t power r e q u i r e d to grind any particular ore. Additionally, because the method r e q u i r e s a s m a l l amount o f sample and c o s t s r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e , u n i t power r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r g r i n d i n g can b e a s c e r t a i n e d q u i c k l y and a c c u r a t e l y f o r a number o f d i f f e r e n t o r e t y p e s e a r l y i n t h e development o f a p r o j e c t

by u t i l i z i n g d r i l l c o r e samples. T h i s knowledge a t a n e a r l y s t a g e can be very u s e f u l i n any economic analysis. Work i n d e x should be determined f o r d i f f e r e n t a p p l i c a t i o n s of comminution, i.e. c r u s h i n g , rod m i l l i n g and b a l l m i l l i n g . It i s o f t e n a f a l s e assumption t o e x p e c t work index t o be uniform f o r a l l incremental s t a g e s o f s i z e r e d u c t i o n i n a process. It i s important t o recognize t h a t work i n d e x , W i , i s a parameter which i s used t o determine t h e u n i t power requirement. In these days of m e t r i c a t i o n , work index i s s t i l l r e p o r t e d on t h e b a s i s o f s h o r t t o n s and can, if r e q u e s t e d , be a d j u s t e d t o r e f l e c t m e t r i c tons. Abrasion tests serve a s an i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e m e t a l wear t h a t can be expected i n c r u s h i n g and g r i n d i n g . Once determined, t h e y may be a first i n d i c a t i o n t h a t autogenous g r i n d i n g should be i n v e s t i g a t e d a s steel wear can be a s i g n i f i c a n t c o s t item. Once a composite o f t h e e n t i r e o r e deposit is established, Bond g r i n d a b i l i t y work should be r u n t o get the overall unit power requirement. Mathematical a v e r a g i n g of Bond work i n d i c e s f o r a series o f o r e t y p e s normally d o e s n o t produce the correct average unit power requirement. Differential grinding causes each o r e t y p e t o be ground t o a d i f f e r e n t s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n , some f i n e r and some much c o a r s e r t h a n t h e average (11). I f pilot testing is needed because o f t h e complexity o f t h e flowsheet and size of the d e p o s i t , Bond g r i n d a b i l i t i e s should be used d u r i n g t h e p r o c e s s o f t h i s test work t o check on t h e g r i n d i n g d a t a produced from t h e p i l o t m i l l . Frequently, t h e s e m i l l s a r e o v e r s i z e d i n respect t o t h e p i l o t beneficiation circuit and therefore run i n t e r m i t t e n t l y and a r e consequently never p r o p e r l y balanced. In small mills i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o measure power consumed f o r g r i n d i n g because o f t h e high p r o p o r t i o n o f power which is absorbed i n d r i v e i n e f f i c i e n c i e s and f i x e d load c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . The major requirement f o r a p i l o t m i l l i n grinding testwork i s t o e s t a b l i s h a reliable relationship between g r i n d i n g power and measured power. T h i s c a n be done i n two ways:
by u s i n g s o p h i s t i c a t e d i n s t r u mentation t o t a r e t h e m i l l . by g r i n d i n g a number o f o r e s w i t h known power consumption and establishing an empirical r e l a t i o n s h i p between p i l o t m i l l power and a c t u a l g r i n d i n g power.
I n c a s e s where t h i s k i n d o f p i l o t m i l l c a l i b r a t i o n is n o t p o s s i b l e , t h e Bond g r i n d a b i l i t y work i n d e x method o f f e r s a n e x c e l l e n t power d e t e r m i n a n t f o r an ore. Determination o f Power Requirements. Determination o f power requirement may c e a s e w i t h Bond g r i n d a b i l i t y work, and i n some c a s e s w i t h s m a l l e r and more homogenous o r e b o d i e s t h a t u t i l i z e t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l c r u s h i n g and g r i n d i n g f l o w s h e e t t h i s may be t h e c a s e . The more common p r a c t i c e is t o r u n a p i l o t p l a n t and t o u s e o t h e r means t o v e r i f y t h e Bond numbers. Many firms have developed l a b o r a t o r y t e c h n i q u e s t h a t have been c o r r e l a t e d t o e x i s t i n g o p e r a t i o n s and r e f i n e d over the years a s an a l t e r n a t i v e s u c c e s s f u l method f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e power requirements. When p i l o t p l a n t m i l l s a r e used t o o b t a i n s p e c i f i c grinding power, care should be exercised t h a t t h e m i l l i s i n balance and that the tests are run s p e c i f i c a l l y t o obtain grinding data. For autogenous g r i n d i n g , e s p e c i a l l y , a thorough test programme i s needed. Most i n s t a l l a t i o n s now have a 1.71.8 m (5-112-6 ft.) d i a m e t e r test m i l l and r e q u i r e 22,700-45,400 kg (25-50 t o n s ) of o r e f o r one test programme. These tests c a n a l s o be done a t t h e mine s i t e and w i t h v e r y l a r g e and v a r i e d d e p o s i t s t h i s may make sense. However, i t i s p r o b a b l y more economical t o s h i p t h e sample t o an established laboratory t h a t has the people and the methodology

readily available.
A method e x i s t s today which u t i l i z e s a s m a l l 450 mm m i l l t o provide preliminary autogenous u n i t power r e q u i r e m e n t s (Autogenous Work Index) which can establish the requirement f o r a f u l l s c a l e p i l o t test and e n s u r e t h a t t h e r e a r e no g r i n d i n g s u r p r i s e s i n t h e orebody by p r o v i d i n g a n i n e x p e n s i v e way t o test t h e various ore types (12).
Thus, u n i t power r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r many c o n v e n t i o n a l c i r c u i t s c a n b e determined by Bond g r i n d a b i l it y procedures, by v a r i o u s l a b o r a t o r y m i l l s which have been c a l i b r a t e d and r e l a t e d t o e x i s t i n g p r o d u c e r s and i f need b e by p i l o t p l a n t t e s t i n g . For autogenous a p p l i c a t i o n s preliminary power may b e o b t a i n e d from 450 mm m i l l t e s t s but a s a r u l e p i l o t p l a n t work s h o u l d be run. Circuit Selection versus AvailPower ,Requirement a b i l i t y , Mode o f G e n e r a t i o n , C o s t and S p l i t between C r u s h i n g and grind in^ f o r Various C i r c u i t s . Needless t o s a y , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f a few a r e a s i n t h e w o r l d , power i s t h e most c r i t i c a l i t e m i n any g r i n d i n g c i r c u i t evaluation. A s mentioned b e f o r e , t h e comminution c i r c u i t i s p r o b a b l y t h e m a j o r u s e r o f power i n a n y m i n e r a l processing plant. While cost a n a l y s i s may show t h a t a c i r c u i t which i s l e s s e f f i c i e n t i n t h e u s e o f power c a n be more economical o v e r a l l ( 7 , 131, t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f f u t u r e rapid escalation of power costs r e q u i r e s a c a r e f u l examination a s t o how power consumption c o u l d b e k e p t t o a minimum. This i s r e a l l y i m p o r t a n t i f one c o n s i d e r s t h a t u n i t power consumption c a n b e 25% h i g h e r f o r semi-autogenous m i l l c i r c u i t s and perhaps 100% h i g h e r for fully a u t o g e n o u s m i l l c i r c u i t s compared t o c o n v e n t i o n a l c r u s h i n g and g r i n d i n g circuits. M e t a l consumption w i l l n a t u r a l l y b e less b u t w i t h p r i m a r y a u t o g e n o u s g r i n d i n g , o n l y a b o u t 60% of t h e t h e o r e t i c a l s a v i n g s can b e
r e a l i z e d because o f h i g h e r l i n e r and feed c h u t e wear i n comparison w i t h a conventional c i r c u i t (14). Availa b i l i t y w i l l b e 90% o r l e s s f o r f u l l y a u t o g e n o u s g r i n d i n g and up t o 92% h a s been a c h i e v e d f o r semi-autogenous grinding. J.H. B a s s a r e a r ( 15 ) r e p o r t e d on t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f Cyprus Pima Mining Co. where c o n v e n t i o n a l and semi-autogenous m i l l s o p e r a t e on i d e n t i c a l o r e . The comparison i s f o r a f o u r - y e a r t i m e p e r i o d , 1974-1977. It showed t h a t l i n e r consumption was 6.7% more and media consumption 14.5% more w i t h t o t a l s t e e l consumption being 13.5% higher for the c o n v e n t i o n a l c i r c u i t compared t o t h e SAG m i l l c i r c u i t ; however, power consumption was 15.5% lower. Thus, f o r t h i s comparison, e x t r a s t e e l costs incurred by one circuit b a l a n c e d t h e e x t r a power c o s t f o r t h e other circuit. Unit power consumption for p e b b l e m i l l i n g c a n g e n e r a l l y be a s e f f i c i e n t a s b a l l m i l l i n g i f one c o n s i d e r s t h e power t h a t is used t o g r i n d p e b b l e s a s w e l l ( 1 4 ) . However, i n r e a l terms t h e maximum power drawn by a g i v e n m i l l s i z e used f o r pebble m i l l i n g i s o f t h e o r d e r o f 50% o f t h e power used by t h e same m i l l i f i t were used a s a b a l l m i l l and hence t h e t o n n a g e p r o c e s s e d would be h a l f . Rod m i l l - b a l l m i l l c i r c u i t s have t h e h i g h e s t u n i t power e f f i c i e n c y and o f f e r 95% o r g r e a t e r a v a i l a b i l i t y . T h i s is a l i t t l e lower t h a n a s i n g l e s t a g e b a l l m i l l o r a b a l l mill-ball mill circuit (which o f f e r s 97%) because of down-time for rod charging. Primary ball mill circuits, which accept crusher p r o d u c t a s f e e d , have a n i n h e r e n t l y lower u n i t power e f f i c i e n c y compared to normal secondary ball mill i n s t a l l a t i o n s and a f a c t o r o f 10-205 h a s t o b e added t o t h e s t a n d a r d power calculation. Grate discharge b a l l m i l l s , a r e c a p a b l e o f consuming 15% more power t h a n o v e r f l o w b a l l mills f o r t h e same u n i t power e f f i c i e n c y but maintenance costs and a v a i l a b i l i t y would b e l e s s f a v o u r a b l e (2, 14).

Recent advances in crusher c i r c u i t automation, it i s c l a i m e d (161, have s h i f t e d t h e s i z e s p l i t t o favour c r u s h i n g , p o s s i b l y e l i m i n a t i n g the need for rod milling and providing a b e t t e r o v e r a l l operating system. The twin pendulum t e s t h a s been designed t o e s t a b l i s h s i z e a n a l y s i s o f t h e c r u s h e r p r o d u c t and unit power requirement so that c r u s h i n g and s c r e e n i n g f l o w s h e e t s c a n b e designed t o minimize c a p i t a l and o p e r a t i n g c o s t and maximize power efficiency. Certainly more s o p h i s t i c a t e d c i r c u i t c o n t r o l s , which may i n c l u d e o n - l i n e computers, h a v e made m i l l o p e r a t i o n s more e f f i c i e n t and should be f u l l y e x p l o r e d . I n summary t h e u n i t power c o s t , which depends upon t h e mode o f power g e n e r a t i o n and hence l o c a t i o n o f t h e comminution p l a n t , i s p r o b a b l y t h e most s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r which c a n i n f l u e n c e t h e s e l e c t i o n of equipment and p l a n t d e s i g n i n o r d e r t o keep o v e r a l l power c o s t s t o a minimum and to achieve the most economical c a p i t a l and o p e r a t i n g c o s t . I n North America t o d a y , p u b l i c u t i l i t i e s s e l l power a t p r i c e s r a n g i n g from 1.5 t o 6.5 c e n t s p e r kw-hr. and i n i s o l a t e d areas requiring d i e s e l generation, t h e c o s t c o u l d be a s h i g h as 15 c e n t s p e r kw-hr. For p r o j e c t s f o r c e d t o a b s o r b a h i g h power c o s t , i t i s unlikely t h a t potential savings i n l i n e r and media c o s t s t o b e r e a l i z e d by u s i n g autogenous g r i n d i n g c o u l d offset the costs associated with h i g h e r u n i t power consumptions when compared w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l c r u s h i n g and g r i n d i n g . Effect of Circuit Selection on Metallurgical. With t h e standard conventional circuit the q u e s t i o n is how much t o g r i n d p e r s t a g e and whether t o c l o s e - c i r c u i t a m i l l o r t o operate i n open-circuit. Feed v a r i a t i o n t o t h e m i l l , a l t h o u g h never a d e s i r a b l e f e a t u r e , c o u l d be tolerated at least from the perspective of the comminution c i r c u i t design. Autogenous g r i n d i n g has brought numerous new
complications. Many o f t h e s e are a result of the responsiveness o f autogenous m i l l i n g t o feed v a r i a t i o n . The o r e t e l l s t h e m i l l how it w a n t s t o be ground as t h e s a y i n g g o e s . If t h e o r e breaks along g r a i n boundaries e a s i l y , t h e m i n e r a l v a l u e s can b e l i b e r a t e d a t a c o a r s e r g r i n d and w i t h h i g h e r e f f i c i e n c y t h a n w i t h media grinding. With o t h e r o r e s a l o t o f s l i m e s may b e g e n e r a t e d . Another t h i n g t h a t c a n be o v e r l o o k e d i n t h e a u t o g e n o u s p l a n t d e s i g n is t h a t f o r a given product s p e c i f i c a t i o n t h e m i l l may have a 50%-100% s w i n g i n f e e d r a t e depending upon ore sizing, h a r d n e s s , and o t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which w i l l have t o be accommodated by the metallurgical circuits downstream. C e r t a i n l y t h e need f o r b e t t e r b l e n d i n g f o r f e e d homogeneity t o a u t o g e n o u s m i l l s i s more o b v i o u s , a s w e l l a s t h e need f o r c l o s e m o n i t o r i n g o f c i r c u i t performance. Generally with autogenous o r semi-autogenous g r i n d i n g t h e r e i s a six-month t o two-year l e a r n i n g c u r v e b e f o r e t h e o p e r a t i n g p r i n c i p l e s and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e w e l l understood. A d d i t i o n a l l y some a d j u s t m e n t s t o t h e p r o c e s s f l o w s h e e t might h a v e t o b e made ( 1 4 ) . On t h e p l u s s i d e , i f a n o r e is wet and s t i c k y and a r e a l problem f o r c r u s h i n g and s c r e e n i n g e x i s t s , a SAG m i l l may b e t h e answer and can override all other considerations (15). The cost benefit of time and relative production l o s s e s o r g a i n s f o r such a c h o i c e h a s t o be worked o u t . Rod m i l l s have been c h o s e n i n many c a s e s b e c a u s e o f t h e i r i n h e r e n t f e a t u r e o f g r i n d i n g down t h e t o p s i z e p r e f e r e n t i a l l y and g e n e r a t i n g less f i n e s than primary b a l l m i l l s . This can a f f e c t magnetic recovery a s i n t h e t a c o n i t e f l o w s h e e t s where c o b b e r wet drum magnets f o l l o w t h e f i r s t grinding step. It i s a m e t a l l u r g i c a l axiom t h a t v a l u a b l e m i n e r a l s s h o u l d b e r e c o v e r e d from t h e s t r e a m a s soon a s they a r e liberated. Ideally multiple grinding steps, each f o l l o w e d by a b e n e f i c i a t i o n s t e p ,

would c o n s t i t u t e a more m e t a l l u r g i c a l l y e f f i c i e n t f l o w s h e e t t h a n ones t e p g r i n d i n g f o l l o w e d by o n e - s t e p beneficiation. However, such a f l o w s h e e t might n o t b e c o s t - e f f i c i e n t b o t h from t h e c a p i t a l c o s t and operating cost aspects and, therefore, some m e t a l l u r g i c a l and g r i n d i n g power e f f i c i e n c y m i g h t h a v e to be sacrificed to reach an e q u i t a b l e balance. Flowsheets f o r processing tin, iron, tungsten, c h r o m i t e , l e a d and t a n t a l u m o r e s a r e t y p i c a l i n t h i s regard. When compared w i t h a u t o g e n o u s g r i n d i n g o r lump m i l l i n g , s y s t e m s u s i n g c o n v e n t i o n a l g r i n d i n g and s t e e l media t o m i l l complex s u l p h i d e o r e s can impair t h e recoveries o f copper, l e a d , and z i n c by f l o t a t i o n ( 1 7 , 1 8 , 19). It s h o u l d b e emphasized t h a t t h i s effect i s n o t a l w a y s o b s e r v e d with these types of ores. The physico-chemical mechanisms which u n d e r l i e t h i s behaviour a r e not f u l l y understood. Investigators suggest t h a t f a c t o r s which a l s o i n f l u e n c e results are ore type and iron c o n t e n t , n a t u r e o f gangue m i n e r a l s (whether a c i d i c o r b a s i c ) , types o f f l o t a t i o n c o l l e c t o r s and m o d i f i e r s used, degree o f oxidation o f t h e s u l p h i d e s and t h e oxygen p o t e n t i a l o f t h e pulp. The g e n e r a l c o n c l u s i o n seems t o b e t h a t i f s u c h o r e s a r e competent enough to grind autogenously then such a c i r c u i t should be used, s u b j e c t o f course t o economic a n a l y s i s . General Cost Considerations for Various C i r c u i t s . Recent p r a c t i c e h a s s e e n a n i n c r e a s e i n comminution equipment s i z e s t o l a r g e r and l a r g e r units with the objective of decreasing capital and operating costs. C e r t a i n l y autogenous m i l l s a r e being b u i l t i n larger s i z e s , s u b j e c t t o c o n s t r a i n t s imposed by structural design rather than process. With c o n v e n t i o n a l m i l l s a s i z e l i m i t seems t o have b e e n r e a c h e d f o r r o d m i l l s and t h e d e b a t e i s now c e n t e r e d on t h e e f f i c i e n c y of l a r g e r diameter b a l l m i l l s . L a r g e r b a l l mills c a n b e b u i l t from the structural/mechanica1 standpoint, but t h e r e a r e indications t h a t c a p a c i t y can be l i m i t e d t o below t h e m i l l ' s f u l l p o t e n t i a l i f maximum power e f f i c i e n c y a t t h e d e s i r e d g r i n d is the objective. T h e r e f o r e , under c e r t a i n c i r c u m s t a n c e s , i t may n o t make s e n s e t o d e s i g n a p l a n t w i t h t h e s e larger u n i t s . Experience i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e r e c o u l d be a material flow-transport problem through the m i l l because s l u r r y flowrate is r e l a t e d t o the available m i l l c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l area, which i n t u r n increases i n proportion t o t h e s q u a r e o f t h e m i l l d i a m e t e r , whereas t h e m i l l power draw i n c r e a s e s a s t h e m i l l d i a m e t e r t o t h e power 2.3-2.4 ( 9 , 14). P o t e n t i a l m i l l capacity is a f u n c t i o n of t h e m i l l diameter t o t h e power 2.6 ( 9 ) . Rod m i l l s i z e is currently l i m i t e d by t h e l e n g t h o f t h e l o n g e s t s t r a i g h t rod t h a t i s o b t a i n a b l e , 6.1 m (20 f t . ) To p r e v e n t rod- t a n g l i n g a l e n g t h t o d i a m e t e r r a t i o o f 1.3:l.O i s recommended. The l a r g e s t r o d m i l l s i n e x i s t e n c e a r e 4.7 m d l a . x 6.25 m (15-1/2 f t . d i a . x 20-1/2 f t . ) l o n g e f f e c t i v e chamber l e n g t h (2, 9 , 11, 1 B a l l m i l l s c a n be l a r g e r and s o fewer p r o c e s s i n g l i n e s a r e required, which is the chief a t t r a c t i o n f o r c o n s i d e r i n g primary b a l l milling circuits. The l a r g e s t b a l l m i l l d i a m e t e r recommended f o r maximum u n i t power e f f i c i e n c y i s 5.0 m (16-1/2 f t . ) (14). Larger m i l l s e.g. 5.5 m ( 1 8 f t . ) d i a m e t e r have been s e l e c t e d f o r primary b a l l m i l l i n g and have e x p e r i e n c e d v a r y i n g degrees of inherent inefficiencies involving charge l e v e l , speed, feed sizing, media size, liner configuration, material residence time and mixing ( 2 0 ) . One 5.5 m ( 18 f t . ) diameter b a l l m i l l has r e c e n t l y been i n s t a l l e d t o r e g r i n d p r o d u c t from a semi-autogenous milling c i r c u i t f o r a 13,600 mtpd (15,000 s t p d ) copper-molybdenum project a t H i l l s b o r o , New Mexico. This is a s i n g l e - l i n e c i r c u i t and equipment was chosen t o minimize c a p i t a l and

operating costs. The o p e r a t i n g e f f i c i e n c y of t h i s m i l l is awaited f o r comparison w i t h o t h e r m i l l s o f t h e same diameter. Other cost considerations, everything e l s e being e q u a l , a r e : variation. One of the d i s a d v a n t a g e s is t h a t t h e SAG m i l l must be k e p t f u l l o f o r e , otherwise ball and liner breakage may r e s u l t . Surges i n throughput a s t h e o r e becomes s o f t e r o r f i n e r c a n r e s u l t and u n l e s s downstream equipment i s o v e r s i z e d , containment problems a r e i n e v i t a b l e (15). Water Supply Source A v a i l a b i l i t y and Cost v e r s u s P r o c e s s Requirements. Water i s t h e normal media for physical beneficiation of ores. Very few o r e s a r e up-graded i n t h e d r y state. However, t h e r e a r e a r e a s i n t h e world where water i s s c a r c e , expensive, o r n o t a v a i l a b l e a t a l l . Some o f t h e s e o r e s a r e l o c a t e d n e a r t h e s e a c o a s t and s e a w a t e r can be used. With others, dry prec o n c e n t r a t i o n i s sometimes p o s s i b l e . Dry primary g r i n d i n g , w i t h d r y i n g a s n e c e s s a r y , might be followed by d r y magnetic cobbing, o r dry gravity concentration. The p r e - c o n c e n t r a t e is t h e n shipped t o a n a r e a where water is available for final processing. Dry autogenous mills, ball m i l l s , and rod m i l l s have been used. They r e q u i r e more power, need c l o s e temperature and m o i s t u r e c o n t r o l and require sophisticated dust control equipment. Many dry grinding i n s t a l l a t i o n s a l s o e x i s t where t h e m a t e r i a l cannot be w e t t e d , e.g. cement c l i n k e r , t a l c and g o e t h i t i c d i r e c t s h i p p i n g i r o n o r e s which a r e ground t o p e l l e t i z i n g f i n e n e s s and could never be f i l t e r e d i f t h e y were ground wet. These would be p r o c e s s e d d r y even i f w a t e r were p l e n t i f u l . The amount F i n e grind in^ Concepts. of regrinding necessary for an intermediate concentrate o r a f i n a l concentrate t o generate additional " s u r f a c e a r e a " c a n o n l y be developed when t h e f l o w s h e e t i s e s t a b l i s h e d and a n up-graded p r o d u c t is a v a i l a b l e f o r testing. It might seem t h a t t h i s i s a r e l a t i v e l y e a s y assignment because r e a l l y o n l y a b a l l m i l l c a n b e used.
P l a n t s with m u l t i - u n i t s i n g l e s t a g e primary m i l l s a r e more c a p i t a l intensive than p l a n t s with two-stage g r i n d i n g . This is because primary m i l l s r e q u i r e expensive feeding and ore s t o r a g e systems, g e n e r a l l y w i t h more l i n e s i n f i n e c r u s h i n g and screening. However, singles t a g e comminution c i r c u i t s c o s t l e s s t o o p e r a t e as o p e r a t i n g labour is l e s s and maintenance is lower (21). Since pebble m i l l media h a s lower d e n s i t y , pebble m i l l s a r e l a r g e r and more expensive f o r t h e same power a s b a l l m i l l s , but the u n i t operating c o s t s a r e usually l e s s (21). Semi-autogenous m i l l s draw more power t h a n autogenous m i l l s o f t h e same s i z e and t h e r e f o r e a r e l e s s expensive t o i n s t a l l f o r t h e same throughput. D. J. Barratt ( 13) attempted to demonstrate comparative c a p i t a l c o s t , o p e r a t i n g c o s t and s p a c e requirements f o r semi-autogenous and conventional c i r c u i t s o v e r a range o f throughputs up t o 72,600 mtpd (80,000 s t p d ) u s i n g typical circuit designs and equipment s i z e s . While t h i s paper requires updating to r e f l e c t t h e l a r g e r equipment s i z e s c u r r e n t l y i n u s e and higher power costs, it demonstrates t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n c o s t f o r g r i n d i n g equipment and t h e space advantage a t h i g h e r throughputs o f f e r e d by semiautogenous c i r c u i t s . In fact, the semi-autogenous-ball mill c i r c u i t h a s proved t o be a s u c c e s s f u l and p o p u l a r c h o i c e . It h a s a good t o l e r a n c e f o r f e e d

(Recently, in a new copper installation in the southwestern United S t a t e s , a tower m i l l was selected for this application. ) However, power c a l c u l a t i o n c a n b e misleading. Bond g r i n d a b i l i t y i n d e x c a n b e u s e d , b u t extreme c a r e s h o u l d be taken s i n c e Bond g r i n d a b i l i t y t e s t s r e q u i r e a r a t i o of r e d u c t i o n of about 6:l t o o b t a i n accurate r e s u l t s (11). S p e c i a l t e s t s w i l l have t o b e r u n and some i n t e r p o l a t i o n s made. In many i n s t a n c e s jar m i l l s o r Abbey m i l l s a r e used and a t i m e / s u r f a c e curve is established. This kind o f t e s t m i l l can be calibrated with known o r e s and a s p e c i f i c power c a n b e determined. Whether t o r u n t h e r e g r i n d m i l l i n open o r closedcircuit depends on the product characteristics required and on current practice in similar applications. e.g. Chilean copper altitude, projects. Roughness o f t e r r a i n o r i n a c c e s s i b i l i t y may p r e c l u d e t h e u s e o f l a r g e r equipment, e.g. limita t i o n s o f s p l i t t i n g c r u s h e r frames and mill shells into Smaller components t o p a s s road bed l o a d i n g s o r r a i l t u n n e l dimensions. Pre-concentration or crushing p r i o r t o shipment t o a c o n c e n t r a t o r o r r e - p r o c e s s i n g p l a n t i s common i n t h e i r o n o r e i n d u s t r y where crushed o r e o r c o n c e n t r a t e is r a i l e d a few hundred m i l e s t o a f i n i s h i n g p l a n t on tidewater. Water quality or a v a i l a b i l i t y might r e q u i r e t h a t a d r y g r i n d i n g system b e used o r t h a t c h e m i c a l a t t a c k on g r i n d i n g media h a s t o b e avoided. The a v a i l a b i l i t y and q u a l i t y o f manpower might d i c t a t e t h e degree of sophistication i n the approach to circuit design and control. C o n s i d e r a t i o n s t h a t may a p p l y t o a l a r g e o p e r a t i o n may n o t h o l d t r u e f o r a small p l a n t , and i n each c a s e t h i s becomes a q u e s t i o n of economics. A small p l a n t is a r e l a t i v e term, i t s t i l l h a s t o b e large enough t o b e economically f e a s i b l e , and t h i s may v a r y w i t h many factors, but comminution circuit d e s i g n c o n s i d e r a t i o n s may a l s o be affected. For l a r g e p l a n t s many of t h e s e r v i c e f u n c t i o n s such a s r o a d s , railroads, warehousing, etc., are p a r t o f t h e b a s i c design without a l a r g e p l a n t c a n n o t be which contemplated. There i s such a t h i n g a s economics o f s c a l e . For s m a l l e r p l a n t s , f a c t o r s s u c h as a c c e s s i b i l i t y o r l o c a t i o n may b e a much more c r i t i c a l c o s t consideration. Supply o f c r i t i c a l items necessary t o d a i l y o p e r a t i o n s , such a s s p e c i f i c r e a g e n t s f o r f l o t a t i o n , a v a i l a b i l i t y of proper r o d media o r 10-12.7 cm (4-5 i n . ) b a l l s f o r semi-autogenous mills may be decisive factors in circuit selection, especially if the economics of scale have been researched. More o f t e n t h a n n o t , s u p p l y firms w i l l s e t up s p e c i a l o p e r a t i o n s t o s e r v i c e a major mine operation, while small plants do not have t h a t k i n d o f l e v e r a g e . The s i z e
C o n s i d e r a t i o n s f o r Both Large and Small P l a n t s w i t h Regard t o P l a n t L o c a t i o n , S i t e Topography and Layout, Accessibility, C l i m a t e and P r e c i p i t a t i o n , M a t e r i a l s T r a n s p o r t a t i o n and Handling, Capital and Operating Costs, Economical Evaluation and P a r t s Inventory. Proper f a m i l i a r i z a t i o n with t h e geographic location, climate, physical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e mine s i t e , a c c e s s i b i l i t y and precipitation is paramount when designing a comminution plant. Whereas t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e orebody cannot be a l t e r e d , t h e p h y s i c a l layo u t o f t h e p r o c e s s p l a n t and e q u i p ment s e l e c t i o n c a n b e a d a p t e d t o a l l o w a d v a n t a g e t o b e t a k e n o f more equitable conditions. For instance under arctic c o n d i t i o n s a compact p l a n t d e s i g n i n one building o f f e r s a n opportunity t o conserve energy and provide c o m f o r t a b l e working c o n d i t i o n s , e.g. Fox Mine and Arvik. Primary c r u s h i n g , l o c a t e d c l o s e t o t h e mine which may b e a t a h i g h a l t i t u d e and subject to avalanches, could be s e p a r a t e d from t h e f i n e c r u s h i n g and grinding plant by underground conveyor t o a safer p o i n t a t a lower

and number of unit operations r e q u i r e d f o r a smaller p l a n t , s a y up t o 4,536 mtpd ( 5 , 0 0 0 s t p d ) , c a n i n f l u e n c e c a p i t a l c o s t and o p e r a t i n g cost significantly when one c o n s i d e r s , a s a n example, t h e s p a c e and l a b o u r r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r a f i v e s h i f t s p e r week v e r s u s a t e n s h i f t s p e r week c r u s h i n g p l a n t p r o d u c i n g t h e same rod o r b a l l m i l l f e e d tonnage. With l a r g e r p l a n t s , equipment is manufactured t o c o p e w i t h l a r g e r incremental i n c r e a s e s i n throughput and t h e r e is o f t e n less f l e x i b i l i t y i n t h e number o f c r u s h i n g s h i f t s o p e r a t e d p e r week. One c o n s i d e r a t i o n , which is o f t e n o v e r r i d i n g , is t h e e f f e c t o f f u t u r e plans f o r p l a n t expansion on the selection of crushing and g r i n d i n g equipment. For larger plants, processing l i n e s a r e usually added whereas w i t h v e r y s m a l l p l a n t s , a n i n c r e a s e i n b a l l c h a r g e and m i l l speed can achieve significant increases i n throughput. SPECIFIC SITUATIONS Uranium The comminution p r a c t i c e s i n t h e uranium mining i n d u s t r y o f North America d i f f e r c o n s i d e r a b l y between Canada and t h e United S t a t e s . These differences a r e primarily a r e s u l t o f v a r i a t i o n s i n o r e t y p e s found i n t h e two c o u n t r i e s . Canadian o r e s a r e c l a s s e d as "hard r o c k w and o c c u r a s v e i n s as a t Beaverlodge, Athabasca B a s i n and t h e Wollaston Fold i n Saskatchewan o r a s conglomerates as a t E l l i o t Lake and Agnew Lake i n O n t a r i o . Canadian conglomerates exhibit particularly s t r o n g a d h e s i o n which r e q u i r e s t h a t the quartz pebbles contained t h e r e i n have t o b e ground i n o r d e r t o r e l e a s e the uraniferous values in the cementing medium. Liberation s i z e s of 50% minus 200 mesh a r e common. U.S. ores, on t h e o t h e r hand, occur a s sandstones such a s i n Wyoming, Texas, New Mexico and on t h e Colorado P l a t e a u . The s a n d s t o n e g r a i n s a r e e s s e n t i a l l y b a r r e n and c a n b e r e l e a s e d by moderate g r i n d i n g from t h e i n t e r g r a n u l a r cement which i s uraniferous. T y p i c a l mesh of g r i n d f o r t h e s e o r e s is 80% minus 35 mesh. The e a r l y p r o d u c e r s i n Canada p r o c e s s e d o r e s from t h e Beaverlodge a r e a o f Saskatchewan and from t h e B a n c r o f t and E l l i o t Lake a r e a s o f Ontario. T h e i r m i l l i n g c i r c u i t s were c o n v e n t i o n a l c r u s h i n g and g r i n d i n g i n the usual multi-stage fashion. A 1 t hough the Elliot Lake conglomerates were capable of generating pebbles, pebble m i l l i n g was n o t i n c o r p o r a t e d u n t i l much l a t e r d u r i n g p l a n t e x p a n s i o n s e.g. the Quirke m i l l . Consequently, all m a t e r i a l was c r u s h e d and ground t o t h e l i b e r a t i o n s i z e o f t h e uranium mineral i n t h e matrix. The Madawaska m i l l a t Bancroft incorporated pebble m i l l i n g as p a r t o f its r e a c t i v a t i o n i n 1978 t o p r o c e s s a p e g m a t i t e o r e . There h a s been a r e c e n t t r e n d toward t h e u s e o f semi-autogenous g r i n d i n g a s a move t o e l i m i n a t e p o t e n t i a l h a z a r d s o f r a d o n g a s which is r e l e a s e d i n t o t h e atmosphere during t h e crushing process. By g r i n d i n g i n a wet environment w i t h a s c o a r s e a f e e d a s p o s s i b l e , r a d o n is dissolved i n water. The o p e r a t i o n a t Beaverlodge pioneered this development in 1964 with the i n s t a l l a t i o n o f a double-compartment m i l l , 5.8 m d i a . x 5.2 m ( 1 9 f t . d i a . x 17 f t . ) f i t t e d with a c e n t r a l peripheral g r a t e discharge. The m i l l is powered by a 2 , 0 0 0 HP motor, a c c e p t s a jaw c r u s h e r p r o d u c t ( s e t a t 152 mm O.S.S. 1, uses 0.75 k g / t (1.5 l b . / t o n ) of 152 mm (6 inch) b a l l s and is i n c l o s e d - c i r c u i t w i t h a s t a t i c screen. Other o p e r a t i o n s which have t a k e n a d v a n t a g e of t h i s c o n c e p t a r e R a b b i t Lake ( f o r m e r l y Gulf M i n e r a l s o f Canada), which h a s a SAG m i l l - b a l l m i l l c i r c u i t , B l u e w a t e r (Anaconda M i n e r a l s Co.), Panna Maria (Chevron Resources I n c . ) , Church Rock
DESIGN, INSTALLATION OF COMMINUTIONCIRCUITS

(Kerr McGee Nuclear Corporation), Bear Creek (Rocky Mountain Energy Co.) and L-Bar (Sohio), a l l of which employ single-stage semi-autogenous grinding in closed-circuit with screens or cyclones. Primary crushing followed by impact crushing and single-stage rod milling t o produce a coarse grind is practised by other operations i n Wyoming and N e w Mexico. Cluff Lake (AMOK, SMDC), Saskatchewan, is using conventional crushing and singlestage rod milling. The rod m i l l is replaced by two-stage b a l l milling by some operators i n the Grants, N e w Mexico area and the fineness of grind i s dependent upon whether a sandstone or a limestone type ore i s being processed. The Key Lake project i n northern Saskatchewan w i l l employ a gyratory crusher, hammermill and single-stage b a l l m i l l c i r c u i t . The requirements of governmental and industrial health monitoring agencies and labour do and w i l l continue t o be f a c t o r s influencing the design of comminution c i r c u i t s f o r uranium ores. Iron The comminution p r a c t i c e s i n the i r o n ore industry a r e some of the more varied. Iron ores can range i n character from blocky magnetites, l i k e the Minnesota taconites, to specular hematites, s i m i l a r t o the Labrador and Quebec ores and t o weathered ores of goethite or limonite which a r e l a t e r i t i c i n t h e i r physical behaviour s i m i l a r t o ores from Venezuela o r Western Australia. Each p a r t i c u l a r ore type is processed using c e r t a i n established methods of comminution. But even here the p r a c t i c e s can vary s i g n i f i c a n t l y a s can be i l l u s t r a t e d by the p l a n t s i n Minnesota treating magnetic taconites. These average 25-35% Fe and about 60-70s of the t o t a l is magnetic ore. The ore i s very hard and abrasive and must be ground t o 80-955 minus 44 microns for liberation. There are eight p e l l e t i z i n g operations. These are a t Butler Taconite, National Steel, Hibbing Taconite, Minntac, Eveleth, Minorca, Erie and Reserve. Reserve and Erie a r e the older plants and employ rod and b a l l m i l l circuits. However, of the more modern plants t h a t were b u i l t or expanded when autogenous grinding was well accepted, three u t i l i z e some form of autogenous grinding and three use the conventional rod mill-ball m i l l approach. The two newest plants, Hibtac ( s t a r t e d 1976) and Minorca ( 19771, use grinding methods that are completely different and yet they are i n close proximity t o each other. The Hibtac flowsheet has single-stage autogenous milling while Minorca has a rod mill-ball mill c i r c u i t . Hibtac's evaluation ( 7 ) of the various flowsheets started by obtaining a 1,360 m t ( 1,500 ton) representative bulk sample. The goal was the lowest possible c a p i t a l cost with the provision t h a t additional capital could be expended if operating cost savings returned the additional capital within three years. Prior t o p i l o t testing, laboratory bench scale studies were conducted t o indicate t h a t the ore l i b e r a t e d a t 80% minus 44 microns. A 1 terna t i v e flowsheets were investigated i n the following order:
Rod mill-ball m i l l combination. This conventional taconite f lowsheet was selected a s the base for economic comparisons. Autogenous-ball mill circuit. It showed a 16% lower c a p i t a l c o s t and a 15% lower operating c o s t compared t o the base case. Autogenous-pebble m i l l c i r c u i t . Pebbles were extracted from the autogenous m i l l . This f lowsheet gave lower operating costs, but the capital costs were
SELECTION O F COMMINUTION CIRCUITS

approximately t h e same a s t h e rod m i l l - b a l l m i l l flowsheet. However, when compared t o t h e autogenous-ball m i l l flowsheet the operating cost savings payback was more t h a n t h r e e years. During t h e o p e r a t i o n o f the autogenous-pebble mill flowsheet, a n i n t e r e s t i n g e f f e c t was noted. Removal o f 5% o f t h e crude o r e f e e d a s 25-75mm pebbles r e s u l t e d i n a 15-202 increase in the primary autogenous mill throughput. This i n d i c a t e d t h a t a c r i t i c a l s i z e was p r e s e n t i n t h e m i l l . b u t t h e o p e r a t i n g c o s t was 11% lower. Again, one should n o t e t h a t selection of the singles t a g e flowsheet was n o t based on power e f f i c i e n c y b u t on o v e r a l l economic c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . I n t h e c a s e o f M i n o r c a v s 2.6 million l t p y plant, four grinding f l o w s h e e t s were compared: i ) Rod mill-ball m i l l , i i ) Ball mill-ball m i l l , i i i ) Autogenous m i l l - b a l l m i l l , and i v ) Autogenous mill-pebble m i l l . The economical comparison was done i n g r e a t d e t a i l . It showed t h a t t h e rod m i l l - b a l l m i l l c i r c u i t had t h e lowest c a p i t a l cost. The autogenous-pebble m i l l flowsheet was lower i n o p e r a t i n g c o s t , b u t n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y lower t o j u s t i f y t h e higher c a p i t a l c o s t s . Copper and Molybdenum Crushing and g r i n d i n g p r a c t i c e s used i n t h e p r o c e s s i n g o f North American copper and molybdenum o r e s have been i n f l u e n c e d o v e r t h e y e a r s by t h e f o l l o w i n g f a c t o r s :
Autogenous-ball mill-crusher (ABC) c i r c u i t . It was found t h a t by c r u s h i n g approximately 5%-10% o f t h e c r i t i c a l m a t e r i a l , based on crude f e e d r a t e , a 20% i n c r e a s e i n throughput could be attained. It was a l s o found t h a t t h e f i n e n e s s o f g r i n d could be c o n t r o l l e d by v a r y i n g t h e amount and t h e s i z e o f m a t e r i a l crushed. This f l o w s h e e t had t h e lowest c a p i t a l c o s t of all tested. However, t h e s i n g l e s t a g e g r i n d i n g c i r c u i t had a much lower o p e r a t i n g c o s t and s o the A B C f lowsheet was eliminated. Single-stage autogenous circuits. Liberation characterist i c s of t h i s ore indicated the possibility t h a t a single-stage g r i n d i n g c i r c u i t could produce t h e r e q u i r e d c o n c e n t r a t e grade. A s i n g l e - s t a g e autogenous m i l l g r i n d i n g i n c l o s e d - c i r c u i t with wet drum magnets and c y c l o n e s r e q u i r e d c o n s i d e r a b l y more power than any o f t h e o t h e r f l o w s h e e t s tested. This alternative generated a 14% lower c a p i t a l c o s t and a 27% lower o p e r a t i n g c o s t compared t o t h e base c a s e , i n s p i t e of t h e higher u n i t power consumption. T h i s lower operating cost returned the i n c r e a s e d c a p i t a l i n 2.7 y e a r s . Compared t o t h e A B C flowsheet, the capital c o s t was h i g h e r
Ore type: whether t h e o r e is a low-grade porphyry o r h i g h e r g r a d e massive s u l p h i d e . Region: whether p l a n t d e s i g n a l l o w s f o r t h e p r o c e s s i n g of wet, sticky ores originating from open p i t s i n a r e a s o f h i g h rainfall, frozen ore during prolonged w i n t e r s o r , i n a more equitable climate, multi-stage c r u s h i n g and s c r e e n i n g by t a k i n g advantage o f t h e o p e r a t i n g c o s t maxim t h a t it i s "cheaper t o c r u s h t h a n t o grindt1. Throughput : whether a p a r t i c u l a r concept f o r equipment s e l e c t i o n and p l a n t d e s i g n a t d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s o f throughput can demonstrate savings in c a p i t a l and o p e r a t i n g c o s t s , minimize p r o d u c t i o n l o s s e s and problems a t s t a r t - u p and show a more a t t r a c t i v e r a t e o f r e t u r n on investment compared t o a l t e r natives.
Ore c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s : whether t h e o r e i s hard and a b r a s i v e o r s o f t and p o s s i b l y clayey. T e c h n o l o ~ y : whether t h e r e a r e l i m i t a t i o n s placed on equipment s i z i n g and t h e number of u n i t s employed by t h e c u r r e n t s t a t e of t e c h n o l o g i c a l development, e.g. m i l l s h e l l , head and g e a r design o r competent rod l e n g t h . Power c o s t : whether u n i t power consumption f o r one concept i s more o r l e s s i n comparison t o a l t e r n a t i v e s and i n t h e l a s t a n a l y s i s c o n t r i b u t e s toward a higher o v e r a l l operating cost. Sampling: whether t h e c o s t s incurred for development, c o l l e c t i o n and t e s t i n g of bulk samples o f s i g n i f i c a n t o r e t y p e s orebody can within an demonstrate a s a t i s f a c t o r y r a t e of r e t u r n on i n v e s t m e n t compared to alternatives after c o n s i d e r a t i o n of o t h e r c a p i t a l costs.
northern Mexico, for instance, s i n g l e - s t a g e b a l l m i l l i n g h a s found g r e a t e r acceptance than rod m i l l - b a l l m i l l combinations over a span o f Some 40 y e a r s . Even though multi-stage c r u s h i n g and screening i s r e q u i r e d t o p r e p a r e b a l l m i l l feed, i t i s claimed t h a t s a v i n g s i n o p e r a t i n g c o s t and i n c r e a s e d a v a i l a b i l i t y (up t o 98%) can o f f s e t higher capital costs a s s o c i a t e d with t h e e x t r a s c r e e n i n g and materials handling capacity r e q u i r e d f o r p r e p a r a t i o n of a f i n e r feed. Typical p l a n t s range i n throughput from ASARCO S i l v e r B e l l a t 11,800 mtpd ( 13,000 s p t d ) through t o h v a l S i e r r i t a a t 83,400 mtpd (92,000 stpd). C i t i e s S e r v i c e ' s P i n t o Valley plant u t i l i z e s 5.5 m d i a . x 6.4 m (18 f t . d i a . x 21 f t . ) b a l l m i l l s i n t h e f i r s t i n s t a l l a t i o n of t h i s m i l l s i z e i n North America f o r such an application. Throughput i s 43,000 mtpd (47,500 s t p d )
Until 1967, conventional c r u s h i n g and g r i n d i n g had been t h e normal c a n d i d a t e f o r p r o c e s s i n g both massive s u l p h i d e and porphyry-type copper o r e s , w i t h t h e number o f s t a g e s being dependent upon o p e r a t o r preference and cost analysis. Commissioning o f autogenous and semiautogenous c i r c u i t s i n North America began i n New Mexico i n 1967 and s i n c e t h e n o t h e r p l a n t s have come on s t r e a m i n B r i t i s h Columbia, Arizona and Colorado. For t h e purposes o f t h i s p a p e r , d i s c u s s i o n o f molybdenum o r e s w i l l be i n c l u d e d under porphyry-type o r e s , even though t h e y a r e u s u a l l y associated with g r a n i t i c stocks. Conventional p r a c t i c e h a s v a r i e d depending upon o p e r a t o r p r e f e r e n c e and t o some e x t e n t d i f f e r e n c e s can be a s s i g n e d r e g i o n a l boundaries. In t h e porphyry copper province of southwestern United States and
Rod m i l l - b a l l m i l l combinations a r e t h e normal choice f o r massive s u l p h i d e o r e s and, u n t i l 1971, were also selected for large tonnage porphyry copper and molybdenum o r e s i n Canada. S i g n i f i c ant ~ . l a n t sa r e a s follows: Gibraltar 37,200 mtpd ( 4 1,000 s t p d ) , Endako 25,400 mtpd (28,000 s t p d ) , Brenda 27,200 mtpd (30,000 s t p d ) , w i t h exceptions t o single-stage b a l l milling practice i n Arizona being ASARCO Mission 20,400 mtpd (22,500 s t p d ) , ANAMAX Twin B u t t e s 36,300 mtpd (40,000 s t p d ) and Magma Copper Company I s San Manuel The p l a n t 58,000 mtpd (64,000 s t p d ) prime o b j e c t i v e i n designing p l a n t s to t r e a t t h e low-grade o r e s of B r i t i s h Columbia d u r i n g t h e 1960's was, and s t i l l i s , t o minimize capital and o p e r a t i n g c o s t s and maximize throughput by i n s t a l l i n g t h e l a r g e s t p r a c t i c a l p i e c e of equipment t h e n i n e x i s t e n c e , e.g. 4.1 m d i a . (13-1/2 f t . ) rod mills and i n t h e 1 9 7 0 f s , 5.0 m d i a . (16-1/2 f t . ) b a l l mills. A n added benefit was p r o v i s i o n o f a compact p l a n t s i z e which i s important when considering energy and h e a t i n g c o s t s i n a cold climate.

As o r e g r a d e s continued to d e c l i n e and u n i t o p e r a t i n g c o s t s t o e s c a l a t e , a t t e n t i o n was turned t o t h e advantages o f e l i m i n a t i n g secondarytertiary crushing and screening p l a n t s through t h e u s e o f autogenous o r semi-autogenous g r i n d i n g . Capital and operating cost s a v i n g s were s i g n i f i c a n t enough t o encourage some o p e r a t o r s t o t a k e t h e plunge. Their d e d i c a t i o n h a s ensured that semi-autogenous grinding circuits, at least in British Columbia, can a c h i e v e a v a i l a b i l i t i e s o f 92% and i n one c a s e (Lornex) 94%. In order of commissioning date commencing i n 1967, t h e f o l l o w i n g p l a n t s have been brought on stream: UV I n d u s t r i e s , New Mexico 2,700 mtpd (3,000 s t p d ) , Utah Mines Ltd. I s l a n d Copper 29,900 mtpd (33,000 s t p d ) , Similkameen Newmont Mines Ltd 13,600 mtpd (15,000 s t p d ) , Lornex Mininu Corp. Ltd. 43,500 mtpd ( 48,000 s t p d ) , Cyprus Pima expansion 12,700 mtpd (14,000 s t p d ) , Climax Henderson 27,200 mtpd ( 30,000 s t p d ) , Afton Mines 6,350 mtpd (7,000 s t p d ) , CYP~US Bagdad 36,300 mtpd (40,000 s t p d ) , Highmont Mining Corp. and 22,700 mtpd (25,000 s t p d ) Quintana Minerals Corp. Hillsboro, N.M. 13,600 mtpd (15,000 s t p d ) . The l a s t operation l i s t e d has t h e f i r s t i n s t a l l a t i o n o f a 5.5 m d i a . x 8.5 m (18 f t . d i a . x 28 f t . ) b a l l m i l l f o r secondary g r i n d i n g o f a SAG m i l l product. Cyprus Thompson Creek a t 22,700 mtpd (25,000 s t u d ) is scheduled f o r commissioning i n 1983. Bagdad and Highmont a r e o p e r a t i n g autogenous-ball mill-crusher (ABC) circuits. m i n e r a l s was a f a c t o r i n t h e c h o i c e o f autogenous g r i n d i n g f o r the i n i t i a l operation i n 1967 which processed underground o r e (2,700 mtpd) and f o r t h e expansion (4,200 mtpd) i n 1973 which processed open p i t o r e . The operation claimed that autogenous g r i n d i n g produced a f i n e r product f o r f l o t a t i o n by reducing t h e coarser f r a c t i o n s . The optimum proportion of m a g n e t i t e i n t h e o r e was 20% f o r smooth o p e r a t i o n . Utah Mines Ltd., Vancouver (231, i s l o c a t e d I s l a n d , B.C. i n a n a r e a o f high r a i n f a l l , 80100 i n c h e s p e r y e a r , which would make a fine crushing and to screening plant difficult o p e r a t e on account of clayforming m i n e r a l s c o n t a i n e d i n t h e ore. The s i m p l i c i t y o f using primary crushing and coarse o r e storage t o prepare feed t o t h e grinding c i r c u i t s was a prime f a c t o r in the choice. The p l a n t was d e s i g n e d for 29,900 mtpd (33,000 s t p d ) using single-stage autogenous grinding. I n i t i a l production achieved l e v e l s o f h a l f t o twot h i r d s o f designed c a p a c i t y . It was known t h a t t h e Bond work index v a r i e d from 15.5 t o 25.0 depending upon o r e t y p e and t h a t the abrasion index for the a n d e s i t e o r e t y p e was 0.4894, hence t h e c h o i c e o f autogenous g r i n d i n g and t h e a v o i d a n c e o f u s i n g s t e e l media. The c r u s h e d run-of -mine ore contained on a v e r a g e 75% a n d e s i t e and 10-15s of p l u s four-inch m a t e r i a l . In contrast, feed t o t h e p i l o t plant over a period o f ten months was 10,000 tons of b r e c c i a , a l t e r e d porphyry w i t h some c l a y , l e s s f r a c t u r i n g and 40-605 plus containing from four-inch rock. Consequently, owing t o the deficiency of c o a r s e rock i n t h e m i l l f e e d , t h e change t o semi-autogenous grinding was authorized
Other f a c t o r s which i n f l u e n c e d t h e d e c i s i o n t o u s e autogenous o r semi-autogenous g r i n d i n g were, for s e l e c t e d o p e r a t i o n s and a t t h e r i s k o f s i m p l i f i c a t i o n and omission:
UV I n d u s t r i e s I n c . , F i e r r o , New Mexico (221, processed a s u l p h i d e copper o r e c o n t a i n i n g magnetite and g a r n e t . The high specific gravity of these

progressively until all six l i n e s had been c o n v e r t e d and a comparison with autogenous g r i n d i n g had b e e n made. The m i l l s e v e n t u a l l y c o n t a i n e d 7-69 b a l l c h a r g e by volume, t h e power consumption decreased and throughput increased t o designed capacity. Addition o f t h r e e b a l l m i l l s i n 1973 t o r e g r i n d p a r t o f t h e primary cyclone underflow resulted in a p r o d u c t i o n i n c r e a s e t o a nominal 34,400 mtpd (38,000 s t p d ) and a v e r a g e power consumption o f 22.4 kw-hr./ton. Lornex Mining C o r p o r a t i o n Ltd., Highland Valley, B. C. ( 2 4 , 25, 2 6 ) , conducted pilot p l a n t t e s t s on 20,000 t o n s o f o r e over a period o f nine months. Alternative c i r c u i t s i n v e s t i g a t e d were: single-stage ball milling, single-stage autogenous, autogenous ( semiautogenous) and s e c o n d a r y b a l l milling, and a r o d m i l l - b a l l m i l l combination. Bond work i n d e x ranged from 13 t o 22. S i n g l e - s t a g e b a l l m i l l i n g was discounted because of the p r e s e n c e o f f a u l t gouge mud seams which would h i n d e r t h e o p e r a t i o n o f a f i n e c r u s h i n g and screening p l a n t i n producing a f i n e b a l l m i l l feed. Single-stage autogenous g r i n d i n g was r u l e d o u t b e c a u s e o f wide f l u c t u a t i o n s i n power consumption. Rod m i l l i n g f o l l o w e d by b a l l m i l l i n g g a v e a s t e e l consumption of 0.47kg/t (0.951b./ton) which was c o n s i d e r e d u n a c c e p t able. Autogenous g r i n d i n g f o l l o w e d by b a l l m i l l i n g reduced throughput f l u c t u a t i o n s and power consumption. Semi-autogenous g r i n d i n g f o l l o w e d by b a l l m i l l i n g o f f e r e d t h e b e s t r e s u l t s with regard t o grinding media consumption. Upon commissioning, s t e e l b a l l s were added u n t i l a 6-82 b a l l c h a r g e by volume was reached and b a l l consumption was 0.25 k g / t (0.5 l b . / t o n ) o f feed. This consumption was twice that predicted i n t h e p i l o t plant. The importance o f t a k i n g s t e p s t o blend o r e t y p e s h a s been documented (26) with observations t h a t blending can reduce b a l l consumption and m i l l i n g r a t e f l u c t u a t i o n s and can contribute to higher t h r o u g h p u t s , e s p e c i a l l y when t h e proper load sharing balance between primary and secondary c i r c u i t s i s maintained. The o p e n i n g s i n t h e primary m i l l grates are a significant factor in this balance and are eventually selected through t r i a l and e r r o r , a s is t h e l i n e r m a t e r i a l and its c o n f i g u r a t i o n . I n t h e absence o f blending, Lornex recommend t h a t i n s t a l l e d power on the primary m i l l exceeds the expected design horsepower by 25% t o a l l o w f o r power f l u c t u a t i o n s . Lornex e s t i m a t e t h a t working c a p i t a l f o r t h e commissioning period should allow f o r t h e possibility of the plant operating at 50% o f rated capacity f o r t h e f i r s t three months, 60% f o r t h e n e x t t h r e e months and 100% t h e r e a f t e r (25). Newmont Mines Ltd., Similkameen, (25, 2 7 ) , p r o c e s s e s two porphyry c o p p e r o r e s c o n t a i n i n g bands o f h o r n f e l s with Bond work i n d e x r a n g i n g from 22.8 t o 30.3. I t was e s t i m a t e d t h a t a rod m i l l - b a l l m i l l combination would consume 16-1 7 kw-hr/ton and 1.1 k g / t (2.2 l b . / t o n ) g r i n d i n g media. Also, a requirement f o r
B.C.

a compact p l a n t s i t e i n a n a r e a o f s t e e p t e r r a i n meant t h a t autogenous o r semi-autogenous g r i n d i n g deserved c o n s i d e r a t i o n . The p i l o t p l a n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n covered t h e f o l l o w i n g a l t e r n a t i v e s u s i n g o r e from underground development: i) Single-stage autogenous g r i n d i n g t o produce a minus 60 mesh f i n i s h e d p r o d u c t . Primary a u t o g e n o u s g r i n d i n g t o produce a p r o d u c t s u i t a b l e f o r pebble milling. reduce c r i t i c a l s i z e . Whereas c a p i t a l c o s t s were s i m i l a r , t h e operating cost for the autogenous alternative was e s t i m a t e d t o b e 65% o f t h e c o s t i n c u r r e d by f i n e c r u s h i n g and b a l l milling. The f o l l o w i n g set for the criteria was s e l e c t i o n of autogenous g r i n d i n g a s s i s t e d by a c r u s h e r :
lowest cost
estimated
operating
ii)
e a s e w i t h which t h e g r i n d c o u l d b e c o n t r o l l e d by a crusher f o r reduction o f critical size ease with which the selected equipment and plant size f i t t e d into the selected plant s i t e comparable capital cost estimate to that for single-stage b a l l milling.
i i i ) , Single-stage autogenous g r i n d i n g t o produce a minus 60 mesh f i n i s h e d p r o d u c t with a crusher t o reduce trommel o v e r s i z e t o minus 25 mm. iv) Primary a u t o g e n o u s g r i n d i n g to produce a product s u i t a b l e f o r pebble m i l l i n g with a crusher t o reduce trommel o v e r s i z e t o minus 25 mm. Single-stage semi-autogenous g r i n d i n g w i t h two l e v e l s of b a l l a d d i t i o n , 227 kg and 453 kg.
v)
Preliminary t e s t i n g o f a l t e r n a t i v e s narrowed o p t i o n s t o flows h e e t s i i i ) and v ) ( w i t h 453 k g of balls). Analysis o f r e s u l t s showed t h a t t h e semi-autogenous c i r c u i t c o u l d p r o c e s s a b o u t 3% more t h r o u g h p u t f o r t h e same power consumption and g r i n d i n t h e product b u t a t a c o s t o f 0.42 k g / t (0.84 l b . / t o n ) g r i n d i n g media. Comparative c a p i t a l and operating costs were estimated f o r a p l a n t capacity of 18,100 mtpd (20,000 s t p d ) using e i t h e r single-stage b a l l milling or single-stage autogenous with a c r u s h e r t o
The p l a n t was d e s i g n e d t o p r o c e s s 13,600 mtpd ( 1 5 , 0 0 0 s t p d ) with three l i n e s i n t h e grinding c i r c u i t , e a c h r a t e d a t 218 mtph I n i t i a l production (240 s t p h ) i n t h e a u t o g e n o u s mode was n o t s u c c e s s f u l s i n c e power consumpin t i o n was h i g h , 49 kw-hr./ton No. 1 m i l l , and t h r o u g h p u t was one t h i r d o f t h e d e s i g n e d r a t e . A f t e r t h r e e months* o p e r a t i o n , s t e e l b a l l s were added t o e a c h m i l l and t h r o u g h p u t i n c r e a s e d t o t h e designed r a t e . Power consumption was a b o u t 2 4 kw-hr. /ton, ball consumption was 0.75 k g / t (1.5 l b . / t o n ) and t h e b a l l c h a r g e by volume a v e r a g e d 7%. The c y c l o n e o v e r f l o w s i z i n g was 63.2% minus 200 mesh compared to 75.4% with autogenous grinding.
Expansion o f t h e p l a n t t o t r e a t 19,950 mtpd (22,000 s t p d ) was a u t h o r i z e d i n 1974 and was

accomplished by i n s t a l l i n g two b a l l m i l l s i n closed-circuit with cyclones t o regrind a c o a r s e r p r o d u c t from t h e semiautogenous c i r c u i t s . The r e a s o n s f o r c o n v e r s i o n t o semi-autogenous g r i n d i n g l i e i n t h e f a c t t h a t c o a r s e r o c k , 2023 cm i n s i z e , d i d n o t s u r v i v e l o n g i n t h e p r i m a r y m i l l s and s o accumulation o f mid-size and c r i t i c a l s i z e m a t e r i a l occurred which loaded the mill and reduced i t s c a p a c i t y r a t i n g . The s i z e o f t h e mine d i c t a t e d t h a t p r o d u c t i o n came from one s h o v e l and t h e r e f o r e b l e n d i n g o f ore types t o ensure a c o n s i s t e n t f e e d , which i s n e c e s s a r y f o r e f f i c i e n t autogenous operation, could not be a t t a i n e d . In the last analysis, two-stage grinding offers f l e x i b i l i t y f o r ores of variable hardness i n that distribution of mill loadings can be a d j u s t e d t o s u i t conditions. on t h e e x t r a c a p i t a l c o s t f o r the crusher and associated conveyors was e s t i m a t e d t o be l e s s t h a n one y e a r . Additional cost benefits anticipated are reduced maintenance c o s t f o r l i n e r s and pumps, etc. and increased a v a i l a b i l i t y . Successful operation of an autogenous-crusher circuit is dependent upon consistent a v a i l a b i l i t y o f c o a r s e competent r o c k t o a c t a s g r i n d i n g media. The inherent risks incurred through the nature of the orebody and v a r i a t i o n s i n r o c k t y p e , which c o u l d a f f e c t t h e a b i l i t y t o produce such media, c a n be reduced by having t h e capability to operate Semiautogenously. With two p a r a l l e l l i n e s a t Highmont, each c a p a b l e of processing 11,340 mtpd (12,500 s t p d ) and designed t o o p e r a t e i n e i t h e r mode, t h e opportunity for comparative testing exists. To d a t e , however, t h e p l a n t h a s been operating at the designed throughput following a s h o r t tune-up p e r i o d o f s i x months. I n summary, t h e d e s i g n o f l a r g e tonnage grinding circuits for p r o c e s s i n g porphyry copper-molybdenum o r e s should account f o r t h e t e s t i n g o f d i f f e r e n t o r e types within an orebody and t h e i r e f f e c t on power consumption, media consumption, l i n e r m a t e r i a l wear r a t e s , throughput r a t e s and p r o d u c t s i z i n g . The d e s i g n s h o u l d be s e l e c t e d s o t h a t t h e a n t i c i p a t e d p l a n t tune-up h a s been w e l l planned i n o r d e r t o p r o c e s s o r e o f known c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and s o minimize t h e p e r i o d and working capital required to attain the designed r a t e . Cash flow l o s t a t t h e beginning o f a p r o j e c t ' s l i f e can n e v e r b e r e c a p t u r e d i n terms of p r e s e n t v a l u e . Such p l a n t s should b e d e s i g n e d w i t h some f l e x i b i l i t y where i t i s known t h a t o r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s c a n change. This is i n contrast t o experience with taconite ores.
Highmont Mining Corporation, Highland V a l l e y , B.C., c o n d u c t e d p i i o t p l a n t t e s t s i n 1970 t o i n v e s t i g a t e a u t o g e n o u s and semiautogenous grinding with variations in ball loading, coupled with secondary ball milling for preparation of f l o t a t i o n feed. The e f f e c t o f o p e r a t i n g t h e primary m i l l a u t o g e n o u s l y i n closed-circuit with a cone c r u s h e r was a l s o s t u d i e d . In these tests the critical o v e r s i z e from t h e m i l l d i s c h a r g e was s c r e e n e d o u t and c r u s h e d t o p a s s 13 mm. From t h e s e s t u d i e s , i t was e s t i m a t e d i n 1981 ( 2 8 ) t h a t an operating c o s t saving o f Can. $0.25/st was p o s s i b l e through elimination of the p r i m a r y m i l l b a l l c h a r g e and a r e d u c t i o n i n l i n e r wear compared to predictions for semia u togenous grinding. The payback a r i s i n g from t h i s s a v i n g

F l e x i b i l i t y i n l o a d s h a r i n g between primary and s e c o n d a r y s t a g e s o f g r i n d i n g and t h e u s e o f ABC o r SAG options are examples. One c o n s i d e r a t i o n , which t o d a t e h a s a f f e c t e d p r o d u c e r s i n t h e United S t a t e s more t h a n i n w e s t e r n Canada, h a s been t h e l i n k w i t h a d o m e s t i c smelter. The fixed rate of concentrate production usually r e q u i r e d by such s m e l t e r s and which i s s u p p l i e d by a n o p e r a t i n g u n i t w i t h i n t h e same c o r p o r a t e s t r u c t u r e normally d i c t a t e s t h a t o r e p r o c e s s i n g r a t e s be f i x e d . Canadian p r o d u c e r s in British Columbia have more f l e x i b i l i t y i n t h a t , during periods o f h i g h world demand, they can maximize throughput and have t o b e prepared f o r t h a t event a t s h o r t notice. The u s e o f semi-autogenous grinding has demonstrated this f l e x i b i l i t y t o a g r e a t e r degree than c o n v e n t i o n a l c r u s h i n g and g r i n d i n g , though s u c h a s t a t e m e n t s h o u l d t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e d i f f e r e n c e s beween hard and s o f t o r e s as e x p e r i e n c e d , for instance, a t Gibraltar. Lead and Zinc Modern p r a c t i c e i n North America f o r c r u s h i n g and g r i n d i n g l e a d - z i n c or copper-lead-zinc ores is c o n v e n t i o n a l w i t h v a r i a t i o n s on a theme. Mineralogy and g r a i n s i z e p l a y a l a r g e p a r t i n t h e development of flowsheets, p a r t i c u l a r l y with t h e more complex o r e s . S i n c e f l o t a t i o n is t h e a c c e p t e d method of concentration, most operations s t r i v e t o f l o a t lead m i n e r a l s from a s c o a r s e a f e e d a s p o s s i b l e t o a v o i d s l i m i n g and r e l y on regrind stages to upgrade concentrates f o r e i t h e r lead, zinc o r both. Some Canadian o p e r a t i o n s , e.g. United Keno H i l l , Kidd Creek and Hudson Bay M i n i n ~ and S m e l t i n g a t F l i n Flon, f i n d i t n e c e s s a r y t o conduct primary copper or lead f l o t a t i o n and r e g r i n d t h e t a i l i n g prior to secondary ( scavenger) f l o t a t i o n followed by z i n c f l o t a t i o n . Two o p e r a t i o n s , Lake D u f a u l t ( c o p p e r )
21
and N a n i s i v i k ( l e a d ) h a v e u n i t c e l l s i n t h e g r i n d i n g c i r c u i t which a c c e p t as f e e d t h e combined d i s c h a r g e from an open-circuit rod m i l l and a closed-circuit b a l l m i l l (29, 30). At Minera Real de Angeles, in Mexico, two S.A. d e C.V. 4.57 m d i a . x 6.1 m ( 1 5 f t . d i a . x 2 0 f t . ) r o d m i l l s were i n s t a l l e d f o r a 10,800 mtpd ( 11,900 s t p d ) p l a n t t r e a t i n g l e a d - z i n c - s i l v e r o r e and a r e believed t o be t h e l a r g e s t i n current u s e on s u c h o r e s .
A t t h e p r e s e n t time, it is believed t h a t t h e r e a r e no operations in North America which employ a u t o g e n o u s , semi-autogenous o r p e b b l e mills. Research, however, h a s been conducted for potential projects (18).
Gold, S i l v e r and Mercury The p r o c e s s i n g o f gold and s i l v e r o r e s i n North America h a s traditionally made use of c o n v e n t i o n a l c r u s h i n g and g r i n d i n g methods. Rod m i l l - b a l l m i l l , twostage b a l l m i l l o r single-stage b a l l m i l l c i r c u i t s a r e t o b e found. Tube m i l l s are s t i l l used i n some o f t h e o l d e r mills, e. g. Pamour P o r c u p i n e and Dome Mines, O n t a r i o ( 3 1 ) . In each c a s e where g o l d is formed e i t h e r as c o a r s e n a t i v e p i e c e s o r i n c o a r s e g r a i n e d s u l p h i d e s , i t i s r e c o v e r e d by gravity concentration i n t h e grinding c i r c u i t i n a d d i t i o n t o recovery of f i n e r v a l u e s by c y a n i d a t i o n . Jigs are the most common types of equipment u s e d and are u s u a l l y p l a c e d t o intercept the b a l l m i l l discharge prior to classification. One exception t o t h i s p r a c t i c e is a t Homestake, Lead, South Dakota, where r i f f l e d l a u n d e r g o l d t r a p s are used. Lime and sodium c y a n i d e a r e almost universally used in the dissolution of precious metals. There is c o n s i d e r a b l e a d v a n t a g e i n a d d i n g them t o t h e g r i n d i n g c i r c u i t s i n c e high d i s s o l u t i o n r a t e s usually r e s u l t from a g i t a t i o n and o x y g e n a t i o n o f t h e pulp during t h e grinding

action. Semi-autogenous milling of p r e c i o u s m e t a l s and mercury o r e s h a s been p r a c t i c e d s i n c e 1975 i n t h e U.S.A. I n s t a l l a t i o n s a t McDermitt, Nevada ( 3 2 ) and DeLamar, I d a h o ( 3 3 ) were d e s i g n e d t o p r o c e s s o r e s o f h i g h c l a y c o n t e n t and s o c i r c u m v e n t t h e problems a s s o c i a t e d with crushing such o r e s in, f i n e crushing p l a n t s . Both o p e r a t i o n s have one 5.48 m d i a . x 2.75 m (18 ft. dia. x 9 f t . ) Cascade m i l l which was d e s i g n e d t o o p e r a t e semi-autogenously. A t t h e McDermitt mercury mine, a s i l i c e o u s " o p a l i t e n r o c k is q u a r r i e d s p e c i f i c a l l y f o r u s e as g r i n d i n g media r e p l a c i n g steel b a l l s . Whereas formerly the mill operated autogenously, s t e e l b a l l s a r e now added t o cope w i t h d i f f e r e n t r o c k characteristics. A t t h e DeLamar S i l v e r Mine t h e o r e c o n t a i n s up t o 30% o f c l a y minerals as well as varying q u a n t i t i e s o f cherty material having a work i n d e x o f 2 0 p l u s . They p r e f e r t o o p e r a t e a u t o g e n o u s l y on a b l e n d o f h a r d and s o f t o r e , b u t i f t h r o u g h p u t decreases, s t e e l b a l l s o r coarse lumps from t h e s t o c k p i l e a r e added. A v i s c o s i t y i n h i b i t o r is added as r e q u i r e d t o t h e SAG m i l l i n o r d e r t o maintain a higher pulp density i n t h e c y c l o n e o v e r f l o w t h a n would o t h e r w i s e b e obtainable with clayey ores. The E s c a l a n t e S i l v e r Mine o f Ranchers E x p l o r a t i o n and Development C o r p o r a t i o n i n S.W. Utah was d e s i g n e d t o u s e semi-autogenous g r i n d i n g on t h e b a s i s o f r e a l i z i n g c a p i t a l and operating c o s t savings. The o r e i s competent h a v i n g a work i n d e x i n t h e r a n g e o f 15.0 and is v e r y s i l i c e o u s . Plant capacity is 450 mtpd (500 s t p d ) . P l a n t d e s i g n was v e r y s e n s i t i v e t o l o c a t i o n with regard t o r o c k c o n t o u r s and i n c o m p e t e n t s o i l s . Consequently, a compact l a y o u t was chosen which t o o k a d v a n t a g e o f sound b e d r o c k , minimum o p e r a t i n g l a b o u r and t h e d e l e t i o n o f a secondary-tertiary c r u s h i n g and s c r e e n i n g p l a n t . Tungsten, Tin, Chromium, Tantalum and Niobium The minerals wolframite, scheelite, cassiterite, chromite, t a n t a l i t e and p y r o c h l o r e a r e n o t o n l y f r i a b l e compared t o q u a r t z b u t t h e y a r e a l s o dense. Specific gravities range from a maximum 7.9 for w o l f r a m i t e t o a minimum o f 4.2 f o r pyrochlore. Two properties, f r i a b i l i t y and g r a v i t y , govern t h e d e s i g n o f g r i n d i n g and c l a s s i f i c a t i o n c i r c u i t s f o r t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of feed to subsequent concentration processes. These p r o c e s s e s u s u a l l y employ g r a v i t y methods, f l o t a t i o n o r a combination o f both. The principal objective in p r o c e s s i n g o r e s o f t h e s e m i n e r a l s is t o eliminate slime generation other t h a n by n a t u r a l d e g r a d a t i o n . Removal of liberated mineral from the g r i n d i n g c i r c u i t a s soon a s i t is g e n e r a t e d is o f t h e f i r s t importance, since slimes (generally classed a s minus 10 micron m a t e r i a l ) c a n reduce r e c o v e r y o f v a l u e s r e g a r d l e s s of whether g r a v i t y o r f l o t a t i o n methods a r e used. Flotation practice for t h e s e m i n e r a l s , which is becoming more a t t r a c t i v e a s lower g r a d e o r e s a r e b e i n g c o n s i d e r e d , d i f f e r s from that for sulphide ores because s e l e c t i v i t y is more dependent upon the types of reagents used. Consumption of collectors and modifying a g e n t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y a c i d s , i n c r e a s e s a s t h e p r o p o r t i o n of s l i m e s increases. For this reason, desliming ahead of f l o t a t i o n is n e c e s s a r y and c o n s e q u e n t l y any a c t i o n t a k e n t o r e d u c e p r o d u c t i o n of s l i m e s contributes to increased metal recovery. T h e r e f o r e , t h e u s e of cyclones alone and other wet c l a s s i f e r s is t o b e avoided s i n c e concentration of liberated heavy minerals in underflow or sand p r o d u c t s which a r e r e c y c l e d t o t h e g r i n d i n g c i r c u i t i s i n e v i t a b l e and r e s u l t s i n overgrinding. Consequent l y , screens a r e almost universally

used t o c l o s e such g r i n d i n g c i r c u i t s i n o r d e r t o remove v a l u e s a c c o r d i n g t o liberation size. The operations of Canada Tungsten M i n i n ~ C o r p o r a t i o n Limited i n t h e Northwest Territories of Canada i s a f i n e example which i l l u s t r a t e s most o f t h e f o r e g o i n g points. The o r e c o n t a i n s s c h e e l i t e in iron and copper sulphides, l i m e s t o n e and pyroxene. The crushing plant is conventional three-stage w i t h jaw c r u s h e r , s t a n d a r d c o n e c r u s h e r and s h o r t head cone c r u s h e r w i t h p r i m a r y and secondary s c r e e n s . The g r i n d i n g c i r c u i t c o n s i s t s o f two-stage rod m i l l i n g with c y c l o n e s and s c r e e n s c l o s i n g t h e second s t a g e . The primary m i l l is i n o p e n - c i r c u i t and d i s c h a r g e s i n t o a c y c l o n e f e e d pump box t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e s e c o n d a r y m i l l discharge. Cyclone u n d e r f l o w is s i z e d on t r o m e l s c r e e n s f i t t e d w i t h 50 mesh c l o t h . Screen o v e r s i z e c o n s t i t u t e s feed t o t h e s e c o n d a r y mill. Most of t h e power used i n t h e g r i n d i n g c i r c u i t is a p p l i e d t o t h e primary rod m i l l (450 HP) w i t h 250 HP mill. This t o t h e secondary arrangement is t h e r e v e r s e o f what might b e expected, b u t i t e n s u r e s t h a t power i s a p p l i e d i n t h e first stage t o achieve p a r t i a l l i b e r a t i o n of s c h e e l i t e a t a b o u t 50% minus 6 5 mesh before sliming becomes a The c h o i c e o f a smaller a rod m i l f o r t h e second r e s i d e n c e time i n s t a g e ens;&--rn t h e m i l l i s s h o r t and c r e a t i o n o f slimes i s minimized. Finished l i b e r a t i o n s i z e i s o f t h e o r d e r of 100 mesh.
An i n t e r e s t i n g f e a t u r e i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f power f o r t h e p r i m a r y s t a g e is t h a t , with a r a t i o o f r e d u c t i o n o f 40:l and t h e e x p e c t e d low power e f f i c i e n c y , t h e power requirement and product size d i s t r i b u t i o n are e x a c t l y as would b e p r e d i c t e d from s t a n d a r d c a l c u l a t i o n s p r o v i d e d t h e high r a t i o o f r e d u c t i o n f a c t o r f o r rod m i l l i n g , EF6, i s
ignored. Most of the scheelite is r e c o v e r e d by g r a v i t y and t h e t a i l i n g is reground i n a b a l l m i l l p r i o r t o r e c o v e r y o f r e m a i n i n g s c h e e l i t e and c o p p e r s u l p h i d e s by f l o t a t i o n .

A t Tantalum Mining C o r p o r a t i o n B e r n i c Lake, o f Canada Limited, Manitoba ( 3 4 ) , t h e o r i g i n a l g r i n d i n g c i r c u i t consisted o f a single-stage rod m i l l i n c l o s e d - c i r c u i t with D S M s c r e e n s a t t h e head o f a n a l l - g r a v i t y concentrator. Another s m a l l e r r o d m i l l was a v a i l a b l e as a r e g r i n d m i l l . Over t h e y e a r s , t h e o r e grade d e c r e a s e d and t h e t a n t a l u m m i n e r a l s became more f i n e l y d i s s e m i n a t e d . The primary r o d m i l l was c o n v e r t e d t o a g r a t e d i s c h a r g e b a l l m i l l and a middling regrind ball mill was i n s t a l l e d t o t a k e up t o 25% of t h e f e e d a s sand t a b l e m i d d l i n g s . It is i m p o r t a n t i n s u c h c i r c u i t s t o remove tramp metal and a b r a d e d i r o n p r i o r t o concentration i n order t o maintain c o n c e n t r a t e grades.
The Niobec I n c . c o n c e n t r a t o r a t Honore, Quebec, Canada ( 3 4 ) , employs a c o n v e n t i o n a l r o d m i l l - b a l l mill circuit using DSM screens instead o f cyclones t o c l o s e t h e b a l l m i l l circuit. Rod m i l l f e e d is prepared by open-circuit crusher without any surge capacity in between. C o n c e n t r a t i o n by f l o t a t i o n follows desliming i n cyclones.
St.
L a t e r i t e s ( N i c k e l , Aluminum, e t c . ) L a t e r i t e s v a r y w i d e l y from one l o c a t i o n t o a n o t h e r b u t s h a r e many common c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which are o f i n t e r e s t t o t h e comminution e n g i n e e r . are weathered ores Laterites containing a high percentage of ultra-fines, usually with high amounts o f m o i s t u r e ( b o t h s u r f a c e and combined) and w i t h v a r i o u s q u a n t i t i e s of s o l i d rock inclusions. Such r o c k is e i t h e r r e j e c t e d o r processed depending o n i t s m i n e r a l c o n t e n t . Even i f t h e s e b o u l d e r s are d i s p o s e d of, t h e y may s t i l l h a v e t o b e
24

c a n b e a problem. To s c r e e n on 9 mm, t h e o r e i s f i r s t d r i e d t o a b o u t 5% moisture. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The a u t h o r s wish t o t h a n k t h e Dravo respective managements of E n g i n e e r s a n d C o n s t r u c t o r s a n d Wright E n g i n e e r s Limited f o r p e r m i s s i o n t o p r e p a r e t h i s paper. The s t a f f its assistance required for production is g r e a t l y appreciated. REFERENCES 1. F r o h l i n g , E.S. a n d Lewis, F.M., F e a s i b i l i t y Study, Chapter 1, M i n e r a l P r o c e s s i n g P l a n t Design, 2nd Edition, Mular , Bhappu, Editors. Coburn, J.L. and Lewis, F.M., A Bhappu, R.B., Comminution: Guide t o S i z e - R e d u c t i o n System Engineering, Design, Mining September 1976 and November 1976. Coleman, R. L. , Metallurgical Testing Procedures, Chapter 9, M i n e r a l P r o c e s s i n g P l a n t Design, Bhappu, 2nd Edition, Mular , Editors. Sinclair, A.J., Sampling a Mineral Deposit f o r F e a ~ i b i l J ~ t y Studies and eta-Mica1 Testing, Chamr , Mineral P r o c e s s i n g ' P l a n t Design, 2nd E d i t i o n , Mular, Bhappu, E d i t o r s . Smith J r . , P.R. and B u t t s , G.E., Design o f M i n e r a l P r o c e s s i n g Flowsheet, Case H i s t o r y , C h a p t e r 42, Mineral Processing P l a n t Design, 2nd Edition, Mular, Bhappu, E d i t o r s . Rowland J r . , C.A., Pilot-Plant Data f o r t h e Design o f P r i m a r y Autogenous a n d Semi-Autogenous ~ i l l i , CIM B u l l e t i n , November 1981.
screened, crushed, scrubbed o r d r i e d to facilitate handling and to maximize m i n e r a l r e c o v e r y . The s t i c k y n a t u r e o f t h e o r e i s t h e main c o n s i d e r a t i o n when d e s i g n i n g crushing and s c r e e n i n g f a c i l i t i e s . One p l a n t ( 3 5 ) u s e s w o b b l e r f e e d e r s a n d a r u b b l e r , which is a t u m b l i n g autogenous mill fitted with p e r i p h e r a l g r a t e d i s c h a r g e s a n d low lifters. This design avoids breaking the boulders and cleans their s u r f a c e s t o release h i g h e r g r a d e fines for processing. Residual boulders are d i s c a r d e d t o waste through the open-ended discharge trunnion. F a c t o r s which i n f l u e n c e g r i n d i n g plant design depend on product r e q u i r e m e n t s a n d are d i c t a t e d by Nickelsubsequent processing needs. bearing laterites, employing p y r o m e t a l l u r g i c a l recovery methods, d o n o t h a v e t o b e ground. For hydrometallurgical processing, g r i n d i n g is done d r y i n b a l l m i l l s . Drying o f t h e material t o w i t h i n 2 . 0 to 2.5% surface moisture is necessary. Proper design f o r air sweeping t h e m i l l , d u s t c o l l e c t i o n , m i l l a i r temperature c o n t r o l and c h a t removal have t o be g i v e n s p e c i a l consideration. Material which is t o o dry (i.e. less t h a n 2.0% s u r f a c e moisture) can be d i f f i c u l t t o control when w i t h d r a w i n g from b i n s . In the aluminum industry, b a u x i t e is f i r s t crushed and t h e n ground wet i n b a l l m i l l s u s i n g t h e return caustic liquor from the e v a p o r a t o r s as t h e l i q u i d medium.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Limonitic o r g o e t h i t i c i r o n o r e s a r e processed i n t o d i r e c t shipping lump o r e o r s i n t e r f e e d fines. Proper selection of screens and c r u s h e r s and c a r e f u l design o f t h e material h a n d l i n g components ( b i n s , transfer points) is of utmost i m p o r t a n c e . The o r e s o f V e n e z u e l a a t Ferro-Minera O r i n o c o are s c r e e n e d a n d crushed i n cone crushers. In the r a i n y season s c r e e n i n g and handling
6.

McDermott, W.F., Lipovetz, G . J . , and Peterson, H.R., The D o l l a r s and Sense of Autogenous Grinding, presented a t t h e SMEAIME Annual Meeting, San Francisco, CA., February 1972. and Mok, J.K., Sochocky, M.A. Coarse Grinding i n a B a l l M i l l , presented a t t h e SME-AIME Annual Meeting, San Francisco, CA. , February 1972. Rowland Jr. , C. A. , Large Grinding M i l l s , Applying presented
25
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P r a c t i c e s , presented a t t h e SMEAIME F a l l Meeting, Denver CO., November 1981. and Rimmer, H.W., F l a v e l , M.D. P a r t i c l e Breakage S t u d i e s i n an Impact Crushing Environment, p r e s e n t e d a t t h e SME-AIME Annual Meeting, Chicago, IL., February 1981.
F l a v e l , M.D. and Rowland Jr., C. A., Selecting Circuits to Prepare Beneficiation Circuit Feed from Primary Crusher Product, presented a t t h e SMEAIME F a l l Meeting, Denver, CO., November 1981
Rey, M. and Formanek, V., Some Factors affecting S e l e c t i v i t y i n t h e D i f f e r e n t i a l F l o t a t i o n of Lead-Zinc Ores, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e presence o f Oxidized Lead ~ i n e r a l s , P r o c e e d i n ~ so f t h e 5 t h I n t e r n a t i o n a l Mineral P r o c e s s i n g Congress, The Institution of Mining and Metallurgy. London, 1960. Thornton, E., The E f f e c t o f Grinding Media on Flotation s e l e c t i v i t y , Proceedings of t h e 5 t h Annual Meeting, Canadian Mineral Processors, Ottawa , January 1973. Iwasaki, I., Reid, K. J . , Lex, H.A. and Smith, K.A. The E f f e c t o f Autogenous and B a l l M i l l Grinding on Sulphide F l o t a t i o n , p r e s e n t e d a t t h e SME-AIME F a l l Meeting, Denver, CO., November 1981. H a r r i s , C.C. and A r b i t e r , N., Grinding M i l l Scale-up Problems, Mining En~ineering, January 1982. MacPherson , A. R. and Turner, R. R., Autogenous Grinding from T e s t Work t o Purchase o f a Commercial Unit, Chapter 13, Mineral P r o c e s s i n g P l a n t Design, Bhappu, 2nd Edition, Mular , Editors.
UV Industries, Inc., private communication w i t h c o n c e n t r a t o r s t a f f , November 1979.
Rowland Jr., C.A. and Kjos, D.M., Rod and Ball Mills, Chapter 12, Mineral P r o c e s s i n g Plant Design, 2nd Edition, Mular, Bhappu, E d i t o r s . MacPherson, A.R., A Simple Method t o P r e d i c t t h e Autogenous Grinding M i l l Requirements f o r Processing Ore from a New Deposit, Society of Mining Engineers, AIME, Transactions Vol. 262, September 1977. B a r r a t t , D.J., Semi-Autogenous Grinding: A Comparison w i t h t h e Conventional Route, CIM B u l l e t i n November 1979. Kjos, D.M. , Grinding C i r c u i t s Current S t a t u s and Projected Future Developments, a n A l l i s Chalmers p u b l i c a t i o n , p r e s e n t e d a t t h e 52nd Annual ~ e e t i no~ f t h e Minnesota S e c t i o n , AIME, Duluth, MN. , January 1979. Bassarear , J. H. Semi-Autogenous
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Molybdenum, Western December 1974. Miner, 35. 16, P i c k e t t , E d i t o r . Ferguson, B.A., Camposano, G. and Aponte , J. , Falconbridge Dominicana Ore Handling and 8, Preparation, Chapter I n t e r n a t i o n a l L a t e r i t e Symposium Evans, Shoemaker and Veltman, Editors.
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S t a f f , Lornex Mining C o r p o r a t i o n Ltd., Western Miner, August 1972 Canadian Mineral Processors (B.C. S e c t i o n ) , F a l l Meeting ( m i n u t e s by Wright Engineers Limited S t a f f ) , November 1972. McManus, J., G r i n d i n g Copper Ores in British Columbia, P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e Autogenous Grinding Seminar, Volume 2, Trondheim, Norway, May 1979. Semi-Autogenous C h r i s t i e , D. J . , Grinding at Simi lkameen Concentrator, Proceedings of t h e Auto~enous Grinding Seminar, Volume 1 , Trondheim, Norway, May 1979. Sibbald, C.V., Concentrator, March 1981. The
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Factors Which Influence Selection of Comminution Circuits

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Factors Which Influence Selection of Comminution Circuits

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Chapter 1

FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE SELECTION OF COMMINUTION CIRCUITS

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DESIGN, INSTALLATION OF COMMINUTION CIRCUITS

DESIGN, INSTALLATION OF COMMINUTION CIRCUITS

SELECTION OF COMMINUTION CIRCUITS

DESIGN, INSTALLATION OF COMMINUTION CIRCUITS

SELECTION OF COMMINUTION CIRCUITS

DESIGN, INSTALLATION OF COMMINUTION CIRCUITS

SELECTION OF COMMINUTION CIRCUITS

DESIGN, INSTALLATION OF COMMINUTION CIRCUITS

SELECTION OF COMMINUTION CIRCUITS

DESIGN, INSTALLATION OF COMMINUTION CIRCUITS

SELECTION OF COMMINUTION CIRCUITS

DESIGN, INSTALLATION OF COMMINUTIONCIRCUITS

SELECTION O F COMMINUTION CIRCUITS

DESIGN, INSTALLATION OF COMMINUTION CIRCUITS

SELECTION OF COMMINUTION CIRCUITS

Other f a c t o r s which i n f l u e n c e d t h e d e c i s i o n t o u s e autogenous o r semi-autogenous g r i n d i n g were, for s e l e c t e d o p e r a t i o n s and a t t h e r i s k o f s i m p l i f i c a t i o n and omission:

DESIGN, INSTALLATION OF COMMINUTION CIRCUITS

SELECTION OF COMMINUTION CIRCUITS

Expansion o f t h e p l a n t t o t r e a t 19,950 mtpd (22,000 s t p d ) was a u t h o r i z e d i n 1974 and was

DESIGN, INSTALLATION OF COMMINUTION CIRCUITS

SELECTION OF COMMINUTION CIRCUITS

DESIGN, INSTALLATION OF COMMINUTION CIRCUITS

SELECTION OF COMMINUTION CIRCUITS

ignored. Most of the scheelite is r e c o v e r e d by g r a v i t y and t h e t a i l i n g is reground i n a b a l l m i l l p r i o r t o r e c o v e r y o f r e m a i n i n g s c h e e l i t e and c o p p e r s u l p h i d e s by f l o t a t i o n .

DESIGN, INSTALLATION OF COMMINUTION CIRCUITS

SELECTION OF COMMINUTION CIRCUITS

Autogenous and Grinding

Brown, C., Milling

I s l a n d Copper for Copper

DESIGN, INSTALLATION OF COMMINUTION CIRCUITS

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