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86
4 MEASUREMENTS OF SOIL SUCTION
Vacuum hand pump
Figure 4.39 Deairing the tensiometer using a hand-held vacuum pump (from Soilmoisture Equipment Corporation).
spheric pressure within 5 min after the immersion in water, as illustrated in Fig. 4.40. A sluggish response may indicate a plugged porous cup, the presence of entrapped air in the system, or a faulty gauge that requires rezeroing. The ceramic cup must be soaked in water prior to its installation in order to avoid desaturation due to evaporation from the cup. The prepared tensiometer can then be installed in a predrilled hole in the field or in a soil specimen (e.g., a compacted specimen) in the laboratory. It is important to ensure good contact between the ceramic cup and the soil in order to establish continuity between the pore-water in the soil and the water in the tensiometer tube.
-20
A
$
1
9
h
r
-40
2
-60
T E
-80
Figure 4.40 Response of tensiometers with respect to time during immersion in water (from Tadepalli, 1990).
Co py rig hte dM ate ria l

50 100 Elapsed time, t (s)
150
Servicing the Tensiometer@er InsraUation After installation of the tensiometer, air bubbles may develop within the tensiometer due to several possible reasons. Dissolved air may come out of the solution as the water pressure decreases to a negative value. Air in the soil may diffise through the water in the ceramic cup and come out of the solution inside the tube. When the water pressure approaches the vapor pressure of water at the ambient temperature, water molecules can move freely from the liquid to the vapor form (Le,, cavitation occurs). In other words, the measured absolute pressure is equal to the saturated water vapor pressure, ii,o. The minimum vacuum gauge pressure that can be theoretically developed in the tensiometer is (- 101.3 kPa + uv0). In practice, however, the minimum gauge pressure that can be measured in a tensiometer is approximately -90 kPa due to the rapid accumulation of air bubbles as the saturated water vapor pressure is approached. In addition, pore-air passes through the high air entry cup if the matric suction of the soil exceeds the air entry value of the ceramic cup. The use of a ceramic cup with an air entry value greater than 100 kPa will not improve the measuring range of tensiometers since water in the tube will always cavitate when water pressure approaches approximately -90 kPa. It is necessary to check the tensiometer regularly in order to observe the development of air bubbles in the tube. This is particularly crucial when performing measurements on soils with high matric suctions. If air bubbles are allowed to accumulate in the tube, the pressure being read on the gauge will slowly increase towards zero (Le., atmospheric pressure). Air bubbles can be removed from the tensiometer using the vacuum pump (Fig. 4.39) and a procedure similar to that followed during the servicing of the tensiometer prior to installation. Having removed the air bubbles, deaerated water is added to refill the tube and the service cap is tightened in place. The tensiometer reading is then allowed to equilibrate.
Jet Rill Tensiometers A jet fill-type tensiometer is shown in Fig. 4.41. The jet fill type is an improved model of the regular tensiometer. A water reservoir is provided at the top of the tensiometer tube for the purpose of removing the air bubbles. The jet fill mechanism is similar to the action of a vacuum pump. The accumulated air bubbles are removed by pressing the button at the top to activate the jet fill action. The jet fill action causes water to be injected from the water reservoir to the tube of the tensiometer, and air bubbles move upward to the reservoir.
Small tip Tensiometer A small tip tensiometer with a flexible coaxial tubing is shown in Fig. 4.42. The tensiometer is prepared for installation using a similar procedure to that described for the
Copyright 1993 John Wiley & Sons
Retrieved from: www.knovel.com
4.4 MEASUREMENTS OF MATRIC SUCTION
87
Reservoir cover
Push button for jet fill action
"0" ring seals
Water reservoir Angle molded port on the side wall
Zero point adjuster
regular tensiometer tube. A vacuum pump can be initially used to remove air bubbles from the top of the tensiometer tube. Subsequent removal of air bubbles can be performed by flushing through the coaxial tube. Flushing is conducted by circulating water from the top
Service cap
Release collet
cup tube assembly

Heavy walled plastic tube
Vacuum gauge (0to -100 kPa) High flow 1 bar high air entry ceramic cup A flexible temperature adjusting outer jacket
Figure 4.41 Jet fill tensiometer from Soilmoisture Equipment Corporation.
of the tube and opening the water vent screw to the atmoa t e r containing air bubbles will be forced into the sphere. W inner nylon tube and released to the atmosphere through the opened water vent. Usually, this p d u r e is required on a daily basis. It is sometimes difficult to get an accurate
Water vent screw retaining nut
. n
Water vent screw
V'O** ring
-retainer
naiina
Inner nvlon tube
4)
i7'
F r "
Vent tube
Eigure 4.42 Small tip tensiometer with flexible coaxial tubing (from !bilrnoisNIe Equipment
Corporation).
88
3 4 Time, t (hours)
Figure 4.43 Typical responses of the small tip tensiometer in decomposed volcanics (from Sweeney, 1982). suction measurement because water moves from the tensiometer into the soil each time the tensiometer is serviced. The small tip with the flexible tube allows the installation of the tensiometer into a relatively small soil specimen during laboratory experiments. As an example, the small tip tensiometer has been installed in a consolidation specimen to measure changes in matric suction during the collapse of a compacted silt (Tadepalli, 1990). Figure 4.43 illustrates typical responses of the small tip tensiometer inserted into a decomposed volcanic soil. The response is plotted in tenns of matric suctions by referencing measurements to atmospheric air pressures. Sweeney (1982) found that this type of tensiometer could only maintain matric suction equilibrium for about one or two days before the suction readings began to drop. However, the time that equilibrium can be maintained is a function of the matric suction value being measured.

4.45.
Null knob
Complete unit Coring
Copyright 1993 John Wiley & Sons Retrieved from: www.knovel.com
@ick h w Tensiometers Figure 4.44 shows a Quick Draw tensiometer equipped with a coring tool and a carrying case. The Quick Draw tensiometer has proven to be a particularly useful portable tensiometer to rapidly measure negative pore-water pressures. The water in the tensiometer is subjected to tension for only a short period of time during each measurement. Therefore, air diffusion through the ceramic cup with time is minimized. The Quick Draw tensiometer can repeatedly measure pore-water pressures approaching - 1 atm when it has been properly serviced. When it is not in use, the probe is maintained saturated in a carrying case which has water-saturated cotton surrounding the ceramic cup. The rapid response of the Quick Draw tensiometer is illustrated in Fig.
Tensiometer P e f l o m n c e for &ld Measurements Tensiometers have been used to measure negative porewater pressures for numerous geotechnical engineering applications. One example is a cut slope consisting of 5-6 m of colluvium overlying a deep weathered granite (Fig. 4.46). Two observation shafts, made of concrete caisson rings, were constructed along the slope (i.e., shafts A and B in Fig. 4.46). Figure 4.47 illustrates the construction of the shaft, along with four circular openings along each caisson ring. The openings functioned as access holes for installing tensiometers into the soil at various locations along the shaft. The shaft was equipped with wood platforms at various elevations, a ladder, and lighting facilities, as shown in Fig. 4.47.
Figure 4.44 Quick Draw tensiometer with coring tool and cawing case (from Soilmoisture Equipment Corporation).
4.4 MBASUREMENTS OF MATFUC SUCTION
89
Figure 4.45 Typical responses of a Quick Draw tensiometer in decomposed volcanics (from Sweeney, 1982).
Measurements of negative pore-water pressures along shafts A and B are presented in Figs. 4.48 and 4.49, respectively. The results are plotted in terms of matric suction and hydraulic head profiles throughout the depth of the shaft. The results indicate the fluctuation in matric suction values with respect to the time of the year. The largest variations occur near the ground surface (Fig. 4.48). The hydraulic heads along the depth of the shaft are plotted by adding the negative pore-water pressure head to the elevation head. The hydraulic head plots indicate a net down-
'
170
[
-
g .1
E
c
150
130110-
9070 50 -
Figure 4.46 Cut slope of decomposed granite where tensiometers were used to measure negative pore-water pressures (from Sweeney, 1982).

10
20 Time, t (min ) 30
r
P
Surface drain around hut
Wooden hut square in plan
Wooden platform to carry 3 persons
Figure 4.47 Observation shaft for installing tensiometers i n the field (from Sweeney, 1982).
40
ward water flow towards the water table through the unsaturated zone. Quick Draw tensiometers have been used in the measurement of negative pore-water pressures along the sideo a railway walls of two trenches excavated perpendicular t embankment in western Canada. The soil consisted predominantly of an unsaturated silt. The results are plotted in Fig. 4.50 as contours of matric suction across the embankment. It appears that the matric suctions decrease toMetric suction, (u. - uw)(kPa) 0 20 40 80 80 100 Hydraulic head (m) 10 20 30 40
1 High rise
12
16
High rise
0-4 m. Sandy clay and silt (Colluvium) 4-6.5 m: Clayey silt (Residual soil)
o Reading during ceisson
111
Completely weathered granite
excavation -March to May 1980 0 13 September 1980 29 November 1980

1 December 1980
A
Completely to hi! May, 1980
F
36
v 29 March 1981
'Groundwater table May 1980
F@re 4.48 Matric suction profile along shaft A ( f r o m Sweeney, 1982).
90

Matric suction, (ua 0
UW)
(kPa)
Hydraulic head (m)
10 20
30 40
Input from other transducer
of sandy clay (Colluvium)
Connections to
24
Groundwater table
May 1980 32 4
Figure 4.49 Matric suction profile along shaft B ( f r o m Sweeney, 1982).
wards the ground surface due to the influence of the microclimatic conditions (Le., excessive rainfall). A scanning valve tensiometer system has also been used for recording several tensiometer readings through one central pressure transducer (Fig. 4.51). The hydraulic scanning valve rotates automatically from one tensiometer to another in order for the transducer to record the readings.
Osmotic Tensiometem
Attempts have been made to ovenxme the problem of water cavitation in a conventional tensiometer through the use of
0
8 3
6 7
8
Figure 4.50 Matric suction contours along the sidewalls of two test trenches in a silt embankment (from Kmhn et al., 1989).

Bleed tube
FE
Reading during Caisson excavation -March to May 1980
dk:gecting
Cr
tube connections
Po
Figure 4.51 A scanning valve tensiometer system (from Anderson and Burt, 1977).
-20
- Metric suction, (u. - uw)-(kPa)
62 Suctions in undisturbed clay
an osmotic tensiometer (Peck and Rabbidge, 1966). The osmotic tensiometer uses an aqueous solution that has been internally prestmssed to produce a positive gauge pressure. The positive pressure of the aqueous solution is then reduced by the negative pore-water pressure in an unsaturated soil when the osmotic tensiometer comes to equilibrium. The reduction of the pressure inside the osmotic tensiometer is measured using a pressure transducer to give the measured negative pore-water pressure in the soil. Using the above concept, highly negative pore-water pressures can be measured without causing the tensiometer solution to go into tension. However, major difficulties associated with osmotic tensiometers have restricted their use (Peck and Rabbidge, 1%9; Bocking and Fdlund, 1979). The configuration and components of an osmotic tensiometer are shown in Fig. 4.52. The device consists of a closed chamber containing an aqueous solution of polyethylene glycol (PEG)with a molecular mass of 20 000. A filling port is provided on the sidewall for inserting the solution into the chamber. The upper end of the chamber is sealed with a pressure transducer for measuring the internal pressure of the solution. The lower end of the chamber is sealed with a semi-pexmeable membrane attached to a 15 bar, high air entry ceramic disk. The initial internal chamber pressure of the solution is developed through an osmotic process. This chamber pressure is highly positive, and can be in the range o f 14002000 P a . This pressure is generated when the sensor is placed in water, and is regarded as the reference pressure
4.4 MEASUREMENTS OF MATRIC SUCf'ION
91
4 r
Electrical connector
.Pressure transducer
(Dynisco APT 310B)
(2-1nillrpOre pelticon)
Figure 4.52 Osmotic tensiometer constructed at the University of Saskatchewan (from Bocking and Fredlund, 1979).
of the osmotic tensiometer. The reference pressure comsponds to equilibrium conditions at a standard temperature of 2OoCwith the device immersed in distilled water at zero gauge pressure. Therefore, the osmotic process is generated by immersing the osmotic tensiometer into water. Water flows into the chamber as a result of the large difference between the solution concentration across the semipermeable membrane. On the other hand, the solution molecules cannot pass through the semi-permeable membrane. However, water flows into the closed chamber, causing the solution pressure to increase as recoded by the pressure transducer. The flow of water will diminish as the internal pressure in the chamber increases. Eventually, equilibrium is reached between the internal pressure of the solution and the osmotic suction across the semi-permeable membrane. The reference pressure under equilibrium conditions is a function of the concentration and the molecular mass of the solution, as illustrated in Fig. 4.53 for the PEG (polyethylene glycol) solution. The osmotic tensiometer can now be placed in contact with an unsaturated soil where the pore-water pressures are negative. During the equilibration process, a small amount of water will flow out of the chamber through the semipermeable membrane. The solution pressure is reduced by an amount equal to the negative pore-water pressure in the soil. The solution pressure reduction is measured on the pressure transducer. Pore-air cannot enter the chamber because of the high air entry ceramic disk and the high positive pressure within the chamber. The first major difficulty associated with the osmotic tensiometer is its inability t o maintain a constant reference pressure with time. Figure 4.54 demonstrates the decreasing reference pressures of two osmotic tensiometers in equilibrium with distilled water at 20C over a period of

0
Plastic O-ring Clamping ring 15 bar high air entry ceramic disk
4
L
Chamber containing 2.83 cma of 3q% Aqueous solution of PEG 2oooO
0.004 0.008 0.012 0.016 0.020 Concentration (molar)
Figure 4.53 Osmotic pmsure of polyethylene glycol (PEG) solutions (from Bocking and F d u n d , 1979).
260 days. There are seveml possible causes for the reduction in the reference pressure with time (Peck and Rabbidge, 1969). However, the most likely explanation for the pressure reduction is the minute leakage of the confined solute through the semi-permeable membrane. It was also found that the membrane is susceptible to physical deterioration with time (&king and Fredlund, 1979). The second major difficulty associated with the osmotic tensiometer concerns changes in the internal reference pressure as a result of changes in the ambient temperature. Figure 4.55 shows the decreasing reference pressure of two osmotic tensiometers as the temperature i n c w s . The pressures shown in Fig. 4.55 have been corrected for the pressure drift with time (Fig. 4.54). The effect of temperature on the reference pressure makes it extremely difficult to measure negative pore-water pressures other than in a controlled temperature environment. Even under controlled temperatures, there is significant drift of the reference pressure with time. To date, a solution has not been found to overnome these problems.
Axis-TrensWn Technique Measurements of negative pore-water pressure can be made using the axis-translation technique. The measurement is
Unit number 06777 (dual membrane, 30% PEG) Drift = 0.78 kPa/day, 1.22% (of 1908 kPa)/month Unit number 67266 (Dual membrane, 30% PEG) Drift = 3.36 kPa/day, 6.61 % (of 1523 kPa)/month . " ' , ' ' ' ' '
1-
- -
5001 '
0
' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
100 200 Time since filling, t (days)
'
' ' '
300
Figure 4.54 Reference pressure drifts of two osmotic tensiometers with time (from Bocking and Fredlund, 1979).
92
I
$
5
5
2300 2100
1900
.- 1700 .h
.-
t
k
1300
Figure 4.55 Decreasing reference pressures of two osmotic tensiometers with increasing temperatures (from Bocking and Fredlund, 1979).
performed on either undisturbed or compacted specimens. This technique was originally proposecl by Hilf (1956), as illustrated in Fig. 4.56. An unsaturated soil specimen was placed in a closed pressure chamber. The pore-water pressure measuring probe consisted of a needle with a saturated high air entry ceramic tip. The probe was connected to a null-type pressure measuring system through a tube filled with deaired water, with a mercury plug in the middle. As soon as the probe was inserted into the specimen, the water in the tube tended to go into tension and the Bourdon gauge began registering a negative pressure. The tendency of the water in the measuring system to go further into tension was countered by increasing the air pressure in the chamber. Eventually, an equilibrium condition was achieved when the mercury plug (Le., the null indicator) remained stationary. The difference between the air pressure in the chamber and the measured negative water pressure at equilibrium was taken to be the matric suction of the soil,
(u,
-Ud.
Pressure gauge
Compressed air
Figure 4.56 Original setup for the null-type, axis-translation device for measuring negative pore-water pressures (from Hilf, 1956).

10
14 18 Temperature, t (OC) 22
1500
26
When the air pressure is atmospheric (Le., u, = 0), the matric suction value is numerically equal to the negative pore-water pressure. The axis-translation technique simply translates the origin of reference for the pore-water pressure from standard atmospheric conditions to the final air pressure in the chamber (Le., axis translation; Hilf, 1956). As a result, the water pressure in the measuring system does not become highly negative, and the problem of cavitation is prevented. Hilf (1956) demonstrated that the pore-water pressure increased by an amount equal to the increase in the ambient chamber air pressure. In other words, the soil matric suction remained constant when measured at various ambient air pressures. The condition of no flow maintained during the measurement of matric suction is the justification for the axis-translation technique. The axis-translation technique has also been used by other researchers. Olson and Langfelder (1965), used the modified pressure plate apparatus shown in Fig. 4.57. The procedure used was as follows. A soil specimen is placed on top of a saturated high air entry disk in an air pressure chamber. The air entry value of the disk must be higher than the matric suction to be measured. A 1 kg mass is placed on top of the specimen to ensure a good contact between the soil specimen and the high air entry disk. The placement of the specimen onto the ceramic disk and the assemblage of the cell are performed as rapidly as possible (Le., within approximately 30 s). The water pressure in the compartment below the high air entry disk is maintained as close as possible to zero pressure by increasing the air pressure in the chamber. The pressure transducer connected to the water compamnent is used as a null indicator.
Compound Bourdon gauge (-101.3 kPa to 202.6 kPa) \
Unsaturated soil specimen
.-L H i g h air entryceramic tip
Pressure chamber
Pressure transducer
Figure 4.57 Pressure plate apparatus for measuring negative pore-water pressures using the axis-translation technique (from Olson and Langfelder, 1965).
93

StTBSBBs a=o U . = 0 (atmospheric)
U ,= -250 kPa
A similar pressure plate design was used in several research studies at the University of Saskatchewan. The device is shown in Fig. 4.58. It is important for the apparatus to have a system to flush air bubbles from below the high air entry disk in order to keep the compartment above the transducer saturated with water. Pressure values m shown in Fig. 4.59 to illustrate how a highly negative pore-water pressure can be measured using this apparatus. Let us suppose that a soil specimen has an initial pore-water pressure of -250 kPa when placed onto the saturated, high air entry disk. The specimen will immediately tend to draw water up through the ceramic disk, causing the pressure transducer to commence registering a negative value. The cover must be quickly placed on top of the device, and the air pressure in the chamber is increased until there is no futther tendency for the movement of water through the high air entry disk. At equilibrium, the chamber air pressure could be 255 kPa, while the water compartment would register 5 kPa. Therefore, the matric suction of the soil is 250 kPa. f Typical response time curves for the measurement o matric suction, using the axis-translation technique, are illustrated in Figs. 4.60 and 4.61 (Widger, 1976; Filson, 1980). The response curves generally exhibit an S shape, with a relatively fast equilibration time. Pressure response versus time is a function of the permeability characteristic of the high air entry disk and the soil. The results shown in Figs. 4.60 and 4.61 were obtained during matric suction measurementson a highly plastic clay (Le., Regina clay). Figures 4.62 and 4.63 present water content versus matric suction relationships for compacted specimens o f Regina clay and glacial till, respectively. The matric suctions were measured using the axis-translation technique. Reasonably good agreement in the data has been obtained by
Line to air pressure supply
9
Air pressure
Preeaure transducer Wires
initial
a = U. ua= 256 kPa uw= 5 kPa
zimwum%
(a- u . ) =0 (u. - u , . , ) = 250 kPa
(a- u.) = 0 (0. - u,) = 260 kPa
smSUmQ
Rgure 4.59 Schematic showing the p ~ s s u r changes e associated with the measurementof matric suction using a null-type pressure plate apparatus (from Pdlund, 1989).
Stainless, chamber
steel
supply
Pressure transducer
several resemhers, indicating the reliability of this technique. Similar water content versus matric suction relationships were obtained for several compacted soil types by Olson and hngfelder (1%5); and Mou and Chu (1981). The results m shown in Figs. 4.64 and 4.65. Again, there is a distinct relationshipbetween decreasing water contents and increasing matric suctions. There is, however, a difference in the water content versus matxic suction Elationships obtained from static and kneading compaction. This difference appears to be caused by different soil structures resulting from the different methods of compaction (Mou and Chu, 1981). In general, the null-type axis-translation technique can be used to measure negative pore-water pressures in the laboratory with reasonable success and accuracy. High air entry disks with a maximum air entry value of up to 1500 kpa are commercially available (Table 4.6). Theoretical studies on the axis-translationtechnique suggested that the technique is best suited to soils with a continuous air phase (Bocking and Fredlund, 1980). The presence of occluded air bubbles in the soil specimen can result in an overestimation of the measured matric suction, In addition, air diffusing through the high air entry disk can cause an underestimating of the measured matric suction.
4.4.3
Figure 4.58 Pressure plate apparatus for measuring negative pore-water pressures using the axis-translationtechnique (the design at the University of Saskatchewan).
Indirect Measurements The indirect measurement of soil matric suction can be made using a standard porous block as a measuring sensor.
94

I
400
+ a -
5300
a
A
0 0
Undisturbed specimens of Regina clay
w=35.1% w=36.8%
w = 33.2%
3 U .. . )
w=28.8%
A wide range of porous materials has been examined for their soil-water characteristic relationship in order to select the most appropriate material for making the sensor. These materials include nylon, fiberglass, gypsum plaster, clay ceramics, sintered glass, and metal. The porous block sensor must be brought into equilibrium with the matric suction in the soil. At equilibrium, the matric suction in the porous block and the soil are equal.

3
100
/ # o -o o
0.1
10 Elapsed time, t (min)
100
loo0
Figure 4.60 Response versus time for matric suction measurements on Regina clay using the axis-translation technique (from Widger, 1976).
The matric suction is inferred from the water content of the porous block. The water content of the porous block can be determined by measuring the electrical or thermal properties of the porous block. These properties are a function of the water content, and can be established through Calibrations. In the calibration process, the porous block is subjected to various matric suctions, and its electrical or thermal properties are measured. As a result, the measured
Figure 4.61 Response versus time for matric suction measumments on Regina clay using the
axis-translation technique (from Filson, 1980).
4.4
MEASUREMENTS OF MATRlC SUCTION
95
1300r
"
22
Figure 4.62 Water content versus suction for specimens of compacted Regina clay.
electrical or thermal property of the porous block in equilibrium with a soil can be used to determine the matric suction in the soil through use of the calibration curve. The indirect measurements based on the electrical properties of a porous block have been found to be sensitive to the presence of dissolved salts in the pore-water (Richards, 1974). On the other hand, the indirect measurements based on the thermal properties of the porous block show little effect from the dissolved salts in the pore-water or variations in the ambient temperature. As a result, the thermal sensor is the most promising device for the indirect measurements of matric suction (Richards, 1974), Its working principle and application are explained in the following sections.
Thennal Conductivity Sensors Thermal properties of a soil have been found to be indicative of the water content of a soil. Water is a better thermal conductor than air. The thermal conductivity of a soil increases with an incneasing water content. This is particularly true where the change in water content is associated with a change in the degree of saturation of the soil. Shaw and Baver (1939) developed a device consisting of a temperature sensor and heater which could be installed directly into the soil for thermal conductivity measurements. It was found that the presence of salts did not significantly affect the thermal conductivity of the soil. How-

24 26 20 30 32 Water content, w (%) 34 36
Water content, w (%)
Figure 4.63 Water content versus matric suction for specimens of compacted glacial till.
ever, different soils required differentcalibrations in order to relate the thermal conductivitymeasurements to the water contents of the soil. Johnston (1942) suggested that the thermal conductivity sensor be enclosed in a porous medium that had a calibration curve. The porous cover could then be brought into equilibrium with the soil under consideration. Johnston (1942) used plaster of pans to encase the heating element. In 1955, L.A. Richards patented an electrothermal element for measuring moisture in porous media (U.S.Patent 2 718 141). The element consisted of a resistance thermometer which was wrapped with a small heating coil. The electrothermal element was then mounted in a porous cup and sealed with ceramic cement. Richards proposed the use of a sandy silt material for the porous block, It was suggested that the porous cup should have an air entry value less than 10 kPa. Bloodworth and Page (1957) studied three materials for use as a porous cup for the thermal conductivity sensors. Plaster of pans, fired clay, or ceramic and castone (Le., a commercially available dental stode powder) were used in the study. The castone was found t o be the best material for the porous cup. Phene et al. (1971) developed a thermal conductivity sensor using a Germanium p n diode as a temperature sen-
96
4 MEASUREMENTS OF SOIL SUCTION 1650 1600

n -
3 1550
\
.t
g
0 m
1500
t n 1450
400
.-
a g200u) 3
0 .-
g 1000
E
18
n -
1.7
z 1.6 .-*
I
\ CD
1.5
Figure 4.65 Compaction curves and corresponding water content versus matric suction for an expansive clay in Texas (from Mou and Chu, 1981).

1400
i i i
4, 2
-I
-20 -60
i
9
-100
-80
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 Weter content, w (94)
6 8 10 12 14 16 Water content, w (%J
Figure 4.64 Negative pore-water pressure measurements on compacted specimens using the axis-translation technique (from Olson and Langfelder, 1965).
Static compaction
Kneading compaction
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
Water content, w (%J
sor. The sensor was wrapped with 40-gauge Teflon-coated copper wire that served as the heating coil. The sensing unit was embedded in a porous block. The optimum dimensions of the porous block were calculated based on a theoretical analysis. The block must be large enough to contain the heat pulse (particularly for the saturated sensor) without interference from the surrounding soil. Also, it was found that the higher the ratio of the thermal conductivity to the difisivity, the higher the precision with which the water content could be measured. The distribution of the pore sizes was also important. Gypsum, ceramics, and mixtures of ceramics and castone were examined as potential porous block materials by Phene et al., (1971). It was found that the ceramic block exhibited a linear response and provided a stable solid matrix. In the mid-I970s, Moisture Control System Inc. of Findlay, OH, manufactured the MCS 6OOO thermal conductivity sensor. The sensor was built using the same design and construction procedures used by Phene et al., (1971). The manufactured sensors were subjected to a twopoint calibration. The suggested calibration curves were assumed to be linear from zero suction to a suction of 300 kPa. Above 300 kPa, the calibration curves were empirically extrapolated. In the region above 300 kPa, the calibration curves became highly nonlinear and less accurate.
97
Theory of Opemtion A thermal conductivity sensor consists of a porous ceramic block containing a temperature sensing element and a miniature heater (Fig. 4.66). The thermal conductivity of the porous block varies in accordance with the water content of the block. The water content of the porous block is de-
Epoxy
seal
Temperature sensing integrated circuit Epoxy
Figure 4.66 A cross-sectionaldiagram of the AGWA-I1 thermal conductivity sensor ( f r o m Phew et al., 1971).

Calibmtion of Sensors
Epoxy backing
The MCS 6OOO sensors have been used for matric suction measurements in the laboratory and in the field (Picornell et al., 1983; Lee and Fredlund, 1984). The sensors appeared to be quite suitable for field usage, being insensitive to temperature and salinity changes. Relatively accurate measurements of matric suction were obtained in the range of 0-300 kPa. Curtis and Johnston (1987) used the MCS 6OOO sensors in a groundwater recharge study. The sensors were found to be quite responsive and sensitive. The results were in good agreement with piezometer and neutron probe data. However, Moisture Control System Inc. discontinued production in early 1980, and the MCS 6OOO sensor is no longer commercially available. In 1981, Agwatronics Inc. in Merced, CA, commenced production of the AGWA thermal conductivity sensors. The design of the sensor was changed from previous designs, but was based on the research by Phene et al., (1971). There were several difficulties associated with the AGWA sensor that resulted in their replacement by a new design, the AGWA-I1 sensor in 1984. A thorough calibration study on the AGWA-I1 sensors was undertaken at the University of Saskatchewan, Canada (Wong et al., 1989; Fredlund and Wong, 1989). Several other difficultieswere reported with the use of the AGWAI1 sensors. These include the deterioration of the electronics and the porous block with time. The AGWA-I1 sensors have been ;sed for laboratory and field measurements of matric suctions on several research studies (van der Raadt et al., 1987; Sattler and Fredlund, 1989; Rahardjo et al., 1989).
pendent upon the matric suctions applied to the block by the surrounding soil. Therefore, the thermal conductivity of the porous block can be calibrated with respect to an applied matric suction. A calibrated sensor can then be used to measure the matric suction by placing the sensor in the soil and allowing it to come to equilibrium with the state of stress in the porewater (Le., the matric suction of the soil). Thermal conductivity measurements at equilibrium am related to the matric suction of the soil. Thermal conductivity measurements are performed by measuring heat dissipation within the porous block. A controlled amount of heat is generated by the heater at the center of the block. A portion of the generated heat will be dissipated throughout the block. The amount of heat dissipation is controlled by the presence of water within the porous block. The change in the thermal conductivity of the sensor is directly related to the change in water content of the block. In other words, more heat will be dissipated as the water content in the block increases. The undissipated heat will result in a temperature rise at the center of the block. The temperature rise is measured by the sensing element after a specified time interval, and o the water content its magnitude is inversely proportional t of the porous block. The measured temperature rise is expressed in terms of a voltage output.
. Plastic jacket
- Heater resistor
porous media
- Ceramic
AGWA-I1 sensors are usually subjected to a two-point calibration prior to shipment from the factory. One calibration reading is taken with the Sensors placed in water (Le., zero matric suction). A second calibration reading is taken with the sensors subjected to a suction of approximately 1 atm. This calibration procedure may be adequate for some applications. However, it has been suggested that a more rigorous calibration pmedure is necessary when the sensors are used for geotechnical engineering applications (Fredlund and Wong, 1989). A more thorough calibration of thermal conductivity sensors can be performed by applying a range of matric suction values to the sensors which are mounted in a soil. Readings of the change in voltage output is a measure of the thermal conductivity (or the water content) o f the porous block under the applied mattic suction. The matric suction can be applied to the sensor using a modified pressure plate apparatus (Wong et al., 1989; Fredlund and Wong, 1989). The sensor is embedded in a soil which is placed on the pressure plate (Fig. 4.67). The soil on the pressure plate provides continuity between the water phase in the porous block and in the high air entry plate. In addition, the soil used in the calibration must be able to change its water content at a low matric suction (i.e., low air entry value), as shown in Fig. 4.68. The matric suction is applied by
98
increasing the air pressure in the pressure plate apparatus, but maintaining the water pressure below the pressure plate at atmospheric conditions. The change in voltage output from the sensor can be monitored periodically until matric suction equilibrium is achieved. The above procedure is repeated for various applied matric suctions in order to obtain a calibration curve. A number of thermal conductivity sensors can be calibrated simultaneously on the pressure plate. During calibration,
30

\Modified
plate
pressure
Figure 4.67 Pressure plate calibration setup for thermal conductivity senson (from Fredlund and Wong, 1989).
the pressure plate setup should be contained within a temperature-controlled box. Figure 4.69 shows a typical response curve for the AGWA-I1 sensor resulting from the application of different air pressures during the calibration process. The curve indicates an increasing equalization time as the applied matric suctions increase. For the calibration soil indicated in Fig. 4.68, the sensor has an equalization time in the order of 50 h for an applied matric suction below 150 kPa. The
25
Calibration soil: 9Wosilt and 10% Ottawa sand
-20 E -
c -
15-
g 105 -
'
i l l l
I I " "
I l l '
99
equalization time for a sensor is affected by the permeability and thickness of the calibration soil. In addition, the permeability and the thickness of the high air entry disks also affect the equalization times. More than 100 AGWA-I1 sensors have been calibrated and used at the University of Saskatchewan, Canada. T y p ical nonlinear calibration curves for the AGWA-I1 sensors are shown in Fig. 4.70. The nonlinear response of the sensors is likely related to the pore size distribution of the ceramic porous block. Similar nonlinearities were also observed on the calibration curves for the MCS 6OOO sensor. The nonlinear behavior of the AGWA-11 sensors may be approximated by a bilinear curve, as illustrated in Fig. 4.70. The bt.eaking points on the calibration curves are generally around 175 kPa. Relatively accurate measurements of matric suction dan be made using the AGWA-I1 sensors, particularly within the range of 0-175 kPa. Matric
400-
3 300.
soil: 9o%sik 10% Ottawa sand

I
Figure 4.70 Calibration curves for two AGWA-Il thermal conductivity sensors.

I
50
100
150 200 Elapsed time, t (hours)
250
300
350
o Figure 4.69 Time response curves for a thennal conductivity sensor (AGWA-II) subjected t changes in applied air pmssum (or matric suction).
suction measurements above 175 kPa cornspond to the steeper portion of the calibration curve, which has a lower sensitivity to changes in thermal conductivity. AGWA-11 sensors have shown consistent, reproducible, and stable output readings with time (Fredlund and Wong, 1989). The sensors have been found to be responsive to both the wetting and drying processes. However, some failures have been experienced with the sensors, particularly when subjected to a positive water pressure. The failures are attributed to moisture coming into contact with the electronics sealed within the porous ceramic (Wong et al., 1989). Also, there have been continual problems with the porous blocks being too fragile. Therefore, the sensor must be handled with great am.Even so, there is a percentage of the sensors which crack or cnrmble during calibration or installation.
lLpicalResults of Mahic Suction Measunments
Laboratory and field measurements of matric suctionsusing the MCS 6OOO and the AGWA-I1 thermal conductivity sensors have been made involving several types of soils. The o essentially soils have ranged from highly plastic clays t nonplastic sands. The sensors have been installed either in an initially wet or an initially dry state. The results from the MCS 6OOO sensors are presented first, followed by the results from the AGWA-I1 sensors.
Sensor reading (mV)
The MCS 6OOO Sensors Lee (1983) studied the performance of the MCS 6OOO thermal conductivity sensor. The laboratory and field measurements of matric suctions in glacial till shown in Figs. 4.71 and 4.72, respectively. The laboratory measurements
100
4 MEASUREMENTS OF SOIL SUCTION 1600
g - 1200
3 7 lo00 : -
1400
.*
Desorption cycle saturated sensor &dry hole standard compaction Absorption cycle dry sensor &dry hole standard compaction Dry sensor &wet hole standard compaction Dry sensor &dry ho!e modifiedcompaction
83 hours
41 3 hours
44
.P 36
3 >
'g
.L
u)
6 800
600 400 200
c
3
e ' e
28Initially 20Initially dry sensors

P
f 8
12-
Glacial till
1 1
0
10
I 1 1 1 1 1 1
I i I I I I I I
14 18 22 Water content, w (%)
26
Time, t (min )
Figure 4.71 Laboratory measurements of matric suction in glacia1 till using thermal conductivity senson (MCS6OOO).
Figure 4.73 Equalization times for the MCS 6OOO sensors for glacial till and Regina clay compacted at various water contents.
were performed on compacted specimens. Figure 4.71 indicates that the initially wet sensor gives a lower matric suction than the initially dry sensor for the same water content in the soil. The equalization times required for the MCS sensor are shown in Figure 4.73 for measurements in glacial till and Regina clay. The initially wet sensors have longer equalization times (Le., maximum 413 h) than the initially dry sensors (i.e., 83 h). This pattern was consistent in both soils. Unreliable suction measurements using thermal conductivity sensors have been attributed t o poor contact between the porous block and the soil, the entrapment of air during installation (Nagpal and Boersma, 1973), and temperature and hysteretic effects. Poor contact between the porous
block and the soil will cause the sensor to read a high suction value (Richard, 1974). The temperature effects on the MCS 6OOO sensor readings in Regina clay are illustrated in Fig. 4.74.
Tire AG WA-ZZ Sensors Results of laboratory measurements using the AGWA-I1 sensors on highly plastic clays from Sceptre and Regina, Saskatchewan are shown in Figs. 4.75, 4.76, and 4.77. The soils were sampled in the field using Shelby tubes. Matric suction measumments on compacted soils have also been performed on a silt from Brazil (Fig. 4.78). The results indicate that a considerably longer equalization time was required for the sensor to equilibrate when the water content of the specimen was low (Fig. 4.78) than when the water content of the specimen was high (Figs. 4.75, 4.76, and 4.77). The longer equalization time is attributed to the
200
Shower
Snowing
VWVl
.- 1 2 0 r,
g
3
V
L .
Depth = 0.15 m
I No reading when soil temperature below zero O C
500
.3
10080-
Sensor location changed
2 100
a
-"O
10 15 20 25 30 35 Elapsed time, t (days)
40
45
O"2O
22
24 26 28 Temperature ("C)
30
32
r e 4.72 Field measurements of matric suction in glacial till using thermal conductivity sensors (MCS-aooO).
Figure 4.74 Temperature effect on the MCS 6ooo sensor readings in Regina clay.
101
lower coefficient of permeability of the soil specimen as its water content decreases. Several laboratory measurements were conducted using two senson inserted into each soil specimen. One sensor was initially a i r d r i e d ,and the other was initially saturated. The initially saturated sensor was submerged in water for about two days prior to being installed in the soil. The sen-

Elapsed time, t (hours) Sask., Canada (w = 39.3%).
Elapsed time. t (hours)
Copyright 1993 John Wiley & Sons Retrieved from: www.knovel.com
Figure 4.75 Laboratory measurements of matric suction on a highly plastic clay from Sceptre,
sors were inserted into predrilled holes in either end of the soil specimen. The specimen with the installed sensors was wrapped in aluminum foil to prevent moisture loss during the measurement. The responses of both sensors were monitored immediately and at various elapsed times after their installation. The results indicate that the time required for the initially dry sensor to come to equilibrium with the
Figure 4.76 Laboratory measurements of matric suctions on a highly plastic clay from Sceptre, Sask., Canada (w = 34.1%).
102

700
Hi@hly plaStiC clay Water content: 35.1%
600
;a 500
soil specimen is less than the equilibrium time required for the initially saturated sensor to come to equilibrium. On the basis of numerous laboratory experiments, it would appear that the AGWA-I1 sensors that were initially dry yielded a matric suction value which was close to the c o m t value. In general, the initially dry sensor should yield a value which was slightly high. On the other hand, the initially wet sensor yields a value which was too low.
700

Elapsed time, t (hours) Compacted silt from Brazil
Figure 4.77 Laboratory measurements of matric suction on a highly plastic clay from Darke Hall, Regina, Sask., Canada (w = 35.1%).
Table 4.8 gives the interpretation of the results presented in Figs. 4.75-4.78 inclusive. On the basis of many laboratory tests, it is recommended that if only one sensor is installed in an undisturbed sample, the sensor should be initially dry. If the sensors have been calibrated using at lest seven data points, the readings obtained in the l a b r a t o q should be accurate to within at least 15 kPa of the correct value, provided the matric suc-
600
Water content : 15.2%
initially dry sensor
lnitiallv saturated
1 I
Elapsed time, t (hours)
Figure 4.78 Laboratory measurements of matric suctions on a compacted silt from Brazil ( w = 15.2%).
4.4 MEASUREMENTS OF MATRIC SUCT~ON
103
Table 4.8 Interpretation of Laboratory Matric Suction Measurements

Initially Figure Soil Type Sceptre clay Sceptre clay Regina clay Brazil silt Water Content
Dry
Sensor Wa)
120 136
No.
4.75 4.16 4.77 4.78
(4%)
39.3 34.1 35.1 15.2
Initially Wet Sensor orpa)

100 108 150 68
Best Estimate (ea)

114 126 157
tion reading is in the range of 0-300 kPa. It may take fourseven days before equilibrium is achieved. If the sensors are left in situ for a long period of time, the measurements should be even more accurate. Results from laboratory measurements of matric suction have been used to establish the negative pore-water pressures in undistuw samples of Winnipeg clay taken from various depths within a railway embankment (Sattler et al., 1990). The samples were brought to the laboratory for matric suction measurementsusing the AGWA-II sensors. The measured matric suctions were comted for the removal of the overburden stress, and plotted as a negative porewater pressure profile (Fig. 4.79). The results indicated that the negative pore-water pressures approached zero at the average water table, and were, in gene&, more negative than the hydrostatic line above the water table.

100
i6o
90
Field measurements of matric suction under a controlled environment have been conducted in the subgrade soils of a Department of Highways indoor test track at Regina, Saskatchewan ( h i et al,, 1989). The temperature and the relative humidity within the test track facility were controlled. Twenty-two AGWA-I1 sensors were installed in the subgrade of the test track. The subgrade consisted of a highly plastic clay and a glacial till. The sensors were initially airdried and installed into predrilled holes at various depths in the subgrade. The sensor outputs were recorded twice a day. Typical matric suction measurements on the compacted Regina clay and glacial till subgrade are presented in Figs. 4.80 and 4.81. Consistent readings of matric suction ranging from 50 to 400 kPa were monitored over a period of more than five months prior to flooding the test track. The
Pore-water pressure, u , (kPa)
Figure 4.79 Negative pore-water pressures measured using the AGWA-II thennal conductivity sensors on undisturbed samples.
104
4 MEASUREMENTS
OF SOIL SUCTION
I I
,
$7001
1400
.$300 I
:,
i-
500
content = 7.4%
I 8 n
200
100
0;
ldo
Figure 4.80 Measurements of matric suction using the AGWAI1 thermal conductivity sensors under a controlled environment in
the test track facility (Department of Highways, Regina, Canada). sensor responded quickly upon flooding (Fig. 4.82). The results demonstrated that the AGWA-II sensors can provide stable measurements of matric suction over a relatively long period of time. Matric suction variations in the field can be related to environmental changes. Several AGWA-I1 sensors have been installed at various depths in the subgrade below a railroad. The soil was a highly plastic Regina clay that exhibited high swelling potentials. Matric suctions in the soil were monitored at various times of the year. The results clearly indicate seasonal variations of matric suctions in the field, with the greatest variation occurring near ground surface (Fig. 4.83).

1000
2000
260 300 4 0 5;)o 760 8 0 Elapsed time, t (hours)
&
4 0
Thermal conductivity sensors appear to be a promising device for measuring matric suction either in the laboratory or in the field. However, proper calibration should be performed on each sensor prior to its use. The calibration study on the AGWA-I1 sensors revealed that the sensors are quite sensitive for measuring matric suctions up to 175 kPa. It is possible that further improvements on thermal conductivity type sensors will further enhance their performance. For example, a better seal around the electronics within the sensor could reduce the influence of soil water. Also, a stronger, more durable porous block would produce a better sensor for geotechnical engineering applications. These improvements would reduce the mortality rate of the sensor.
4.5 MEASUREMENTS OF OSMOTIC SUCTION
Several procedures can be used to measure the osmotic suction of a soil. For example, it is possible to add distilled water to a soil until the soil is in a near fluid condition, and then drain off some effluent and measure its electrical conductivity. The conductivity measurement can then be linearly extrapolated to the osmotic suction corresponding to the natural water content. This is known as the saturation extract procedure. Although the procedure is simple, it does not yield an accurate measurement of the in situ osmotic suction (Krahn and Fredlund, 1972). A psychrometer can also be placed over the fluid extract to measure the osmotic suction, but this procedure, like-
3000
Elapsed time, t (hours)
Figure 4.81 Measurements of matric suction using the AGWA-I1 thermal conductivity sensors under a controlled environment (Test track facility, Department of Highways, Regina, Canada).
4.5 MBASUREMENTS OF OSMOTIC SUCTION
105
901 .o -Regina clay 865 .E _.1000 500 Reginsclay Sandz a l ij ,Sand-', 0' 0 3000 (a)
1500 i
'
Slrid' : ' :. :., : .
' ,
.,:,:i :. ; :.,..: :.
I,
membrane
8ooo Irkpermeable 'O0O

Distance (mm)
'*Oo0
L 200000
50000
100000 150000 T i m , t (min) (b)
wise, gives poor results. It is the use of the pore fluid squeezer technique that has proven to give the most reasonable measurements of osmotic suction.
4.5.1
Squeezing Technique
The osmotic suction of a soil can be indirectly estimated by measuring the electrical conductivity of the pore-water from the soil. Pure water has a low electrical conductivity in comparison to porn-water which contains dissolved salts. The electrical conductivity of the pore-water from the soil can be used to indicate the total concentration of dissolved salts which is related to the osmotic suction of the soil. The pore-water in the soil can be extracted using a pore fluid squeezer which consists of a heavy-walled cylinder and piston squeezer (Fig. 4.84). The electrical resistivity (or electrical conductivity) of the pore-water is then measured. A calibration cuwe (Fig. 4.85) can be used to relate the electrical conductivity to the osmotic pressure of the
700
800
500
2 E 4 0 0 5 3 7 300 200
100
ONov
1984
Figure 4.83 Summary plot of matric suction measurements versus time of year for various depths in Regina clay in Saskatche-
wan (from van der Raadt, 1988).

-L 6.4
T
Figure 4.82 Cross-section and location of measurements of matric suction using the AGWA-II thermal conductivity sensors under a controlled environment (a) sensor locations; (b) sensor responses, (Test track facility, Department of Highways, Regina, Canada).
soil. The results of squeezing technique measurements appear to be affected by the magnitude of the extraction pressure applied. Krahn and Fredlund (1972) used an extraction pressure of 34.5 MPa in the osmotic suction measurements on the glacial till and Regina clay. Figures 4.86 and 4.87 present the results of osmotic suction measurements on glacial till and Regina clay, respectively. The measurements were conducted using the squeezing technique. The measured osmotic suctions are shown to agree closely with the total minus the matric suction measurements. In t h i s case, the total and the matric suctions were measumd independently. The discrepancies
Rubber (neoprene disk)
Perforated plate, 1.6 mm thick (filter paper support) tainless steel wire-screen isk, 1.6 mm thick
Rubber (neoprene) washer 4.8 mm thick Effluent passage reamed to fit nose of syringe
Jan
Mar
May July 1985
Sept
passage k 5 4 . 0 4
Figure 4.84 The design of the pore fluid squeezer (from Manheim, 1966).
106
2
k
600
---9 11
Total minus matric suction

By squeezing technique
13 16 17 19 Water content, w (%)
21

m
Figure 4.86 Osmotic suction versus water content for glacial till ( f r o mKrahn and Fredlund, 1972).
600
Total minus matric suction
z .-
200
20
22
I Water content, w (96)
24
26
20
30
32
Figure 4.85 Osmotic pressure versus electrical conductivity relationship for pore-water containing mixtures of dissolved salts (from U.S.D.A. Agricultural Handbook No. 60,1950).
Figure 4.87 Osmotic suction versus water content for Regina clay (from Kmhn and Fredlund, 1972).
shown at low water contents for the glacial till (Fig. 4.85) are believed to be attributable to inaccurate measurements of matric suction (Krahn and Fredlund, 1972). The close agreement exhibited in Figs. 4.86 and 4.87 indicates the reliability of the squeezing technique for osmotic suction measurements. The results also support the
validity of the matric and osmotic suctions being components of the total suction [Le., Eq. (4.3)]. It appears that the osmotic suction is relatively constant at various water contents (Figs. 4.86 and 4.87). Therefore, it is possible to use the osmotic suction as a relatively fixed value that can be subtmcted from the total suction measurements in order to give the matric suction values.

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4 MEASUREMENTS OF SOIL SUCTION

Vacuum hand pump

Co py rig hte dM ate ria l

Copyright 1993 John Wiley & Sons

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4.4 MEASUREMENTS OF MATRIC SUCTION

Push button for jet fill action

"0" ring seals

Water reservoir Angle molded port on the side wall

Zero point adjuster

cup tube assembly

Co py rig hte dM ate ria l

Figure 4.41 Jet fill tensiometer from Soilmoisture Equipment Corporation.

Water vent screw retaining nut

Water vent screw

Inner nvlon tube

Copyright 1993 John Wiley & Sons

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4 MEASUREMENTS OF SOIL SUCTION

Co py rig hte dM ate ria l

4.4 MBASUREMENTS OF MATFUC SUCTION

Co py rig hte dM ate ria l

Surface drain around hut

Wooden hut square in plan

Wooden platform to carry 3 persons

o Reading during ceisson

Completely weathered granite

excavation -March to May 1980 0 13 September 1980 29 November 1980

Completely to hi! May, 1980

'Groundwater table May 1980

F@re 4.48 Matric suction profile along shaft A ( f r o m Sweeney, 1982).

Copyright 1993 John Wiley & Sons

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4 MEASUREMENTS OF SOIL SUCTION

Hydraulic head (m)

Input from other transducer

of sandy clay (Colluvium)

Figure 4.49 Matric suction profile along shaft B ( f r o m Sweeney, 1982).

Co py rig hte dM ate ria l

Reading during Caisson excavation -March to May 1980

- Metric suction, (u. - uw)-(kPa)

62 Suctions in undisturbed clay

Copyright 1993 John Wiley & Sons

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4.4 MEASUREMENTS OF MATRIC SUCf'ION

Co py rig hte dM ate ria l

Chamber containing 2.83 cma of 3q% Aqueous solution of PEG 2oooO

0.004 0.008 0.012 0.016 0.020 Concentration (molar)

' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '

100 200 Time since filling, t (days)

' ' '

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4 MEASUREMENTS OF SOIL SUCTION

Co py rig hte dM ate ria l

Compound Bourdon gauge (-101.3 kPa to 202.6 kPa) \

Unsaturated soil specimen

.-L H i g h air entryceramic tip

Copyright 1993 John Wiley & Sons

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4.4 MEASUREMENTS OF MATRIC SUCTION

Co py rig hte dM ate ria l