Doctoral School of Energy- and Geo-technology January 1520, 2007.

Kuressaare, Estonia

Design, optimization and prototyping of small power transformers

Avo Reinap, Rando Pikner, Roman Ionikan, Karl Prn Tallinn University of Technology avo.reinap@iea.lth.se, rando.pikner@ttu.ee, omegamcm@mail.ru, karlparn@hotmail.com Edgars Jakobsons Riga Technical University
edgars.jakobsons@slo.lv

Andrius Papickas Vilnius Gediminas Technical University

tiamoo69@yahoo.com

Piotr Dworakowski Gdansk University of Technology

piotr@dworakowski.net

Abstract
The paper presents main results obtained through a course of design and numerical field modelling of electrical devices. Based on the performance of an interdisciplinary international team, the course covered project-based learning in the framework of the masters programme. The pilot project of the design and optimization of power transformers was conducted in Tallinn/Vndra at the end of November 2006. The purpose of the project was to find out the effectiveness of such student courses to develop comprehension of transformer operation principles and to identify realistic problems in transformer design and manufacturing.

The objective of this course was to gain experience covering the overall design process: design, actual construction and testing of an electromagnetic device, such as a transformer. It is important to utilize the advantages of computer-aided design and manufacturing (CAD/CAM) in order to produce devices that meet all the performance requirements at a minimum cost. A good design implies an optimal use of geometry, properties of media and performance requirements. It is essential to consider that the design goal is to exceed rather than just to meet performance and reliability requirements. This results from the philosophy that within the range of given fixed resources an engineer's task is to obtain the maximum from these resources. Design of a transformer, like design of an electrical device, in general, consists of five stages: physical understanding, mathematical modelling, synthesis, analysis and calculation of cost efficiency [4][5]. Generally, analysis means an activity of taking something apart in order to study it. Synthesis is an opposite process, which results in a new creation. Therefore, individual preparations were meant to establish a good understanding of a transformer and possible ways to describe the energy conversion process in the language of mathematics. During intensive teamwork sessions, transformer models were created. The models created at Tallinn University of Technology included objective functions of the optimization routine. Finally prototype transformers were built at MS Balti Trafo Ltd in Vndra. The whole course took seven weeks and two days, whereas five weeks were reserved for individual home preparation, including four weekly home assignments.

Keywords
Design, numeric field modelling, rapid prototyping, power transformers, international education, optimization, assembling, testing, MatLab, Femm, Mirage, RALE

Introduction
It is obvious that a learning process based on individual efforts aimed at the development of theoretical understanding and practical experience provides a substantial input to education of electrical engineering [1][2][3]. This particular course was based on numerical modelling, design and prototyping of low-power transformers. The course was conducted in two parts: first, focus was on individual preparation and second on actual teamwork. As a result the models of a single-phase and three-phase transformer were created keeping in mind the optimisation requirements.

219

1 Constructions of transformers
Two transformers were designed, optimized and built: a single-phase shell-type transformer and a three-phase core-type transformer. Differences in design varieties were based on the available electromagnetic steel-types: M330-50A and M53050A, the type of bobbins: sectionized (two chambers) and unsectionized (one chamber). The developed computation routine allows also a singlephase core-type of transformer and a three-phase shell-type of transformer to be taken into account. 1.1 Geometric modelling Different cases of constructions were parameterized, where eight parameters define the final geometry of the transformer. The geometric model was formulated so that transformer length and insulation thickness together with proportion factors will define the whole geometry [1]. Additional parameters, such as the number of phases and the type of the transformer, which is shell/core, complete the definition of the geometry (Fig. 1).

The modelling of the transformers was based on a number of models developed in MatLab, Femm and Mirage. Additionally, the results were compared with the special design software called RALE.

2 Model of transformer
A transformer has at least a pair of coils coupled magnetically together. As a consequence, the electromagnetic energy converter consists of electric, magnetic and thermal circuits that are intercoupled together. In a similar way, tasks were distributed between course participants. Each participant was assigned a specific task. At the same time, these tasks were joined together like circuits are coupled in transformers. 2.1 Electric circuit Conventionally, the equivalent circuit of a transformer and electric equations are used to describe the functionality of a transformer. In fact, the requirements of power conditioning are taken into account late in the development process of a transformer model. Firstly the ability of the energy transfer in the transformer is studied. Nevertheless, an electric circuit is supposed to fulfil the following conditions in the steady state operation: 1. The magnetic circuit has to be adapted to the supply voltage and frequency to achieve a suitable magnetic loading of the core. This is achieved by choosing the number of turns in the primary winding. 2. The load voltage in the nominal conditions and the actual voltage drop in the transformer need to be considered by choosing the appropriate number of turns in the secondary winding. Electric circuit is also a source of power losses, which, in particular, has a low capability to dissipate heat in the direction that is perpendicular to the current flow. 2.2 Magnetic circuit The fundamental purpose of any magnetic core or a circuit is to provide an easy path for the flux in order to facilitate flux linkage or magnetic coupling between two or more magnetic elements i.e. sources and loads. In an electromagnetic energy converter the magnetic elements are the primary and secondary windings. The aims of the analysis of the magnetic circuit were to find the following: 1. The magnetizing current of a specified magnetic loading, which was done iteratively from the magnetostatic FE computation (Fig. 2). 2. The operation point of a transformer according to the specified primary voltage and load, performed by simulating iteratively the time harmonic magnetic problem. As the formulation was based on voltage equations, the parameters of an equivalent circuit had to be found from the FE model [8].

Fig. 1. Geometric output of geometric modelling as a part of the design process 1.2 Modelling of an electromagnetic energy converter When designing a transformer one can start by focusing on power conditioning requirements: the specified primary voltage and the required load voltage and power. Alternatively, a designer can start by concentrating on the power transfer condition, the amount of losses and heat dissipation conditions. The size of a transformer depends on the power of the electromagnetic device and the allowed flow densities, such as current density, flux density and loss density. Apart from power transfer, galvanic separation is an important factor [4][6][7].

220

The following drawbacks can deteriorate the usability of these approaches: 1. In order to take advantage of the equivalent circuit (EC) method, the low number of elements is assumed to describe the heat flux paths accurately enough. 2. The sources of loss in the thermal EC are concentrated rather than distributed due to the low number of elements. 3. Proper assumptions have to be made when considering production of loss and heat dissipation in the end turns when introducing the 2D FE heat transfer model.

Fig. 2. Magnetization of the magnetic circuit when the specified magnetic loading is Bm=1.4T and the corresponding primary current density in the singlephase transformer is Jm=0.18A/mm2, and in the three-phase transformer is Jm=0.49A/mm2. The grade of the electromagnetic steel is M530-50A. In the case of an iterative optimization routine, the computation of nonlinear FE models is too time consuming. Alternatively, the formulation of an equivalent magnetic circuit can be too erroneous when determining the leakage elements. 2.3 Thermal circuit The thermal model allows optimization of a transformer size. In fact, it is the magnetic loading, i.e. the magnetic flux density in the core and the electric loading that is the current density in the electric circuit that determines the transferred power. At the same time, these flow densities determine the power loss to be dissipated. As a consequence, for a given size of the transformer the electric and the magnetic circuits have to be proportional to the thermal circuit that in fact describes the heat dissipation. The thermal model can be defined as a 3D thermal equivalent circuit of 1D equivalent elements (Fig. 3) or 2D finite elements by using Mirage [9] (Fig. 4).

Fig. 3. The introduced thermal EC. The thermal model for the single-phase shell-type transformer is defined for the symmetric part (1/8) of the device by assuming similar cooling condition from the adjacent side. The thermal model for the three-phase core-type transformer is defined for the centre part (1/8) of the device by assuming similar cooling condition from the adjacent side. In case of the symmetric electrical and magnetic loading of the three-phase transformer the centre part has the worst cooling conditions.

221

Apart from the geometrical changes, the impregnation of coils and improved cooling are the other factors that enable one to exceed the thermal limit of the transformer [5].

3 Optimization
Matlab optimization toolbox function fmincon was used in order to find a constrained minimum of a scalar function of several variables. These design variables were constrained so that a certain transformer type could obtain a feasible solution. A set of lower and upper bounds on the transformer design variables, x, were defined so that the solution min(f(x)) is always within the bounds. 3.1 Objective function As the objective function has to be a scalar and has to be minimized, the objective can be the minimum cost, minimum negative power, the ratio of two objectives, etc. The chosen objective function was the ratio of the negative power transfer to the cost. The power transfer can be expressed (Eq. 1) according to the magnetic flux density and the electric current density for certain circuit crosssection areas.

1 1 S = U m I m = Bm J m Ae Am 2 2

(1)

Fig. 4. The 2D FE counterpart of the 3D EC models The results of 2D FE models can be compared with 3D EC models when excluding the heat sources and the cooling conditions from the end turns. The comparisons show (Fig. 4) that the temperature in the single phase transformer is slightly underestimated and in the three phase transformer overestimated when considering the same current density for a given hot-spot temperature in the coils at =1200C. According to the estimated thermal limit, the current density was Jm=2.1 A/mm2 and for the three-phase Jm=4.1 A/mm2 at the specified core losses at Bm=1.4T and 50Hz. The end-turns improve considerably the cooling of the three-phase transformer so that the current loading can be exceed to Jm=5.2A/mm2, while the geometry of the singlephase transformer does not support the heat dissipation from the slotted winding to the endturned winding and to the ambience. The thermal transfer coefficient h=20W/Km2 and the equivalent thermal conductivity of the windings were taken =0.2W/mK [5]. Large differences between the thermal limits for the single-phase and for the three-phase transformer are due to the geometry of the cross-section area of the electric circuit. As the heat dissipation from the centre of the coil does not provide full advantage, the winding will have smaller temperature rise for the un-proportionally thinner or flatter coils.

The cost function (Eq. 2) can be evaluated according to the circuit volumes, mass densities and the specific cost of materials. When considering only the cost of the stack of lamination (m) and the copper windings (e):

= Ae l e e k e + Am l m m k m

(2)

The previous formula expresses the cost of the investment. Apart from that, cost efficiency can be taken into account when considering the efficiency of energy conversion. The losses can be evaluated (Eq. 3) from the circuit volumes and the loss densities (q).

Ploss = Ae l e q e + Am l m q m

(3)

These objective functions were defined for the transformers under the scope. The aforementioned quantities were found for a transformer for a given geometry, the magnetic flux density and the hot-spot temperature in the winding. The hot-spot temperature (=1200C), the length of the transformer (Ltr) and the thickness of insulation (ins) were set constant and remained unchanged during the optimization process for a certain transformer type. The rest were changed within the limits. 3.2 Constraints Four design variables are always in the range of upper and lower bounds:

222

1. A slot opening factor (Ks) defines the proportions between the electric and magnetic circuits. This was changed in the range 0.2 to 0.8. 2. Relative width of the transformer (KW) in respect to the length of the transformer. This was changed from 0.5 to 1.5. 3. Relative height of the transformer (KH) in respect to the length of the transformer. This was changed from 0.5 to 1.5.
1.1 1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.2 P=1036.2 W C=34.4 P/C=49.4 W/ =1.0 0.4 0.6 Circuit proportion factor, Ks [-] 0.8 0.5 P=1581.0 W C=52.2 P/C=35.1 W/ =1.0 1 Width proportion factor, K W [-] 1.5 0.5

4. The magnetic flux density of the core was changed from 0.8 to 1.8T. When changing one constraint at a time, the output of the objective functions of interest has the outcome for the single-phase shown in Fig. 5 and that for the three-phase transformer in Fig. 6. The specific cost of the stack of lamination was taken 1 /kg and for the copper winding 2.5 /kg.

P=1913.0 W C=42.9 P/C=44.6 W/ =1.0 1 Height proportion factor, KH [-] 1.5 0.8

P=890.9 W C=25.4 P/C=35.1 W/ =1.0 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 Flux density, Bcm [T] 1.8

Fig. 5. Change of design parameters of a single-phase shell-type transformer

1.1 1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.2 P=266.1 W C=4.9 P/C=74.3 W/ =1.0 0.4 0.6 Circuit proportion factor, Ks [-] 0.8 0.5 P=475.2 W C=6.3 P/C=75.8 W/ =1.0 1 Width proportion factor, K W [-] 1.5 0.5 P=988.4 W C=13.1 P/C=76.9 W/ =1.0 1 Height proportion factor, KH [-] 1.5 0.8 P=275.7 W C=3.3 P/C=82.8 W/ =1.0 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 Flux density, Bcm [T] 1.8

Fig. 6. Change of design parameters of a three-phase core-type transformer

The results regarding the investment cost of the transferred power in transformers are shown in Table 1.
Table 1 Optimization result Single-phase Origin Ks KW KH Bm 0.5 0.8333 0.9467 1.4 Optimized 0.2869 0.9688 1.5000 1.2571 Three-phase Origin 0.5 0.8333 0.5917 1.4 Optimized 0.5360 0.9028 0.9184 1.6826

Even though the change of the design variables forms parabolic functions for three-phase transformers, the height of the transformer is different from the origin and this may lead to a nearly linear change of cost and power for a higher transformer.

4 Experimental Work
The purpose of the experimental work was to acquire practical skills when building an actual transformer and at the same time develop the understanding of physics. After the optimisation and calculation period it was assumed that participants had gained the operation principle of both ideal and realistic transformer. In order to grasp the idea of realistic transformer one should be able to understand, for example, the result of collisions of electron and crystal lattice as well as the function of domains as elementary permanent magnets in steel [7].

The objective function is insufficient to describe the overall performance of a transformer. This might be the reason why the single-phase transformer is obviously better if the height of the transformer is larger than the length. Even geometric optimum could be assumed with some other proportions [6].

223

4.1 Prototyping At this point the participant should be able to understand how to solve the problems associated with too great voltage drops in the winding or temperature rise in electrical and magnetic circuits. If the roots of the realistic transformer working principles in even simplified manner are understood, the participant of the course should be interested in implementing the theory in practice. In real production of transformers there cannot be just any core, bobbin or wire diameter to choose. Instead all of the dimensions are discretized i.e. increased or decreased by one full step at the time. Even more dramatically can change the dimensions of bobbins and metal sheets. That means in real life the developer must be like an artist who will find the optimal results using the available materials which parameters are fixed. In order to assemble the transformers, they where calculated with special transformer calculation software called RALE. This program is used daily in MS Balti Trafo to calculate all of the necessary inductive components. The prototyped devices were 1.2kVA 230/24V single-phase and 0.2kVA 400/24V three-phase transformers, figure 7.

for the unloaded and the loaded devices. The values that were measured during tests where: primary/secondary voltages and currents, input power and power factor of primary, temperature of bobbins and metal stacks surfaces and primary and secondary resistances when they were cold and warm. The load-test usually takes five hours to complete in order to reach the maximal temperature at certain ambient temperature. By the norms the tests should be carried out with input voltages 0.9xUn , Un, and 1.1xUn. When making the 5-hour load test, the input voltage should be 1.06xUn in order to achieve the worst thermal conditions. In the table 2 and 6 it can be seen the number of turns and wire diameter for one and three-phase transformer respectively. Table 3 and 7 show some of the results from no-load test and table 4 and 8 show the results from load-tests.
Table 2 Single-phase transformer specification N1 162 N2 17 1, mm 1.8 1, mm 3.35 R1, 0.375 R2, 0.0072

Table 3 Single-phase unloaded transformer Uprim, V 207 230 243,8 253 Iprim, A 0.377 0.567 0.902 1.235 Pout, W 19 23.2 26.5 28.9 PF 0.245 0.175 0.124 0.091 Usec, V 21.75 24.23 25.68 26.55

Table 4 Single-phase loaded transformer Uprim, V Iprim, A 6.4 6.82 6.83 6.82 6.79 6.8 Pout, W 1166.33 1305.41 1289.82 1284.84 1270.86 1272.83 Usec, V 23.61 24.96 24.9 24.9 24.87 24.86 Isec, A 49.4 52.3 51.8 51.6 51.1 51.2

Fig. 7. Single-phase and three-phase transformers The windings were winded by machine by the program set by user. The lamination sheets were placed manually, although there are special stacking machines as well. After the transformers were winded, laminated, necessary parts attached and soldered, the transformers were soaked into varnish. The purpose of the varnish is to provide additional insulation, to clue together the lamination sheets and most importantly, improve the thermal conditions by filling the air caps in winding and between winding and metal sheets. For the one phase transformer a bobbin type EI150/92,6 and for the three-phase a 3xUI60/31 was used. For the both transformers the metal sheet quality was M530-50A. 4.2 Measurements The electrical tests and the results are one of the best proofs for student to understand that ohms law as well as power conversion are really happening. Also it is clearly seen how temperature rise, because of the wires resistance, is causing additional voltage drop. It is important to understand how the size of transformer is related to the transferred power. The characteristics of the transformers were measured

230 243.8 243.8 243.8 243.8 243.8

Table 6 Three-phase transformer specification N1 1212 N2 83 1, mm 0.355 1, mm 1.32 R1, 37.5 R2, 0.19

Table 7 Three-phase unloaded transformer Uu1, V Uv1, V Uw1, V Iu1, Iv1, Iw1, Uu2, Uv2, Uw2, V mA mA mA V V 231.2 231.4 233.9 35.91 27.55 36.8 15.7 15.7 15.9

Table 8 Three-phase loaded transformer Uphase1, V 231.2 245.7 Iphase1, A 0.346 0.358 Uphase2, V 14.35 14.9 Iphase2, A 4.9 5.07 S, VA 207 226

224

5 Discussion
The measurement results show a good agreement with the predictions by the models. The measured surface temperature of the three-phase transformer core was =92.10C when expecting =101.40C from the model made in Matlab and =106.50C from the 2D FE model. The corresponding values for the single-phase transformer were =93.70C measured and =96.00C obtained from the analytical and =90.30C from the numerical model. The estimated average temperature rise in the primary winding of the single-phase transformer according to the measurements was =100.50C and according to the 2D FE computation =67.00C, when the ambience was =240C and =400C, respectively. The estimated average temperature rise in the windings of the three-phase transformer according to the measurements was =62.20C and according to the 2D FE computation =81.00C, when the ambience was =400C. The estimated magnetic loading by RALE of the three-phase transformer was Bm=1.37T and the single-phase transformer Bm=1.33T, when reference was taken Bm=1.4T. The measured average electric loading of the three-phase transformer was Jm=3.5A/mm2 and the single-phase transformer Jm=2.5A/mm2, compared to the predicted values according to the thermal limit Jm=5.2A/mm2 and Jm=2.1A/mm2, respectively.

The objectives of the project were fulfilled, although it would be too much asked for the pilot course to be prefect. There are issues that should be analysed and considered how to improve them. That includes the question how to assure that all the participants will be equally ready to advance in such intensive course as well as to be more or less equally loaded during the whole course. Overall, such course of intensive learning can and should be carried out in certain narrow field, like transformers, but is not effective within more broad and complicated topics.

References
[1]. Reinap, A. Teaching numeric modelling and design of electrical devices, ICEM 2006, CDROM [2]. Jewell, W.T., Transformer design in the undergraduate power engineering laboratory IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, Volume 5, Issue 2, May 1990. Page(s):499 505 [3]. Rubaai, A., Computer aided instruction of power transformer design in the undergraduate power engineering class IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, Volume 9, Issue 3, Aug. 1994. Page(s):1174 1181 [4]. Colonel Wm T. McLyman, Transformer and inductor design handbook third edition, revised and expanded, Marcel Dekker, Inc, ISBN 0-8247-5393-3 [5]. Reinap, A., Numerical modelling and design of electrical devices, TTU, 2006 [6]. Reinap, A., Course material on design, optimization and prototyping of power transformers TTU, 2006 [7]. Pikner, R., Development of continuous and switch mode power supplies Master work in Estonian, TTU, 2006 [8]. Meeker, D., User manual for finite element method magnetics FEMM, 2005 [9]. Meeker, D., Steady-State Finite Element Heat Conduction Solver, 2005

Conclusions
The purpose of computer-aided learning based on numerical modelling and design of electrical devices was to increase comprehension of physics in relation to electrical engineering, description through mathematics and computer implementation. Advantages derived from project-based learning are acquisition of experimentation experience and practical skills. As in courses of electrical machines, electronics, programming etc in addition to comprehensive theory it is always necessary to have practical part in order to grasp the essence of the theory.

225