SECTION 1

Basic Electricity

A Special Note on Safety

The purpose of this textbook is to provide the airconditioning and refrigeration technician with knowledge of electricity. Electricity is an extremely powerful force and should never be treated in a careless manner. The air-conditioning and refrigeration technician commonly works with voltages that range from 24 volts to 480 volts. One mistake can lead to serious injury or death. Never work on an energized circuit if it is possible to disconnect the power. When possible use a three-step check to make certain that the power is turned off. The three-step check is as follows: 1. Test the meter on a known live circuit to make sure the meter is operating. 2. Test the circuit that is to be de-energized with the meter. 3. Test the meter on the known live circuit again to make certain that the meter is still operating. Install a warning tag at the point of disconnection to warn people not to restore power to the circuit, Figure SF1.

GENERAL SAFETY RULES Think

Of all the rules concerning safety, this one is probably the most important. No amount of safeguarding or idiot-proong a piece of equipment can protect a person as well as the person taking time to think before acting. Many technicians have been killed by supposedly dead circuits. Do not depend on circuit breakers, fuses, or someone else to open a circuit. Test it yourself before you touch it. If you are working on high voltage equipment, use insulated gloves and meter probes designed to be used on the voltage being tested. Your life is your own, so think before you touch something that can take it away. Certain pieces of equipment can be especially hazardous if you are not aware of them. Some central air2 FIGURE SF1 Warning tags warn people that the circuit should not be turned back on.

conditioning units use a main contactor that has only one set of contacts to disconnect a 240-volt circuit, Figure SF2. The contactor operates on the principle that a complete circuit must exist for current to ow. If one line is broken or open, no current can ow to the compressor. The hazard lies in the fact that one of the 240-volt lines is still supplying power to the unit. If a technician should touch the unbroken line and ground, a 120-volt circuit is completed through his body. Other contactors employ two load contacts to break the circuit to the compressor, Figure SF3. This type of contactor is much safer and can prevent a serious injury.

240-VOLT INPUT

TO COMPRESSOR

FIGURE SF2 Some main contactors use one set of load contacts to break a 240-volt connection to the compressor.

240 VOLT INPUT

TO COMPRESSOR

FIGURE SF3 Contactors that employ two load contacts to break both sides of the 240-volt line are much safer and can prevent a serious injury.

Avoid Horseplay
Jokes and horseplay have a time and place, but the time and place is not when someone is working on an electric circuit or a piece of moving machinery. Do not be the cause of someone being injured or killed, and do not let someone else be the cause of your being injured or killed.

Do Not Work Alone

This is especially true when working in a hazardous location or on a live circuit. Have someone with you to turn off the power or give articial respiration and/or cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR). One of the effects of electrical shock is that it causes breathing difculties and can cause the heart to go into brillation.

Work with One Hand When Possible

The worst case for electrical shock is when the current path is from one hand to the other. This causes the current to pass directly through the heart. A person can survive a severe shock between the hand and one foot that would otherwise cause death if the current path was from one hand to the other.

Learn First Aid

Anyone working on electrical equipment should make an effort to learn rst aid. This is especially true for anyone who must work with voltages above 50 volts. A knowledge of rst aid and especially CPR may save your life or someone elses.

Effects of Electric Current on the Body

Most people have heard that it is not the voltage that kills but the current. Although this is a true statement, do not be misled into thinking voltage cannot harm you. Voltage is the force that pushes the current though the circuit. Voltage can be compared to the pressure that pushes water through a pipe. The more pressure available, the greater the volume of water owing through a pipe. Students often ask how much current will ow through the body at a particular

voltage. There is no easy answer to this question. The amount of current that can ow at a particular voltage is determined by the resistance of the current path. Different people have different resistances. A body will have less resistance on a hot day when sweating because salt water is a very good conductor. What you ate and drank for lunch can have an effect on your body resistance. The length of the current path can affect the resistance. Is the current path between two hands or from one hand to one foot? All of these factors affect body resistance. The chart in Figure SF4 illustrates the effects of different amounts of current on the body. This chart is general and shows the effects on most people. Some people may have less tolerance to electricity, and others may have greater tolerance. A current of 2 to 3 milliamperes will generally cause a slight tingling sensation. The tingling sensation will increase as current increases and becomes very noticeable at about 10 milliamperes. The tingling sensation is very painful at about 20 milliamperes. Currents between 20 and 30 milliamperes generally cause a person to seize the line and become unable to let go of the circuit. Currents between 30 and 40 milliamperes cause muscular paralysis, and currents between 40 and 60 milliamperes cause breathing difculty. By the time the current increases to about 100 milliamperes, breathing is extremely difcult. Currents from 100 to 200 milliamperes generally cause death because the heart usually goes into brillation. Fibrillation is a condition in which the heart begins to quiver and the pumping action stops. Currents above 200 milliamperes generally cause the heart to squeeze shut. When the current is removed the heart will typically return to a normal pumping action. This is the principle of operation of a debrillator. It is often said that 120 volts is the most dangerous voltage to work with. The reason for this is that 120 volts generally cause a current ow between 100 and 200 milliamperes through the bodies of most people. Large amounts of current can cause severe electrical burns. Electrical burns are usually very serious because the burn occurs on the inside of the body. The exterior of the body may not look seriously burned, but the inside may be severely burned.

0.1000.200 AMPERES (DEATH) THIS RANGE GENERALLY CAUSES FIBRILLATION OF THE HEART. WHEN THE HEART IS IN THIS CONDITION, IT VIBRATES AT A FAST RATE LIKE A QUIVER AND CEASES TO PUMP BLOOD TO THE REST OF THE BODY.

0.0600.100 AMPERES (EXTREME DIFFICULTY IN BREATHING)

0.0400.060 AMPERES (BREATHING DIFFICULTY)

0.0300.040 AMPERES (MUSCULAR PARALYSIS) 0.0200.030 AMPERES (UNABLE TO LET GO OF THE CIRCUIT) 0.0100.020 AMPERES (VERY PAINFUL) 0.0090.010 AMPERES (MODERATE SENSATION) 0.0020.003 AMPERES (SLIGHT TINGLING SENSATION)

FIGURE SF4

The effects of electric current on the body.

UNIT

Atomic Structure

OBJECTIVES: After studying this unit the student should be able to: s Discuss basic atomic theory s Name the basic parts of an atom s Discuss the law of charges s Discuss centrifugal force s Dene electricity s Discuss the differences between conductors and insulators

To understand electricity, it is necessary to start with the study of atoms. The atom is the basic building block of the universe. All materials are made from a combination of atoms. An atom is the smallest part of an element. The three principal parts of an atom are the electron, the neutron, and the proton. Figure 11 illustrates these parts of the atom. Notice that the proton has a positive charge, the electron has a negative charge, and the neutron has no charge. The neutron and proton combine to form the nucleus

ELECTRON

PROTON NEUTRON

FIGURE 11 6

Principal parts of an atom.

of the atom. The electron orbits around the outside of the nucleus. Notice that the electron is shown to be larger than the proton. Actually, the electron is about three times larger than a proton, but the proton weighs about 1,840 times more than an electron. It is like comparing a soap bubble to a piece of buckshot. This means that the proton is a very massive particle in comparison to the electron. To understand atoms, it is necessary to rst understand two basic laws of physics. One of these laws is the law of charges that states that opposite charges attract and like charges repel. Figure 12 illustrates this principle. In Figure 12, charged balls are suspended from strings. Notice that the two balls that contain opposite charges are attracted to each other. The two positively charged balls and the two negatively charged balls are repelled from each other. Since the proton has a positive charge and the electron has a negative charge, they are attracted to each other. The second law that must be understood is the law of centrifugal force. This law states that a spinning object will pull away from its centerpoint. The faster an object spins, the greater the centrifugal force becomes. Figure 13 shows an example of this principle. If an object is tied to a string, and the object is spun around, it will try to pull away from you. The faster the object spins, the greater the force is that tries to pull the object away. Centrifugal force keeps the electron from falling into the nucleus of the atom. The faster an electron spins, the farther away from the nucleus it will be.

UNIT 1 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

FIGURE 13

Centrifugal force causes an object to pull away.

FIGURE 12 The law of charges states that opposite charges attract and like charges repel.

Atoms have a set number of electrons that can be contained in one orbit or shell. The number of electrons that can be contained in any one shell is found by the formula (2N 2). The letter N represents the number of the orbit or shell. For example, the rst orbit can hold no more than two electrons: 2 (1)2 = 2 1 = 2. The second orbit can hold no more than 8 electrons: 2 (2)2 = 2 4 = 8. The third orbit can contain not more than 18 electrons: 2 (3)2 = 2 9 = 18. The fourth orbit cannot hold more than 32 electrons: 2 (4)2 = 2 16 = 32. The outer shell of an atom is known as the valence shell. Any electrons located in the outer shell of an atom are known as valence electrons. The valence shell of an atom cannot hold more than eight electrons. The valence electrons are of primary concern in the study of electricity, because these

electrons explain much of electrical theory. A conductor, for instance, is made from a material that contains one or two valence electrons. When an atom has only one or two valence electrons, they are loosely held by the atom and are easily given up for current ow. Silver, copper, and aluminum all contain one valence electron. Although all of these materials contain only one valence electron, silver is a better conductor than copper, and copper is a better conductor than aluminum. The reason for this is that an atom of silver is larger than an atom of copper, and an atom of copper is larger than an atom of aluminum. Since an atom of silver is larger than an atom of copper, it contains more orbits than an atom of copper. This means that the valence electron of silver is farther away from the nucleus than an atom of copper. Since the speed an electron spins is determined by its distance from the nucleus, the valence electron of silver is spinning around the nucleus at a faster speed than the valence electron of copper. Therefore, the valence electron of silver contains more energy than the valence electron of copper. When the valence electron of silver is knocked out of orbit, it simply contains more energy than the valence electron of copper, and therefore, makes a

SECTION 1 BASIC ELECTRICITY

VALENCE ELECTRON

SILVER ATOM

VALENCE ELECTRON

FIGURE 15 electron.

An electron knocked out of orbit by another

struck moves off to strike another electron. This same action can often be seen in the game of pool. If the moving cue ball strikes a stationary ball exactly right, the energy of the cue ball is given to the stationary ball. The stationary ball then moves off with most of the energy of the cue ball, and the cue ball stops moving. Figure 16 illustrates this condition. Notice that the stationary ball did not move off
COPPER ATOM FIGURE 14 Silver and copper atoms.

better conductor of electricity. Copper is a better conductor of electricity than aluminum for the same reason. Figure 14 shows an atom of silver and an atom of copper. Electricity is the ow of electrons. It is produced by knocking the electrons of an atom out of orbit by another electron. Figure 15 illustrates this action. When an atom contains only one valence electron, it is easily given up when it is struck by another electron. The striking electron gives its energy to the electron being struck. The striking electron settles into orbit around the atom, and the electron that was

FIGURE 16 ball.

The cue ball gives energy to the stationary

UNIT 1 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

FIGURE 17 electrons.

Energy is divided between two valence

FIGURE 18

Energy is divided among eight electrons.

with the same energy of the cue ball. It moved off with most of the energy of the cue ball. Some of the energy of the cue ball was lost to heat when it struck the stationary ball. This is true when one electron strikes another also. This is the reason that a wire heats when current ows through it. If too much current ows through a wire, it will overheat and damage the wire or become a re hazard. If an atom that contains two valence electrons is struck by a moving electron, the energy of the striking electron is divided between the two valence electrons. Figure 17 shows this action. If the valence electrons are knocked out of orbit, they will contain only half the energy of the striking electron. This

action can also be seen in the game of pool. If a moving cue ball strikes two stationary balls at the same time, the energy of the cue ball is divided between the two stationary balls. Both of the stationary balls will move, but with only half the energy of the cue ball. Materials that are made from atoms that contain seven or eight valence electrons are known as insulators. Insulators are materials that resist the ow of electricity. Some good examples of insulator materials are rubber, plastic, glass, and wood. Figure 18 illustrates what happens when a moving electron strikes an atom that contains eight valence electrons. The energy of the moving electron is divided so many times that it has little effect on the atom.

SUMMARY
1. The three major parts of an atom are the electron, proton, and neutron. 2. Electrons have a negative charge, protons have a positive charge, and neutrons have no charge. 3. The nucleus of an atom contains protons and neutrons. 4. An electron is about three times larger than a proton, but the proton weighs about 1,840 times more than an electron. 5. The law of charges states that opposite charges attract and like charges repel. 6. Centrifugal force is the force that causes a spinning object to pull away from its center or axis point. 7. Centrifugal force is proportional to the mass of the object and its speed.

10

SECTION 1 BASIC ELECTRICITY

8. Valence electrons are the electrons located on the outermost shell or orbit of an atom. 9. Electron impact can be used to knock an electron out of the orbit of an atom. 10. Conductors are materials that conduct electricity very easily. 11. The best conductors are made from materials that generally contain one or two valence electrons. 12. Insulators are materials that do not conduct electricity very easily. 13. Insulators are made from materials that generally contain seven or eight valence electrons.

KEY TERMS
atom conductor electricity electron insulators law of centrifugal force law of charges neutron nucleus proton valence electrons valence shell

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What are the three subatomic parts of atoms and what charge does each carry? 2. How many times larger is an electron than a proton? 3. The weight of a proton is how many times heavier than that of an electron? 4. State the law of charges. 5. What force keeps the electron from falling into the nucleus of the atom? 6. Materials that make the best conductors contain how many valence electrons? 7. Materials that make the best insulators contain how many valence electrons? 8. What is electricity?