DESIGN, FABRICATION AND COMPUTATIONAL ANALYSIS OF YAWMETER FOR HYPERVELOCITY FLOWS

A PROJECT REPORT Submitted By

Y. THOOYAVAN
in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of

MASTER OF ENGINEERING in THERMAL ENGINEERING SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MOHAMED SATHAK ENGINEERING COLLEGE, KILAKARAI-623 803.

ANNA UNIVERSITY :: CHENNAI 600 025

JULY 2013
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ANNA UNIVERSITY : CHENNAI 600 025

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
Certified that this project report "DESIGN, FABRICATION AND COMPUTATIONAL ANALYSIS OF YAWMETER FOR HYPERVELOCITY FLOWS"is the bonafide work of "Y.THOOYAVAN" who carried out the project work under my supervision.

SIGNATURE OF HOD Dr.A.THILAIVANAN, M.E.,MBA.,Ph.D. Department of Thermal Engineering Mohamed Sathak Engineering College, Kilakarai 623 806.

SIGNATURE OF SUPERVISOR Mr. BALA MURUGAN, M.E., Assistant professor Department of Thermal Engineering Mohamed Sathak Engineering College, Kilakarai 623 806.

Submitted for the viva voce held on ___________

Internal Examiner,

External Examiner,

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all I express our heartfelt thanks to God almighty for everything, without whom we are nothing in this world. I would also like to express our sincere gratitude to the management of Mohamed sathak Engineering College, for providing us a conductive work atmosphere. I am very much grateful to our Director, for providing all our necessary facilities. I thank our principal ALHAJ Dr. J. Mohamed Jahabar, Ph.D., (IIT Bombay) FIE, MISTE, MIEEE, MASME. for his encouragement and constructive ideas. I am very much thankful to our HOD (Thermal Engg.,) Dr.A.Thilaivanan,M.E.,Ph.D., who has been a constant source of inspiration. I would like to express my sincere thanks to Dr.B.Kanagasuntharam,Ph.D. Head of the Department, Mechanical Engineering, who has been giving vital moral support at each and very step. I am also thankful to him for all the resources he has rendered and as coordinated efforts. I am greatly indebted to Mr.V.BalaMurugan,M.E. Department of Mechanical Engineering, who has masterfully guided me in accomplishing this project I should not forget his incredible talent in crafting my rough drafts into publishing works and providing fresh ideas, sound advice, and constant enthusiasm.

1. INTRODUCTION

1. INTRODUCTION 1.1. GENERAL FEATURES OF PRESSURE PROBES: The size and geometry of pressure probes shows considerable variation according to their particular use and the number of flow quantities that are required at the same time. Fundamentally, however they all exploit the distribution of pressure which occurs over a body when it is immersed in a moving fluid. These pressure variations depend mainly on wind speed so that with suitable choice of body shape and location of holes to serve as pressure tappings,a probe may be calibrated in a known wind stream; the relationship between pressure and wind speed can then be established over a range of speeds. The design of certain probes involving simple shapes, such as cylinders or spheres, can have some basis in theory, but the final design usually becomes a compromise aimed at minimizing the effect of factors such as Reynolds number, Mach number and stream turbulence. Ideally calibration should be unaffected by these, but in practice, this is not usually attainable although probes can be designed so that extraneous effects are insignificant over large ranges of stream conditions. For many purposes the measurement of wind speed alone is not sufficient. A knowledge of flow direction as defined by two angles, together with total pressure and static pressure, are common additional requirements, and can be catered for either singly, in groups or in a single instrument. The degree of complexity of both probes and its method of operation will depend on how many flow quantities are to be derived from one set of operations, and in general, the number of flow quantities which can be derived from single probe is related to the number of pressure tapings and the number of attitudes at which it is presented to the flow.
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Compared with probes intended specially for the measurement of only one quantity, multi purpose instruments, because they involve some degree of compromise in sensitivity to all the quantities that they are intended to degree, are often some what less accurate and tend in addition to have larger minimum dimensions. Nevertheless, the first of these advantages is usually far outweighed by errors arising from sequential positioning of single purpose probe, where a number of quantities are required at any one position in the flow. General features which are desirable in probes selected for the measurement of flow quantities at a point in a fluid can be summarized as follows: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Small size offering a minimum of disturbance to the flow. Rapid response. Robust and simple construction. Calibration both infrequent and unaffected by flow conditions. All measurements close to one point.

No special significance attaches to the order in which the above properties are given, the importance of each being dependent on the particular application envisaged. It can be seen that some of the properties are incompatible as in the case of (a) and (b) where some lag in pressure response is inevitable in probes of very small size. It follows that practical limits enforce a compromise design expect where the need for any one feature is over-riding: for example, in certain boundary-layer applications, considerable pressure-response lag must be tolerated in order to provide a probe of sufficiently small dimensions.

1.2. BASICS OF PROBE CALIBRATION: Before proceeding to any detailed of methods, it is useful to call to mind and unique relationship which exists between pressure and velocity in steady in compressible flow and upon which all pressure-probe methods rely, namely that, neglecting viscosity, change in Kinetic pressure are accompanied by equal and opposite changes in static pressure. The static pressure defined for present purposes as the pressure sensed by a measuring device at rest relative to the fluid (i.e. moving with the fluid). The total pressure defined as the pressure obtained when the fluid is brought to rest relative to the probe. It follows that the kinetic pressure can be determined directly by measuring (H-P).If we require the velocity V itself, we need to determine the density as well. This is usually done by measuring the (absolute) pressure and temperature at some point in the flow field, and invoking the perfect gas equation: in practice the pressure changes arising from the motion in incompressible flow are negligible in comparison with the absolute pressures.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. TOTAL - PRESSURE PROBES: The type of obstruction that disturbs the flow least is simply cylindrical tube aligned with the flow. A pressure tapping is provided at the end facing the flow and the tube is usually bent through a right angle at some distance down stream to form a stem so that the conventional total-pressure tubes takes the forms. If the measurement of total pressure is required at fixed intervals across a stream, as in the investigation of wake flows, it is common practice to mount a number of total-pressure tubes on a single stem containing the pressure leads to each tube; this arrangement is termed a comb or rake and may be fitted with one or two additional probes for measuring other flow quantities such as static pressure and direction. If a pitot tube is inclined to the flow it reads low, but, for the types of geometry commonly used, the sensitivity of the reading to misalignment is not great; consequently the flow direction need not be known very precisely when total pressure is measured with this type of instrument for most purposes it is insufficient to sight the tube against some simple indicator of flow direction such as a light thread streaming in the wind : alternatively, the instrument may be orientated until the reading reaches the maximum.

2.2. MEASUREMENT OF STATIC PRESSURE: The simplest type of static-pressure probe consists of a body of revolution with its axis aligned with flow, two including forward-facing holes for the additional measurements of total pressure; co-ordinates for the nose shape shown in the figure. Because the flow is brought to the rest at the nose, the surface pressure there is greater than that of the undisturbed flow. The surface pressure is always equal to the undisturbed static pressure at some point on the nose. However, owing to the rapid variation of surface pressure with distance over the nose, pressure tapings are not located in this region when they can be located further aft in positions where the downstream pressure gradient is less steep. In subsonic flow the effect of the stem of the instrument is to increase the upstream static pressure above that of the free stream, and so the pressure field of the stem can be used to balance locally the pressure fall caused by the nose. a pressure tapping located in the region where the head effect and the stem effect balance can therefore record the free-stream static exactly in practice the balance need not be exact, as the error will be known from the calibration; any new design must be calibrated in order to establish misalignment errors and the effects of changes in Reynolds number and Mach number.

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2.3. MEASUREMENT OF FLOW SPEED: The pitot-static tube consist of a static-pressure tube which has been provided with an additional orifice at the nose for measuring stagnation pressure; as shown in the figure, it is easily constructed of two concentrate cubes, which are connected to the form of manometer so that H,P,(H-P)or h/P can be measured as required. various geometric shapes are used for the head, particularly hemispherical, ellipsoidal and special shapes for super sonic flow; also, the tubes are often bent at right-angle at some distance down stream of the static-pressure tapings. The design principle of pitot-static combinations are same as for pitot and static tubes used separately; the pitot orifice present no special probes and does not appreciably affect the reading of static side of the instrument. for a given size of pitot orifice, however a combination probe is necessarily of greater over all size, and may therefore disturb the flow to a greater extend than separate pitot and static tubes; these considerations are important in the exploration of the linear structure of a given flow field, in supersonic flow and in regions where the flow conditions vary rapidly in later case, it should be remembered that the pitot and static holes are well displaced from each other in the axial direction which precludes the use in many situations. Despite these limitations the Pitot - static tube has one major advantage nearly all other pressure probes; it can give high degree of accuracy without prior calibration provided that it is used in a subsonic uniform flow and is made to specific dimension.

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Where P1 denotes the reading for the pitot orifice and P2 that of the static side of the instrument, for the standard designs with the hemispherical, ellipsoidal or tapered conical heads, when correctly aligned with the flow, a value of K` of unity gives the wind correctly to within percent(1 percent in PV). This conclusion based on test the tubes7.9mm external diameter in air at normal atmospheric condition and appears to be valid at least over the range of wind speeds from 6 to60m/s(20 to 200ft/s).it probably hold also down to wind speed of about 1m/s, especially for the ellipsoidal head. These results can also be applied to the tubes of different geometrical size to other fluid conditions over the same range of Reynolds number(3300 to 33000,based on external diameter),provide that the flow speed is not high enough for compressibility effects to begin to assert them selves(in air at room temperature around 60m/s). There are two common ways in which flow direction can be measured with pressure probes; in either case the probes are similar and have symmetrical arrangement of sensing holes. In the first, known as the null-reading or equibalanced method. The probe is oriented to a position at which the same pressure is recorded at each hole; the flow direction then can be related to the geometric of the probe. This relationship is easily established in the first instance by rotating the probe about its fore-and-aft axis through 180 degrees and realigning to give equal pressures; the true flow direction then lies at half the angle between the two probe axis positions. The second method is to keep the probe stationary and observe pressure or pressure difference whose relationship to flow direction is obtained from calibration in which the probe is orientated in a steady known flow. The first of these methods is recommended where possible because it is an easy matter to design probe which will give a high value for pressure difference per unit change
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in flow direction if this value needs to be fairly constant for only a small range of angle; such probes can be used with simple narrow-range manometers and may used without calibration. A further advantage lies in the comparatively short time required to obtain a steady manometer reading of nearly equal pressure as against different pressures requiring a displacement of air and gauging fluid thought the manometer system. The effects of the gradient on the accuracy of yawmeter measurements can be large when the direction of the gradient is from one sensing hole to another. The separation distance between the holes should then be as small as possible; this figure illustrates one method by which this can be achieved. Yawmeter consisting of a body with pressure tapings are basically stronger than tube configurations and lend them to application which requires internal heating and cooling of the probe. Although they in valve a fairly large separation of the sensing holes, transverse-cylinder yawmeter having two holes drilled normal to the cylinder axis and at the same distance alone it are sometimes convenient for 2D flow exploration when used with rotating to give a null-reading alignment. They can be used with square or spherical ends and cantilever mounting or completely spanning the flow. Holes can be drilled at positions of maximum surface pressure gradient. Wedge, chisel, conical, pyramid and Conrad require less precision in manufacturer although the pressure response of small instruments can again be slow. The sensitivity of probes from this general class increases with nose angle which may be anything between 15 degrees and 90 degrees, depending on the mach number range for which the probe is designed. Although the pyramid probe may appear to be more difficult to make than a conical form, the positioning holes
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is less critical and its pitch and yaw characteristics are more nearly independent of each other. It should be noted, however, that the chisel design, which could be regarded as part pyramid, does not shows this insensitivity to pitch Probes incorporating spheres, cones, pyramids, etc. Conical and pyramid probes, etc. Most of the instruments in the group were first designed as an alternative to spherical types in order to simplify manufacture. In addition to having a more easily generated shape, pressure holes on the nose are more closely grouped than is possible on a spherical end and for the same external diameter measurements are made more nearly at a point in the flow. A disadvantage is the loss of sensitivity to flow direction of about 40 percent or more as compared with spherical ended yawmeter. Both conical and pyramid four-hole probes have been used as yawmeter, but a four-hole pyramid probe can be used for measurements in 3D flows with a method used also with two-tube yawmeter and described. This procedure involving calibration constants and readings taken to the two altitudes to the flow was not found to be usefully applicable to conical probes of 99 degrees apex angle because the sensitivity to yaw of the side hole-pressures was found to be too dependent on flow direction in pitch. The influence of gradients of velocity variations in flow direction on probes of this type depend largely on the size of the probe. The design of figure is small enough for many situations involving gradients transverse to the flow direction, but the downstream distance of the static manifold from the tip is too large where the flow quantities vary in the stream direction.
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2.4. CONICAL PROBES: Conical probes have been used for the determination of mach number, total pressure and flow direction at supersonic speed, their shape offering less interference to the flow than hemispherical types. Although the inclusion of a central pressure taping precludes a sharp forward apex and the bow wave is detached at all times, the smaller the apex angle on the cone the wider range of Mach number over which a smooth pressure responses obtained. At the same time, sensitivity of side holes to change in the flow direction increases with angle of the cone so that some compromise is necessary. A cone angle of 60 degree is found to be suitable for speeds above M=1.5 although angles of 40 degrees have been used to give a slightly lower limit. 2.5. WEDGE-TYPE COMBINATION PROBES: The main feature is a sharp-edge, narrow-angle wedge supported by smallbore tubes one of which forms a Pitot tube. Combined static-pressure and yawsensing holes are drilled one either side of the wedge at slightly different distance from the leading edge. This variation is enforced by lack of internal space, but the error in yaw angle measurement incurred is slight because the static pressure varies title along the sides of the wedge. The Pitot tube is found to read total pressure with the same accuracy as a plain tube if the tip is arranged to project slightly forward to the wedge is shown. With the purpose of obtaining total-pressure readings closer to the wall through which the probe was passed, one version has been made with a second pitot tube
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located below the wedge on the side adjacent to the stem. This device was only partially successful in that the static pressure readings were found to be less reliable than with earlier type. A staticPressure calibration curve for the probe of figure 48a is given in figure 49 where it can be seen that the instrument is usable up to high subsonic speeds provide some correction dependent on M can be applied. A possible source of error in the measurement of static pressure has been shown to be the condition the leading edge of the wedge; departure from a sharp has been found to cause greater sensitivity of static reading to Mach number. The really sharp edge is also found to be the only form for which the indicated flow direction remains independent of Mach number. For the measurement of flow direction in conditions of severe transverse gradients of total pressure as are often met in gas turbine flows, wedge probes are considered to be the most accurate of all types which have been tried. The adverse effects of pressure gradients transverse to the flow and in planes containing pairs of yaw sensing holes have been discussed in chapter 5.Figure 21 compared the performance of wedge and transverse cylinder yaw meter when transverse aero the wake of turbine compressor stator blade.

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3. DESIGN METHODOLOGY

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3. DESIGN METHODOLOGY 3.1. DESIGN OF CONICAL PROBE: Conical probes have been used determination of the Mach number, total pressure and flow direction at supersonic speeds, their shape offering less interference to flow the hemispherical types. Although the inclusion of central pressure tapping precludes a sharp forward apex and the bow wave is detached at all times. The smaller the apex angle of the cone of the wider the range of mach over which a smooth pressure response to obtained. At the same time, sensitivity of the side holes to change in the flow direction increases with angle of the cone, so that some compromise is necessary. A cone angle of 60 degrees is found to be suitable for speeds above M = 1.5 although angle of 40 degrees have been used to give a slightly lower limit. Various design parameters are furnished below: 3.1.1. TUNNEL BLOCKAGE: When supersonic flow cannot be established in the wind-tunnel test section, the resultant condition is caused primarily by 1) Insufficient compression ratio, 2) Excessive moisture (or condensed gas) in the airstreams, 3) Too large model.

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3.1.2. MODEL SIZE: It is usually desirable to utilize a model of the maximum size in order to realize the greatest aerodynamic forces and minimize instrumentation errors. An added advantage is that the larger the model the more nearly the Reynolds number approaches that of free flight. However, the size of any test configuration is limited by the blocking factor. It is the condition at which a normal shock would occur and would initiate subsonic flow in the test section. The flow characteristics along the length of the model should be considered if an extensive after body is present. The flow conditions at the nose of the model would present no problems; however, as the critical area ratio for blockage is approached, the shock interference tends to move upstream from the subsonic diffuser toward the rear of the model, shock wave interference could then exist on afterbody. 3.1.3. MODEL DESIGN: It is generally desirable to make a wind- tunnel model as larger as possible in order to maximize air loads and thus increases the accuracy of measurements. The larger size also provides a more realistic Reynolds number. More over, as the model size is increased the problems of design and fabrication become less difficult. Several factors limit the maximum model size for any given facility, and these are:

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1. Tunnel blocking, this governs maximum frontal area. 2. Reflected shock-wave interference, which governs model length 3. Limitation on the aerodynamic loads, including the dynamic effects of starting and stopping the wind tunnel. 3.1.4. SHOCK WAVES: Formation of Shocks Pressure waves will build up, adding to each other to form a shock wave, at the boundary between the supersonic and subsonic flow. The shock wave between the supersonic and subsonic flow will always form at right angles to the airfoil surface. Therefore, it is known as a Normal Shock Wave. We can state two simple rules of thumb: 1. A normal shock wave always forms between supersonic and Subsonic flow 2. The flow behind a normal shock wave is always subsonic. The Oblique shock wave is not really much of a problem for supersonic design. It does represent a certain amount of drag, since energy goes into its formation, but very little can be done about that. Behind normal shocks and some low supersonic Mach number shocks there exists a region of subsonic flow. This region tapers away to nothing at some distance from its origin; but should it strike a wall of the find tunnel before vanishing, pressure disturbances at the wall can propagate back through this subsonic region and influence the flow properties over the model.

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When a bow wave from a model strikes a wall of the wind tunnel it is reflected into the stream and may impinge on the afterbody of the model. Therefore, the model length should be chosen such that the reflected shock intersects the tunnel axis well aft of the model base. This requirement seriously limits the model length for the test at low supersonic mach numbers, but becomes less significant as the Mach number increases. The limiting length of the model is also strongly dependent on the width of test section,

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4. FABRICATION TERMINOLOGY

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4. FABRICATION TERMINOLOGY

4.1. MATERIAL SELECTION: As the yawmeter undergoes intense pressure and velocity under sonic speed conditions, the materials which has used for the fabrication of yawmeter is of high hardness and strength. Table: 4.1. Material Details:

COMPONENT Probe cone Probe adapter Wedge Afterbody adapter Probe tubes Tubes(outlet) Indexing mechanism

MATERIAL high carbon steel(alloy) stainless steel high speed steel stainless steel stainless steel Polypropylene stainless steel

HARDNESS 60-70 hrc 35-40 hrc 50-60 hrc 35-40 hrc 40 hrc --------40 hrc

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4.2. FABRICATION PROCESS:

Materials which are used for yawmeter are determined as per the hardness and area of usage.

Raw materials are purchased without heat treating as per the design parameters.

Each and every component are machined and processed by the concern operations by special machines

The following machining processes were done for the fabrication o o o CNC Milling Shaping M1TR (wedge) (wedge) (wedge, probe adapter, afterbody adapter, indexing mechanism) o Jig boring ( wedge, probe adapter, afterbody adapter, indexing mechanism)

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Cylindrical grinding

(probe cone, probe adapter, afterbody adapter)

o o

CNC wire cut CNC lathe

(probe cone) (probe adapter, afterbody adapter)

Buffing

(all components)

All the components are machined by high precision special machines and are made accurate up to h7 tolerance and surface finished (). All materials are heat treated and oil bath annealed.

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Fig: 4.1. Probe Cone

Fig: 4.2. Probe Adapter

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Fig: 4.3. Wedge

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Fig: 4.4. Adapter

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Fig: 4.5. Yawmeter Full Apparatus

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5. EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS

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5. EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS

5.1. CONE ANGLE & SHOCK ANGLE: The shock wave must be attached to the model (max) for M=3 Is 46( For Conical Probe) In my case I have selected =20 For M=3 and =20 Shock wave angle is-29.3 = Nose semi angle

5.2. TUNNEL BLOCKAGE: Model area: (Am)=2954.8741mm^2 Test Section Area: (At)= 90000mm^2 (Am)/ (At) = 2954.8741/ 90000 = 0.0328319 Tunnel Blockage Factor =3.28

Table: 5.1 Shock Wave Angle Chart:

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Mach no. = 5 1.05 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.5 3.0 3.5 72.4 65.6 56.4 50.5 45.5 39.0 34.0 30.1 23.8 20.0 16.9

Shock wave angle 10 -67.0 57.5 51.4 46.3 39.4 34.6 31.3 24.8 21.3 19.4 15 --60.6 53.4 48.3 41.6 37.1 33.7 27.8 24.7 23.4 20 --72.5 58.0 52.8 46.2 41.6 38.0 32.2 29.3 27.7 25 ----59.3 52.2 46.7 43.0 37.1 34.2 32.7 30 -----59.1 52.6 48.3 42.6 39.5 38.3

Detached Bow Wave (-nose semi angle) 5.3. MECHANICAL ANALYSIS: Consider a Single Probe
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5BAR

Fig: 5.1. Mechanical Analysis of Probe Pressure acting on it is PRESSURE (P) = 5 BAR LENGTH (L) =0.03m DIAMETER (d) =0.01m YOUNGS MODULUS (E) =210N/mm^2 ASSUMING THE CONICAL PROBE AS AN CYLINDER AS SHOWN IN FIGURE (a) Area of c/s= (d^2)/4

A =7.8539*10-5 mm2 Load acting F = P*A

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F =39.2699N

5.4. BUCKLING (OR) CRIPPLING LOAD (FCR): FCR=(n2EA)/(L/K) 2 K= (I/A) I= (/64)*d^4 K=2.50001*10-3 n=0.25 FCR =282.608N F< FCR Now Assuming the Pressure Acting Over the Entire Length of the Probe

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W/L

Fig: 5.2. Load Distribution the load distribution is shown in fig (a) TOTAL LOAD (W) =5 * 105 * 0.03 * 0.01 W=150N MAX BENDING MOMEMT (M max ) M max = (150*0.03)/2 M max =2.25N-m b=M/Z Z=I/Y Y=D/2 Y=5 * 10-3 m Z=9.8174*10-8 b=229.19*104N/m^2

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6. COMPUTATIONAL ANALYSIS

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6. COMPUTATIONAL ANALYSIS 6.1. TWO DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS : In order to get accurate and precise results on the yawmeter theoretical analysis have been made by flow analysis programs like Gambit and Fluent. The following are the graphical representation of the results obtained under several sonic speeds. The various input velocities and parameters which are initiated before analyzing are as follows:

Table: 6.1 Input Data (2D Analysis):

S.NO 1 2 3 4

VELOCITY AMBIENT PRESSURE Mach 1 Mach 2 Mach 2.5 Mach 3 1.01325 bar 1.01325 bar 1.01325 bar 1.01325 bar

AMBIENT TEMPERATURE 288 K 288 K 288 K 288 K

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MACH 1:

Fig: 6.1. Static pressure

Fig: 6.2. Static Temperature

Fig: 6.3. Turbulent Viscosity

Fig: 6.4. Velocity Magnitude

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Fig: 6.5. Static pressure (wall)

Fig: 6.6. Velocity Magnitude (wall)

Fig: 6.7. Static Pressure (pf)

Fig: 6.8. Velocity Magnitude (pf)

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MACH 2:

Fig: 6.9. Static Pressure

Fig: 6.10. Velocity Magnitude

Fig: 6.11. Static Temperature

Fig: 6.12. Turbulent Viscosity

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Fig: 6.13. Static Pressure (wall)

Fig: 6.14. Velocity Magnitude (wall)

Fig: 6.14. Static Pressure (pf)

Fig: 6.15. Velocity Magnitude (pf)

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MACH 2.5:

Fig: 6.17. Turbulent Viscosity

Fig: 6.18. Static Temperature

Fig: 6.19. Velocity Magnitude

Fig: 6.20. Static Pressure

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Fig: 6.21. Velocity Magnitude (wall)

Fig: 6.22. Static pressure (wall)

Fig: 6.23. Static Pressure (pf)

Fig: 6.24. Velocity Magnitude (pf)

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MACH 3:

Fig: 6.25. Static Pressure

Fig: 6.26. Velocity Magnitude

Fig: 6.27. Static Temperature

Fig: 6.28. Turbulent Viscosity

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Fig: 6.29. Velocity Magnitude (wall)

Fig: 6.30. Static Pressure (wall)

Fig: 6.31. Static Pressure (pf)

Fig: 6.32. Velocity magnitude (pf)

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6.2. THREE DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS : In order to get accurate and precise results on the yawmeter 3D theoretical analysis have been made by flow analysis programs like Gambit and Fluent. The following are the 3D graphical representation of the results obtained under several sonic speeds. The various input velocities and parameters which are initiated before analyzing are as follows:

Table: 6.2 Input Data (3D Analysis):

S.NO

VELOCITY AMBIENT PRESSURE

AMBIENT TEMPERATURE

1 2

Mach 1 Mach 2

1.01325 bar 1.01325 bar

288 K 288 K

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MACH 1:

Fig: 6.33. Static Pressure

Fig: 6.34. Velocity Magnitude

Fig: 6.35. Static Temperature

Fig: 6.36. Turbulent Viscosity

Fig: 6.37. Static Pressure

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Fig: 6.38. Velocity Magnitude

Fig: 6.39. Static Temperature

Fig: 6.40. Static Pressure

Fig: 6.41. Velocity Magnitude

Fig: 6.42. Static Temperature

Fig: 6.43. Turbulent Viscosity

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MACH 2:

Fig: 6.44. Velocity Magnitude

Fig: 6.45. Static Temperature

Fig: 6.46. Turbulent Viscosity

Fig: 6.47. static Pressure

Fig: 6.48. Static Temperature

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Fig: 6.49. Turbulent Viscosity

Fig: 6.50. Velocity Magnitude

Fig: 6.51. Static Pressure

Fig: 6.52. Velocity Magnitude

Fig: 6.53. Static Pressure

Fig: 6.54. Static Temperature

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Fig: 6.55. Turbulent Viscosity

7. RESULT

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7. RESULT 7.1. ACTUAL RESULT:

The design of conical probe for a 0.3m test section wind tunnel at VSSC is obtained by analyzing various aerodynamic and mechanical parameters. 1. The conical probe can be used up to Mach number range of 1.2 to 6 2. The probe designed is safe in mechanical loading 3. Tunnel blockage factor for the design is with on the limit 4. Two more probes can be added in the vertical plane 5. Probe can be used for finding the Mach number determination and the flow angularity in side the test section.

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7.2. COMPUTATIONAL RESULT:

Detached waves are formed when the flow velocity exceeds more than Mach number 2. Flow through the entire test section is considered to be turbulent which produces wake at the rear side of the wedge. In three dimensional analysis, when the velocity exceeds Mach 2, the flow is diverged. When the flow is sonic and if it is exceeding more than Mach 1.5 shock diamond is formed which falls behind after body of the yawmeter.

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8. APPLICATIONS AND ADVANTAGES

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8. APPLICATIONS AND ADVANTAGES 8.1. DETERMINING THE MACH NUMBER OF THE FLOW

THROUGHOUT THE RANGE OF OPERATING FOR EACH NOZZLE:

PRESSURES

The Mach numbers in supersonic tunnels are usually obtained from close to speed of sound up to M=1.6 by measuring the static pressure in the test section and the total head in the settling chamber. Above M=1.6 it is more accurate to use the pitot pressure in the test section with the total head in the stagnation chamber. The wedge yawmeter is used for determining the mach numbers of the flow throughout the range of operating pressures for each nozzle.

8.2. DETERMINING FLOW ANGULARITY: The flow angularity in a supersonic tunnel is usually determined by using either cone or wedge yawmeter. It is noted that the sensitivities of the yawmeter is maximum when the wedge or cone angles are maximum. They work below Mach numbers for which wave detachment occurs, and are so used.

8.3. MEASURING PITOT PRESSURES: Pitot pressures are measured by using the wedge yawmeter device. The cone point is simply facing into the airstream. A tube of 1mm inner diameter is used to connect the cone to any sensing device.

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8.4. MEASURING STATIC PRESSURES: Static pressures in a supersonic flow are much more difficult to measure than static pressures in a subsonic flow and pitot pressures in a supersonic flow. The wedge yawmeter is rarely used because its presence will affect the flow in the test section. But in case of calibration, they are the most accurate devices for measuring the static pressures.

8.5. MEASURING WAVE ANGLES: Although the method is seldom used in tunnel calibration, it is possible to determine Mach number by measuring the angles of waves produced by known wedge yawmeter from schlieren pictures or shadowgraphs. It is noted that there are limiting angles for both wedges and cones for shock attachment. That is, if the angle becomes too great at a given Mach number, the shock wave will be detached and Mach number cannot be determined from wave angle.

8.6. DETERMINING THE PRESENCE OF TEST SECTION NOISE: Test section noise is defined as pressure fluctuations. Noise may result from unsteady settling chamber pressure fluctuations due to upstream flow conditions. It may also be due to weak unsteady shocks originating in a turbulent boundary layer on the tunnel wall. Such weak shocks to which noise is attributed are illustrated by the shadowgraph using wedge or cone yawmeter.

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9. CONCLUSION AND INFERENCE

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9. CONCLUSION AND INFERENCE The present design and fabrication of the yawmeter setup was done successfully and the results were satisfactory. This yawmeter setup is designed as of horizontal axis and yaw movement is possible in single plane. As a futuristic development the yawmeter can be made as a vertical plane or even can be made for both the axis. By doing so, we can get yaw movement in both the axis of plane. The materials which are used to fabricate yawmeter is made by high strength and high hardness metals which are heat treated. But there is a possibility of testing the yawmeter setup higher than mach 2 and mach 2.5. By adding alloys and high strength metals like titanium and ceramics, high temperature resistant and high strength can be obtained. And if further more modified like electronic axis rotational system for indexing mechanism using stepper motors, high precision axis rotation and indexing can be achieved.

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10. COST ESTIMATION AND EXPENDITURE

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10. COST ESTIMATION AND EXPENDITURE

10.1. RAW MATERIAL COST:

Table: 10.1 Raw Material Cost:

S.No 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Component Probe Cone Probe Adapter Wedge After Body Indexing Mechanism

Material High Carbon Steel (Alloy) Stainless Steel High Speed Steel Stainless Steel Stainless Steel

Weight 0.3 Kg 0.45 Kg 1.5 Kg 0.8 Kg 3.0 Kg

Cost Rs.2,700 Rs.1,100 Rs.4,300 Rs.2,200 Rs.5,600

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10.2. MACHINING CHARGES:

CNC Milling Shaping M1TR Jig Boring Cylindrical grinding CNC Wire cut CNC Lathe Buffing

Rs.3,500 Rs.1,250 Rs.850 Rs.800 Rs.2,400 Rs.3,350 Rs.2,700 Rs.300

10.3. OTHER CHARGES: Probe Tubes (dia 2mm, 1.5m length) Tube(outlet 12m length) Fasteners Heat Treatment charges Miscellaneous Rs.3,300 Rs.4,800 Rs.1,200 Rs.600 Rs.3,000

Total Expenditure:

Rs.43,950 /-

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11. REFERENCES

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11. REFERENCES

(1)

A.L. braslow and E.C. Knox, Simplified Method of Determination of Critical Height of Distributed Roughness Particles for Boundary Layer Transition at Mach Numbers from 0 to 5, NASA TN 4363, September 1958.

(2)

Kopal, Z. Tables of supersonic flow around cones. Mass. Inst. Technology Tech. Report No. 1, 1947.

(3)

HESS, J.L., SMITH, A. M. O., RIVELL, T. L. Systematic design of improved static pressure sensing probes. Douglas Aircraft Co. Inc., Engineering paper No. 1181., October, 1961.

(4)

SWALLEY, F. E. Measurement of flow angularity at supersonic and hypersonic speeds with the use of a conical probe. NASA TN D-959, 1961.

(5)

ANDREWS, D. R., SAWYER, W. G. The calibration of a 60 o cone to measure Mach number, total pressure and flow angles at supersonic speeds. Current papers aero. Res. Coun. Lond., No. C. P. 628, 1962.

(6)

RANEY, D. J. Flow direction measurements in supersonic wind tunnels. Current papers aero. Res. Coun. Lond., No. C. P. 262, 1956.

(7)

BARRY, F. W. comparison of flow directions probes at supersonic speeds. J. aeronaut. Sci., 1962 (9), 750.
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PHOTOGRAPHS

Yawmeter in Wind Tunnel

Wedge with Probe Cones

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Yawmeter Dismantled view

Fig: 12.4. Yawmeter Full view

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