# 1.

Network Fault Conditions

# 2. Balanced Faults # 3. Unbalanced Faults

Network Fault Conditions -Topics

Why to Calculate Fault Currents Fault Types Balanced Fault Conditions Unbalanced Fault Conditions Symmetrical Vectors Phase Sequence Networks

Network Fault Conditions - Why to Calculate Why it is necessary to calculate fault currents?
Dimensioning of equipment Dynamic forces (Idyn) Thermal forces (Ith) Insulation stresses (over voltages) Breaking capacity of breakers Setting of protective devices Stability and sensitivity of unit protections Protection system overall selectivity Minimum fault current versus maximum load current

Network Fault Conditions - Why to Calculate

Why it is necessary to calculate fault currents?

Network stability Effects the power transfer capacity Safety aspects Step and touch voltages during earth faults Control aspects Allowed and preferred switching combinations

Network Fault Conditions -Topics

Why to Calculate Fault Currents Fault Types (Active and Passive faults) Balanced Fault Conditions Unbalanced Fault Conditions Symmetrical Vectors Phase Sequence Networks

Network Fault Conditions - Fault Types

FAULT = a state of abnormality within the network that involves a electrical failure of a primary component

Fault Types
Short circuits (Shunt fault) Open circuits (Series fault) Simultaneous faults Winding faults

Network Fault Conditions - Fault Types

Short Circuits
Faults between phase conductors or between phase conductors

and earth

Three phase

Three phase to earth

Phase to phase

Single phase to earth

Two phase to earth

Phase to phase & phase to earth

Three phase fault condition normally used for determination of system fault levels

Network Fault Conditions -Fault Types

Open Circuits
Failure of one or more phases to conduct

Single phase open circuit

Two phase open circuit

Three phase open circuit

Single and two phase open circuits are causing unbalance in the system, thus risking a damage with rotating plants

Simultaneous (multiple) Faults

~

Presence of two or more similar or different kind of faults somewhere in the power system For example: double earth fault

Network Fault Conditions - Fault Types

Winding Faults
Faults which occur on machine and transformer windings Between windings, winding and earth, within winding or a mixture

Phase to earth

Phase to phase

Open circuited winding

Short circuited turns

Network Fault Conditions - Topics

Why to Calculate Fault Currents Fault Types Balanced Fault Conditions Unbalanced Fault Conditions Symmetrical Vectors Phase Sequence Networks

Network Fault Conditions - Balanced Faults

Balanced fault = three phase short circuit Balanced fault = fault current (and voltage) values in all
of the phases are equal in magnitude and symmetrically spaced with 120 intervals.

Balanced values = positive sequence values only

Network Fault Conditions - Unbalanced Faults

Unbalanced faults = all other faults except three phase
short circuit

Unbalanced fault = fault current (and voltage) values

are different between phases both in magnitude and in phase intervals

Unbalance values = positive, negative and zero values

Network Fault Conditions - Topics

Why to Calculate Fault Currents Fault Types Balanced Fault Conditions Unbalanced Fault Conditions Symmetrical Vectors Phase Sequence Networks

Network Fault Conditions - Symmetrical Vectors

For proper evaluation of unbalanced fault conditions in a
symmetrical three phase network

A mathematical method Any unbalanced three phase set of current and/or voltage vectors can be represented by the sum of three sets of balanced symmetrical) vectors Unbalanced system situation is shown as a sum of three
balanced systems

Balanced system vectors:

~

- Positive sequence set - Negative sequence set - Zero sequence set

Network Fault Conditions - Symmetrical Vectors

An unsymmetrical current vector presentation

Divided into symmetrical current components

Symmetrical components forming the unsymmetrical currents

Network Fault Conditions - Symmetrical Vectors

Positive sequence set of vectors

Equal in magnitude Spaced with 120 intervals In positive order

Negative sequence set of vectors

Equal in magnitude Spaced with 120 intervals

In reversed (negative) order

Network Fault Conditions - Symmetrical Vectors

Zero sequence set of vectors Equal in magnitude Equal in phase Equations Ia = Ia1 + Ia2 + Ia0 Ib = Ib1 + Ib2 + Ib0 Ic = Ic1 + Ic2 + Ic0 Ia , Ib , Ic denote for any unbalanced three phase vectors in positive sequence phase order Second subscripts 1,2 and 0 denote for positive, negative and zero sequence sets

Unbalanced three-phase voltages and their symmetrical components: (a) unbalanced instantaneous voltages and their phasors; (b) balanced PPS phasors; (c) balanced NPS phasors and (d) ZPS phasors

Network Fault Currents - Symmetrical Vectors

The same rewritten in the terms of a-phase sequence components only

Symbol "a" being the operator of 1/ 120, known as 120 operator

From these equations, the sequence components for reference to a phase, can be obtained as follows

I1

1 1a a I b a 2 I c 3 1 I 2 1a a 2 I b aI c 3 1 I 0 1a I b I c 3

Network Fault Conditions - Topics

Why to Calculate Fault Currents Fault Types Balanced Fault Conditions Unbalanced Fault Conditions Symmetrical Vectors Phase Sequence Networks

Network Fault Currents - Phase Sequence Networks

Three phase unbalanced network fault case shown with three equivalent single phase balanced networks
sequence networks

Symmetrical (balanced) current and voltage vectors lead to phase Balanced faults: positive sequence network only Unbalanced faults:

positive, negative and zero sequence networks

Connections between the sequence networks (serial, parallel or

combination) depend on the fault case under consideration

E.m.f.s produced by generators are positive sequence voltages

only, there being no generated negative or zero sequence voltages in the system

Network Fault Currents - Phase Sequence Networks

Network Fault Currents - Phase Sequence Networks

Example how to measure sequence impedance of a transmission line

Zero sequence circuit

Positive and negative sequence impedance

Zero sequence impedance

Network Fault Currents - Phase Sequence Networks

Overhead lines Z1 = Z2 Zo 2...3*Z1 (depends on soil, ground wires, etc.) Cables Z1 Z2 Zo must be asked from manufacturer Transformers Z1 Z2 (typically) Zo depends highly on connection group (earthing impedance) Synchronous machines Z1 > Z2 Zo varies largely, Ro > R1, Xo X1

#1 . Network Fault Conditions #2 . Balanced Faults #3 . Unbalanced Faults

Balanced Faults - Topics

Fundamentals Network Components Calculation Methods ample #1 ample #2

Balanced Faults Fundamentals

Network laws
Ohm's law U= IxZ Vector equation Complex values Kirchoff's first law Vector sum of all of the currents entering any junction is zero Ia+Ib+Ic+Id = 0 Kirchoff's second law The vector sum of source voltages effecting a closed loop is equal to the vector sum of voltage drops in the loop E1+E2+E3 = I1Z1+I2Z2+I3Z3

Balanced Faults - Fundamentals

Different stages during the fault
Initial stage
Ik initial short circuit current Xd initial axial reactance of a synchronous machine Presence of DC-component Determines the Idyn level (dynamic short circuit level)

Transient stage

Ik transient short circuit current Suppressing DC-component Xd transient axial reactance of a synchronous machine

Steady stage
Ik steady stage short circuit current Xd axial synchronous reactance of a synchronous machine No DC-component present Determines the Itherm level (thermal short circuit level)

Balanced Faults - Fundamentals

DC - component in the short circuit current

Short circuit current with DC-component (DC offset)

Short circuit current without DC-component

What further away the generating points in the network are, the less difference there will be between initial, transient and steady stage currents

Balanced Faults - Fundamentals

DC-component in the short circuit current
Magnitude depends on the moment when the fault occurs The suppression time of the DC-component depends the R/X ratio of the network

Peak Current

Peak value (highest value) of the short circuit current k = 1,02 + 0,98e- R Factor varies between 1,0 and 2,0. Usually with HV-networks
~ ~~

value 1,8 is used

k

ip = k x2 x I"k (ip = peak current) If I"k Ik ,then ip = 1,8 x 2 x Ik 2,5 x Ik with equipment the Idyn level is usually 2,5 times the Itherm leve

Balanced Faults - Topics

Fundamentals Network Components Calculation Methods ample #1 ample #2

Balanced Faults - Network Components

One phase representation of the fault case
Driving voltage (E)

Nominal phase voltage of the selected level IEC recommends following factors for the driving voltage when calculating the maximum current (factor "c"): UN > 1kV

E = 1,1 x UN /3 UN < 1kV E =1,00...1,05 x UN /3

Prefault load situation

To be considered as impedances (usually ignored when calculating by hand) To be considered as impedances Z = 78 65 = 32,96+j70,69

Network components

Calculation with complex values

Balanced Faults - Network Components

Presentation of network components
Synchronous generators
Resistive component usually ignored (typically X/R > 10) Axial reactances used Effect of X"d , X'd and Xd to be considered case by case Xd = xd (%) /100 *U2N / SN

Power transformer
Resistive component usually recognised Zk = uk (%) /100 *U2N / SN Rk =copper losses = PkN / SN * U2N / SN Xk = (Z2k R2k ) Position of tap changer can be ignored, effects mainly to the load or fault current division between parallel in feeds


Balanced Faults - Network Components

Presentation of network components
Network feeder

Resistive component usually ignored

Often the initial short circuit level is given (Sk3) X"s = U2s / S"k3 If the initial short circuit reactance of the network is less than half from the short circuit reactance of the power transformer in between the network and the fault point, the initial level can be regarded the same as the steady stage level (Xs < 0,5 * Xk)

Overhead line or cable circuits

Resistive component recognized With lower voltages the effect of conductor heating has to be recognized. Usually when calculating the maximum fault current the temperature of 40C is used.

Balanced Faults - Network Components

Presentation of network components
Unsynchronous motor

supplies fault current during the first 3-5 cycles

usually recognised only when calculating the initial short circuit

current => switchgears Idyn level

Balanced Faults - Topics

Fundamentals Network Components Calculation Methods ample #1 ample #2

Balanced Faults - Calculation Methods

Basic Methods to solve the circuit Thevenin's theorem applicable to any linear network sum of driving voltages can replaced with a single driving voltage acting in series with a single impedance

Balanced Faults - Calculation Methods

Basic Methods to solve the circuit Superposition theorem applicable to any linear network a current flowing in any branch of a network as a result of several driving
voltages is a vector sum of currents driven by each individual voltage when all other voltages equal zero i.e. they are short circuited

Balanced Faults - Calculation Methods

"Aid" Methods
Star to delta transformation and vice versa Combination of equal driving voltages Combination of series or parallel branches

Balanced Faults - Topics

Fundamentals Network Components Calculation Methods ample #1 ample #2

Balanced Faults - Example #1

Fault Case

Calculate the steady stage three phase short circuit current in 24kV switchgear busbars (using Thevenin's theorem)

How to proceed step by step:

1. Select the voltage level 2. Draw the one phase substitute circuit 3. Calculate Impedance values 4. Convert the impedance values to the chosen voltage level 5. Calculate the current

Balanced Faults - Example #1

1. Select the voltage level Nominal operating voltage in 24 kV swg: 20kV (Ef = 20kV/3) 2. Draw the one phase substitute circuit

Ef = Driving voltage Xs = Reactance of the network feeder Xl = Reactance of the overhead line Rl = Resistance of the overhead line Xk = Reactance of the power transformer Rk = Resistance of the power transformer Xc = Reactance of the supply cable Rc = Resistance of the supply cable Zf = Fault impedance symmetrical fault =only positive sequence components

Balanced Faults - Example #1

3. Calculate impedance values Xs= Reactance of the network feeder Xs = Us2 / Sk3 Zs= 0+j5,26 = 5,26 90 " 2 Xs = 110kV /2300MVA = 5,26 Xl= Reactance of the overhead line Zl= 26+j52 = 58,14 63,4 Xl = 130km * 0,4/km = 52 Xl= Resistance of the overhead line Xl = 130km * 0,2/km = 26 Zs= 0+j5,26 = 5,2690 Zk= Impedance of the power transformer Zk = uk (%) /100 * U2N / SN Zk= 11%/100* 113kV2/25MVA=56,18 Rk= Resistance of the power transformer Rk= PkN/SN* U2N/SN Rk = 56kW/25MVA * 113kV2/25MVA = 1,14

Balanced Faults - Example #1

Xk = Reactance of the power transformer Xk = (56,182 - 1,142) = 56,17 Zk = 1,14+j56,17 = 56,18 88,8 Xc = Reactance of the supply cable Xc = 0, 04 km * 0,1 /km = 0, 004 Zc = 0, 008+j 0, 004 Rc = Resistance of the supply cable = 0,00894 36,57 Rc = 0, 04 km * 0, 2 /km = 0, 008 Zf = Fault impedance = 0 Conclusions: The impedance of the supply cable can be neglected The initial short circuit reactance of the network feeder is less than half of the power transformer value, thus can be rearded as the steady stage value.

Balanced Faults - Example #1

4. Convert the impedance values to the chosen voltage level
Zs = Impedance the network feeder Zs1=Zs * (U2/U1)2 Zs1 = 5,26 L90 *(20kV/ 110kV)2 = 0,174 L90 Zl = Impedance of the overhead line Zl1 = 58,14 L63,4 * (20kV/ 110kV)2 = 1,922 L63,4 Zk = Impedance of the power transformer Zk1 = 56,18 L88,8 * (20kV/ 110kV)2 = 1,857 L88

Balanced Faults - Example #1

5. Calculate the fault current

I k3 = Three phase fault current

Ik3 = c* Ef/(Zs1 +Zl1+Zk1)
Ik3 = 1,1 * 11,55kV 00 / (0,174 90 + 1,922 63,4 + 1,85788,8)

I k3 = 3300 A -76,5

Balanced Faults - Topics

Fundamentals Network Components Calculation Methods ample #1 ample #2

Balanced Faults - Example #2

Fault Case

Calculate: a) the steady stage three phase short circuit current b) the initial three phase short circuit current

Balanced Faults - Example #2

1. Select the voltage level Nominal operating voltage in 24 kV swg: 20kV (Ef = 20kV/3) 2. Draw the one phase substitute circuit

Ef = Driving voltage Zs = Impedance of the network feeder Zl = Impedance of the overhead line Z1k = Impedance of power transformer #1 Zg = Impedance of the generator Z2k = Impedance of the power transformer #2 Zf = Fault impedance Cables ignored

Balanced Faults - Example #2

Balanced Faults - Example #2

Balanced Faults - Example #2

Balanced Faults - Example #2

Balanced Faults - Example #2

#1. Network Fault Conditions #2. Balanced Faults #3 . Unbalanced Faults

Unbalanced Faults - Topics

Equations Power Transformer Connection Groups Example

Unbalanced Faults -Equations

Unbalanced Faults - Equations

Unbalanced Faults - Topics

Equations Power Transformer Connection Groups

Example

Unbalanced Faults - PT Connection Groups

Unbalanced Faults - PT Connection Groups

Unbalanced Faults - PT Connection Groups

Unbalanced Faults - Topics

Unbalanced Faults - Example

Equations Power Transformer Connection Groups Example

Unbalanced Faults - Example

Unbalanced Faults - Example

Unbalanced Faults - Example

Unbalanced Faults - Example

Unbalanced Faults - Example

Unbalanced Faults - Example

Unbalanced Faults - Example

Unbalanced Faults - Example

Unbalanced Faults - Example

Unbalanced Faults - Example

Unbalanced Faults - Example

Unbalanced Faults - Example

Unbalanced Faults - Example

Unbalanced Faults - Example