Values in Science and Technology

What is Science?
Definition of science = A particular way of understanding the natural world. (particular since there is more than one way ie. Science is just one of them). Based on assumption (other people can prove that the particular theory is incorrect) of our senses and the use of instruments to give precise information. Science follows very specific rules and results are always subject to scrutiny, testing and revision if needed by other scientists in the same academic field. Creativity and imagination are benefits in science. Other Definitions of Science: Study of physical and material knowledge particularly in a systematic and organized manner (http://www.ucg.org/good-news-magazine/) Branch of knowledge based on objectivity (observation and experimentation) as against subjectivity (in science there is no place for interpretation unlike the arts) Branches of study relating to the phenomena of the physical universe and its laws Developing a logical system of thinking whose foundations are obtained by free fantasy (Albert Einstein)

Science asks 3 basic questions: Whats there? (eg. Geologist examining rocks) How does it work? (eg. A chemist analyzing a new drug) What is its history? (eg. A biologist is interested in the way life has evolved)

Characteristics of Science: Scientific Conclusions are reliable (if one tries the same experiment a no. of times, he should get approx. the same answers, therefore reliability = something that can be repeated) through tentative (willingness of scientist to change his ideas as new evidence is unearthed). Science is always a work in progress, and its conclusions are always tentative Science is not democratic. Decisions in science cannot be taken by show off hands, opinion or majority rule. Scientific ideas are confirmed or abandoned on the basis of evidence Science is non-dogmatic (cannot always be in agreement with religion)Nothing in science requires belief in the supernatural (eg. Debate about IVF in Maltese society)

Science cannot make moral or aesthetic decisions (eg. Scientists can infer the relationships of flowering plants from their anatomy, DNA, and fossils, but they cannot scientifically assert that a rose is prettier than a daisy). Only the person (no objectivity) behind the scientist can pass judgment.

Science and Culture Does not provide a direct line towards the truth. Despite the precision and accuracy of modern science, there is always room for error not only in measurement but at times also in the path taken. (eg1. J. Robbin Warren and Barry J. Marshall proved everyone wrong that stomach ulcers were caused from a certain type of bacteria and not from buildup of acid caused from stress by taking the bacteria himself. They were recipients of the Nobel Prize in 2005 . Eg2. Galileos challenge to the geocentric model of the universe Earth is not at the centre of the earth. This problem had trouble with the church and many people were afraid of going up against the church) Cases against Scientists with harmful products: Johnsons baby shampoo containing cancer-causing chemicals (http://theweek.com/article/index/220987/are-baby-shampoos-poisoning-infants) Cigarette companies Injection of hepatitis into mentally disabled children at Willowbrook School on Staten Island in an attempt to find vaccine in 1958 - 1960 First cases of AIDS are confirmed in homosexual men in New York, Los Angeles and San Francisco, triggering speculation that AIDS may have been introduced via the Hepatitis B vaccine in 1981.

For more such cases check out : http://www.americanussr.com/American%20USSR%20%20Illegal%20Medical%20Experiments%20-%20Year-ByYear%20Chronicle%20of%20Illegal%20American%20Experiments%20on%20People.htm Science has a self-correcting mechanism. At times scientists get it all wrong. But errors and fallacious theories are corrected by the scientific community itself (the importance of communication and publication) eg. It was thought that transmission of the speed of light were instantaneous. With time it became possible to measure this velocity. In Malta, Censiment is a scientific calculation. Since is a human undertaking meaning that it is not perfect (subject to human characteristics). An example of unethical behavior in South Korea a scientist faked results that were supposed to show that his team created stem cells from cloned human embryos. 3 consequences followed:

1. He was out of the scene 2. His team suffered with him (unfair) 3. As a field of study there was a setback

Basic Concepts
What is Scientific Observation? Involves the senses as well as the use of instruments. A scientist must learn how to obtain, record and present data. Eg. Numerical tables, maps, graphs, stylized drawings (in biology) are all examples showing tools and technique. There are also sites of observation (eg. Astronomical observatory..this is not casual observation) What is a Scientific Fact? The changing knowledge in science as a result of refutations of theories (Reliability) Indisputable Truth Statement about the relationships between objects Confirmation of a repeated observation. This is the way scientific theories are excepted among scientists

Facts do not exist in isolation but are the fruit of concepts, culture and language (eg. Different Latin name given for every biological organism) The language that describes a scientific fact is precise. These details are found in books etc, hence communication and publication. In order to understand the terms one must be familiar with the concepts. Scientific Theories and Laws Definition of theory = A rational explanation for a large number of facts and observations about the natural world. These are all based on assumptions. The fewer the assumptions the better, meaning that less is being taken for granted. All theories are composed on: Qualitative Part: Should answer questions such as Why? and How? (eg. Interview) Quantitative Part: Should explain mathematically the given facts and be able to make predictions that can be tested. This is not only for knowledge and information but also as a springboard for future technological applications (eg. Surveys and questioners)

A scientific law does not seek to explain but only describe nature. For example, classical cultures knew how to predict eclipses but they did not know how to explain them. Hence they had a law but no theory for it. Scientific laws are usually expressed through mathematical equations. What is model-building? A model is a representation mirroring some object or event in the real world. It may be : Physical (eg. Model of an airplane) Symbolic ( Mathematical equations or a computer programme)

It is a very powerful tool. For example a medicine tested using computer programmes rather than being tested on patients like it used to be like. What is an Experiment? Definition of a scientific experiment = a formal way of testing theories. Involves how one variable changes with another keeping all other factors constant. The scientist must be in control of the situation at all times. By experiment the scientist can check whether a theory is valid or not (Reliability). For example, consider testing a high building whether or not it is able to withstand a gale force. What is a Thought Experiment? Definition of thought experiment = the fruit of the imagination kept within the bounds of reason. At times it was impossible to perform actual experiments due to lack of funds, instruments etc. Galileo, Newton and Einstein were the most impressive thought experimenters. A recent example is the Australian man who jumped from above earth to break the sound barrier. Another example would be test pilots.

The Scientific Method Different Approaches to the Acquisition of Knowledge

Definition of scientific method = Different approaches to the acquisition of knowledge. What one scientist is able to do, another is able to duplicate. The Inductive Method The reasoning from particular instances to make general propositions, hypothesis or ideas. It is also called the logic/ scientific discovery. A large quantity of information is needed in the hope

of emerging to a conclusion (eg. Interviewing 10 people to come to conclusions about the Maltese society). Hence, these experiments lead to theories. The Deductive Method Explanations tested by performing an experiment. Quantitative general (surveys etc) to come to a conclusion about 1 person) Hence, experiments test theories. Karl Poppers Hypothetico-Deductive Method This is a logical, mathematical process. It emphasizes the importance of not trying to prove theories but of trying to disprove them by performing experiments. This has 5 principle steps: 1. Observation Identifying the problem. Noting and recording a phenomena 2. Formulation of a Hypothesis - Coming up with one question only, it cannot be doublebarrelled. Can take the form of a model or mathematical equation 3. Predictions - Made before we start the experiment 4. Experimentation - What method/ technique would you use in order to acquire your findings? 5. Publication - Essential for the scientific community to in order for them to scrutinize he nature of the hypothesis and he results of the experiment. In what way should I publish my findings? If these experiments do not prove a hypothesis they are either rejected or modified . There is always the possibility that a new observation or a new experiment conflicts with an established theory. This can modify the old theory which suggests that the assumptions on which the theory was originally based on were partly incorrect and more assumptions need to be made.

Thomas Kuhn and his Scientific Revolutions Definition of scientific community = a group of scientists who work to a specific paradigm or set of paradigms Definition of paradigm = a central group of beliefs that are shared by members of a scientific community His arguments led to a paradigm shift, that is, a change in the central beliefs of a scientific community. According to Kuhn, normal scientists are not objective and independent thinkers but conservatives who aim to discover what they already know. Novelty only emerges with

difficulty. For example, Barbara McClintocks discovery of jumping genes and the difficulty she had to get her findings accepted. The process was done as follows: 1. Pre-Paradigm Stage - Brainstorming 2. Establishment Stage - Comparing and contrasting of different methods (one theory may be better than the other etc.) 3. Normal Science - Fact gathering and experimentation if theory seems good. Theories are never perfect but this is arranged with quantitative laws. An experiment proving wrong the central paradigm leads to crisis 4. Crisis Stage - Old theory is broken down and replaced by a new one A Rival Viewpoint The major drawback of scientists is that they view science in a very logical way ie. They are put in a straight jacket (no liberty). Science is a human endevour and to understand how the scientists come up with answers is to understand the human mind.

Values in Science
Two main characteristics of science are 1) continuous discovery of new facts about nature and the explanatory power and 2) Productive method of investigation. These, together with other numerous factors, have improved the quality of life. These have overshadowed the values of the scientists in their work (In the last 30 years, scientists gave more importance to experimentation and techniques but have decreased their values in science.) Beliefs, attitudes and values come into play when it comes in their choices therefore, they influence on hoe scientists think, feel, behave and decide. Science and technology are there to improve ones life but sometimespeople opt to use them wrongly. Values in Science: Truth Honesty Fairness Ethically correct behavior (eg. South Korean scientist)

The positive influence of values normally prevails from at all stages the scientific process (as discussed above). On proposition of a new hypothesis the internal consistency needs to be checked to ensure that it does not lead to contradictory results. In the case where more than one hypothesis is put out, the one with the more accurate predictions is preferred (eg. Idea that light is a wave, therefore wave theory of light and the idea that matter is made of atoms that is Daltons Atomic Theory). In some areas of science, predictions cannot be made so easily and instead scientists seek hypothesis and theories that unify as many different observations as possible (eg. Big Bang Theory). Simplicity and elegance are considered features of a good hypothesis. Personal values that influence scientists in their work: Religious Cultural Political Economic

An example of this would be Darwins Theory of Evolution. Scientists prefer measurements or quantitative rather than qualitative descriptions since this increases accuracy and reliability. Bias is minimized by control. Scientists place great importance on priority because discoveries are attributed to the scientists who first publish the new findings (competition rather than cooperation). In communications, theses are expected to report authentic results and not withhold relevant information and no plagiarism. Peer review (also used to control falsification or fabrication of results) is used to monitor submissions to ensure that they comply with the norms expected of a scientific publication as far as consistency, accuracy, reliability and other values concerned that theres no breach of ethics and social or personal bias. Science has stimulated discussion. It has obliged non-scientists (eg. psychologist) to re-consider how values and ethics apply in everyday life situations (eg.IVF, possible use of genetic engineering for human subjects etc). Perhaps the greatest influence of science on society is that it has become a value itself and is considered a model for problem-solving even when the problem cannot be solved by scientific means only (eg. Climate change)

What is Technology?

Technology is a necessity. It helps with our human needs. There are a lot of types and it is also used in the leisure industry. Hence, it improves our way of life. Definition of technology: a process by which humans manipulate materials in an intelligent way to improve the quality of life in general (eg. Arriva tires, running shoes etc). The following steps contribute towards the process: 1. Rationale The identification of a need. For example, something at household level is a need or place at work to serve society (eg. Bedridden patients find it hard to do simple tasks such as having a bath or eating) 2. Development of a Technical Solution Before manufacturing, one has to come up with a number of solutions. One must organize ones thoughts as follows: Seek knowledge, materials, tools and skills that are already available and collect a variety of ideas to suggest diverse solutions Argue the advantages and disadvantages of solution and consequently divide the selected solution into smaller parts and check if such parts operate successfully through analysis, building, testing and modifying a prototype (experimentation) 3. Analysis Done in a scientific and not qualitative way (eg. A lift cannot state the maximum weight but it has to be tested). Scientific principles come into play to determine correct analysis and one should use these to describe the performance of the product (eg. Although it can withstand the weight, it can be find that the product is uncomfortable for a bedridden person when lying still due to experience of pain). Further observations (eg. Straps on a harness material, dynamics of a situation). 4. Communication Not in text but in the form of freehand sketches, accurate production diagrams, charts, graphs, flowcharts, computer simulation processes, circuit diagrams, truth tables, models etc. 5. Implementation The manufacturing process of the product which requires skills and the choice of materials and tools (whether it is a toy, lifter etc). Analysis leads to guidelines on usage of product and criteria. Their workability is also as important and the processes used to cut, shape, form and assemble components of a product must be carefully evaluated.

6. Testing Severe tests that quantify its functionality and performance (eg. Running of test on Gozo Channel boat in rough seas). Copies do not qualify and pass from this test. 7. Modification Scientific community comes up with modifications if the object doesnt work as expected so that the object will work. If it doesnt work then it is scrapped In the case of skilled craftsman, method of implementing products was done at his own life risk (eg. Flying machines, kmamar tan-nar a license is needed and the person needs to attend a basic course). Nowadays, mathematics etc is used instead of endangering ones life. Products need to be implemented on time (competition), at the right price (financial crisis) and of the right quality (health and safety).

Science, Technology, and Gender

What has kept women back from achieving in science and technology? Women were viewed as the weaker sex. Hence women were seen as not having the adequate physical and intellectual requirements needed to achieve or indeed perform in the world of work. The role ascribed to them was that of childbearing and taking care of the family. A womens success was the number of healthy children she was able to rear and a high social statues ie. married off well. They were not considered to earn a living . Unmarried or childless woman were seen as failures by society, most of them often becoming nuns. This problem wasnt only in science and technology. It was a social problem (literature, fine arts, politics, philosophy, history). This lack of presence of woman challenged one of the most potent scientific arguments brought up to justify the absence of woman from science and technology ie. Female mental disposition is said to be emotive rather than objective, due to the maternal role of the woman (emotive female). Male is designated as the provider of food and security (objective male). Society still ascribes gender roles especially nowadays in employee interviews even though we are living in a democracy and citizens have equal rights. The Great Women in Science and Technology In reality, a lot of women have contributed in an original and important way to scientific knowledge, but on a number of occasions this contribution has been belittled. (eg. Crick

managed to win the race to unravel the DNA structure by acquiring Franklins photographs of crystallized DNA without her knowledge and consent unethical behavior and plagiarism) Present Situation and Challenges Lately we are more aware of the unfairness as well as the economic disadvantages resulting from gender discrimination, and such awareness has been followed by concrete action. (eg. In Malta government. Marriage, legislation ie difference in pay, workface, education, paternal and maternal leave, nurseries to leave children, a greater number of female University students in Malta more present in courses of medicine, dentistry, architecture, engineering). Even in the rich and developed parts of the globe, women still by and large remain underrepresented in science and technology. Fewer women are engaged in scientific enterprises since they encounter problems not only in obtaining grants, but also to extend their salary, access to research resources and to positions of responsibility in comparison with their male counterparts. In less developed areas, women have a difficulty in obtaining an education, hence rarely found at decision making in their respective countries. Women need role models to look up to since they lack self confidence in young women aspiring to be scientists or engineers (reason = upbringing). Another reason would be that women carry the burden of child care as well as family, and aging parents therefore, women are distracted from any career. After maternal leave, retraining is both time consuming and expensive. The Way Ahead Action has to be taken at different levels: schools, universities, work place, state policies and increasing public awareness. (ma jridx ikun hawn hela ta potenzjal ta nisa minhabba is-socjeta).

Science, Technology and the Economy (refers to financial crisis of 2008)

Refers to the beginning of the Industrial Revolutionremoved the shift from science to technology (scientific theories in technological aspects) New means of transport (land and sea transport and locomotive) Communalism (big countries became empires) The role of education in this scenario Life-long learning Important to learn skills

Entrepreneurs were constantly on the lookout for the latest technology, which could help them step up production, reduce overhead costs and improve competitivity on national and foreign markets. The quasi-simultaneous developments in transport technology rendered it possible for European entrepreneurs to import on the cheap and in reasonable time. Subsequently European industry could transform these primary products into commodities, which were eventually exported to the colonies where markets and handsome profits were guaranteed. Humanism ad the humanities were given more importance at the time. This was bound to change as scientists realized that industry was offering them unprecedented research opportunities. The study of science originated in Germany. Institutes identify talented scientists from all over the world and help them achieve excellence in their particular field of study adapting teamwork strategies with scientific communities. Industry is constantly on the lookout for the latest developments in the industrial technology offers the most remunerative work contracts. Rather than possessing territories, the most developed countries or political entities (eg. US, Japan, EU) are interested in dominating the largest number of markets in a globalized world. Post-war developments where mechanical modes of production stated being substituted by highly robotized and computer-programmed ones ie. Unemployment. Principles of capitalism dictate that investment tends to emigrate to the cheapest labour markets (eg. The fall of communism in Central and Eastern Europe between 1989-1991). Heightening the unemployment problem is the worlds most developed economies. Technological changes are fast therefore we need to:

Learn to adapt to innovations influencing lifestyle and work practice (eg. Machinery) Learn to accept change Acquire a flexible mind

Hence learning becomes a life-long process.

Science and Communication

Before the findings of any research can be accepted as either fact or theory and thus becoming an accepted part of scientific knowledge, they must be discussed and reviewed by other scientists. Research is summed up as scientific papers (presenting science to peers ) published in professional journals where the scientific community can build up as the knowledge constantly changes as new findings replace old. Scientific papers is responsible for the reliability since it 1) assesses observations 2) repeating of experiment 3) determines if conclusions drawn are justified by data. Structure of a scientific paper: Introduction: concise and hypothesis must be clearly stated. Research Methodology where scientist not only questions past findings but also be aware of sources used. Literature Review Methods: furnish enough detail so that a competent fellow scientist can repeat the study ie. Complete details of any new methods, precision of measurements (methodology), use of statistical data sensibly. Results: should contain every bit of information, but only that which is relevant to the study. Precautions and Limitations: Correct use of instruments, health and safety regulations (eg. Dangerous equipment such as X-ray machines) Discussion (Conclusions and Recommendations): 1) Summarize major findings, 2) Discuss possible problems with methods, 3) Compare results with previous work, 4) Discuss predictions for the future of the work, 5) Suggest further lines of research, 6) Produce brief conclusion

Before a scientific paper is published, it is anonymously reviewed by experts and may offer suggestions for improvement. It is now possible to have a scientific team dispersed throughout the world but connected via internet. This makes it also possible for non-scientists to participate by posting questions and comments on websites dedicated to science e-conferencing. Conferences and seminars scientists meet to discuss latest work and interact with peers from different countries. Scientists are humans with feelings, hopes, fears, like the rest of humanity, although they should b objective. Popularity of science amongst non-scientists: Publication of books eg. Theories of evolution without going into detail

TV channels devoted to science and technology (eg. Discovery channel) Science and technology reports in newspapers which provide a quick and non-technical analysis Increased educational efforts in science teaching from primary to post-graduate levels

Values in communicating science: Universalism: knowledge claims are judged (accepted or rejected) objectively and without bias. Scientists social background, personal beliefs and political affiliations should not be taken into consideration. Communism: communal activity where scientists share their work with community for the common good. Hence progress in science through cooperation and collaboration between scientists and generations of scientists. Disinterestedness: no emotional or financial attachments (donations and sponsors). Reward comes through recognition of scientific achievements. Organized Scepticism: wait for all facts before judgments are passed on to validity or a theory.

Postivism
This is a philosophical movement that was very important in the 20th century and it had its positive aims but unfortunately it was highly criticized for its strict vision and in fact postpostivism tried to improve those points that were criticized. Definition: valid knowledge can only be attained through the methods of the natural sciences and hence no knowledge is genuine unless it is based on generally observable facts. Error in positivism isnt in science but in the philosophy that endorses this function of science. Interest in practical results of science was natural and legitimate, but led to confusion of successful, practical results of its by-products with the production of knowledge. Disciplines were rebuilt after the pattern of physical sciences, and hence metaphysics and ethics were either ignored or replaced by new positive sciences. Aim and methods were basically the same ie. To discover universal laws and theories. What Postivism is all about: factual, mathematical, empirical and objective analysis, precision, pure observation, experiment, search for unchanging laws, separation of theory and practice, retrospective study based on data collected, dissection of subjects into specialized areas such

as family and religion. Nevertheless, scientific knowledge was never considered absolute since it can be refused. Postivism also had a social and political dimension meaning that positivism research was not only mean to benefit the development of subjects within the physical sciences, but also meant to influence political and social affairs. Eg. Sociology Intentions: Lead to a just society Focus on human individuality ie. Human intentions Favour the casual relations in social structures (could trace relations in casual patterns)

We are all products of the society where we live through the socialization process. Research Method: 1) Build a hypothesis, 2) collect verifiable data, 3) check whether this confirms or refutes the hypothesis Postivism today is not highly approachable (Physical science eg. Maths vs Social science eg. Education, psychology, philosophy) Dangers implied in the scientific approach for sociology: quantifiable data lacks interpretation, data can be very useful to those that can acquire it and use it for own political purposes and so add their own biased interpretations to it. Hence control of the people (democracy and the dangers to freedom). Eg. Discipline and obedience in class (predictive values). Education and learning become technical concerns of the means used to achieve what can be ultimately achieved. Against this there is a belief that the search for knowledge cannot be carried out by restricting sources to observable behavior. Too many variables involved in human situations. Flourishing of statistical and survey-based research is equally open to this criticism. Science remains an important tool for understanding, if perhaps relatively less for explanation. Meanwhile sociology has become a professional academic subject.

Current Moral and Ethical Issues in Science and Technology

We need to formulate judgments from a universal point of view. This allows us to think in terms of the interests of others.

Morality a set of criteria that scientists refer to in order to keep in line morals and provide an assessment as to what is positive and negative ie. Detrimental or beneficial Science the product of minds seeking to reveal the natural laws that govern the world in which we live, and beyond it, the laws that govern the Universe therefore the theory Technology allows us to find practical ways to use scientific discoveries profitably, ways of turning scientific knowledge into utilitarian processes and devices therefore the theory put in practise eg. Nuclear energy Discovery of structure of the DNA, and after 50 years, biotechnology, hence a clearer conception of hoe genes regulate the various functions of the body hence predict any malfunctions. This involves 3 procedures (moral issue in every method): Prenatal Diagnosis checks possibility of genetic diseases in unborn babies Carrier Diagnosis checks whether people are carriers of particular genetic diseases eg. HIV Predictive Diagnosis detects a genetic disease that may affect the individual in the future. Eg. Anemia

It is the business of morality and not genetics (science) to monitor the developments of this procedures and to measure their effects upon our wellbeing. Who will have a right to access this data if the state wants to construct a database containing genetic information? can give rise to discrimination since if employers can see it since they will choose the fittest individuals, those who will not develop any genetic diseases in the future (less sick leave). However this can be financially beneficial for the employer. Moral issue = whether or not the interests of individuals should be safeguarded in a data protection act. One way to reduce this gap is to provide an adequate educational structure which guarantees the dissemination of correct information about these issues. Morality is a tool which we can use effectively and in a safe way for our benefit. It can be utilized without instructions ie language of values that is admirably suited for the expression of everything that we require to say in the course of either deciding on or instructing in or modifying principles Rapport between morality and science must be that of a continuous ongoing asses sment between all the parties involved. Morality proposes to us to adopt policies of care for other people. The focus of morality upon the interests of others motivate us to utilize scientific discoveries and the instruments of technology in the most beneficial way.

Science in Antiquity
Pre-classical cultures could only rely on the behavior of their superhuman gods. In the process they developed many complex but dogmatic religious explanations of natural phenomena. Never the less the Greeks did the same, hence the mythology. Natural philosophers became highly sceptical and developed a new vision of the Universe - inflexible laws rather than a myriad of gods and demigods. Most intellectuals products of this philosophy were maths and geometry eg. Pythagoras, Archimedes (value of pi) experimentation was not needed. Aristotle, an ancient natural philosopher, used inductive and deductive reasoning to explain observations. He would use observations to illustrate and validate his explanations. (eg of his findings: men have more teeth than women and theories of motion such as the proposition that speed of an objects fall is proportional to its weight. His theories werent changed until later where it was proved that his theories were inaccurate or totally incorrect) Greek astronomy was disproved and an astronomical system was proposed with planets, sun and moon moving in small circles.

Copernicus, Galileo and the Scientific Revolution

Until Copernicus, cosmology postulated a geocentric universe where Earth was stationary and motionless at the centre of several concentric, rotating spheres. This belief was difficult to contradict since they dated back to Aristotle. Copernicus stated that the Sun is at rest near the centre of the Universe, and the Earth, spinning on its axes once daily, revolves annually around the Sun Heliocentric System. Opposition to this theory also came from the Church, which approved only of the Geocentric System and condemned any other theory. Reasoning behind these beliefs were that God created Man in His image and therefore man should be at the centre of the Universe. Galileo is one of the pioneers of the scientific revolution that flowered in the work of Newton (also invented projectiles, SHM and discovered Milkyway). Scientific revolution is the period in history during which conceptual, methodological and institutional foundations of modern science were laid down in Western Europe ie. A period when separate traditions of mathematical studies, craft techniques, natural magic and other occult ideas, were brought closer to and amalgamated the traditional, natural philosophy. Galileo was the one who predicted victory for the Copernican Theory. This turned traditionalists against him (his findings were against the teachings of the church). In fact, for persisting, he was accused of heresy and house imprisoned.

The turbulent lives of Copernicus and Galileo attest to the powerful combination of Aristotelian teachings with church doctrines which tended to exclude any novel approach to the study or analysis of nature. This situation began to change during the Renaissance (scientific revolution). What did the scientific revolution consist of? 1. Development of the experimental method: understanding all aspects of physical world 2. Mathematization of nature: quantitative information (Copernican Theory) 3. Practical uses of the scientific knowledge: practical application bringing distinct beliefs to mankind 4. Development of scientific institutions: new forms of organization These interacted with one another and it become clear that Aristotelian natural philosophy was completely wrong. It was just providing a ready explanation for all phenomena. What was required now was a completely new philosophy of nature that could incorporate Copernican astronomy, Galileos new theory of motion, Harveys new physiology and show how they and all other discoveries depended upon, or followed from certain basic assumptions (research methods).

Kepler, Newton and the coming of Age of Science

The Copernican Theory (using only his naked eye). Copernican theory proved a new but flawed theory (proved by Tycho and stated that the closer a planet was to the sun, the faster its speed was). Sometimes an acute observation is so unexpected that people cant quite decide whi ch is the more amazing the fact or the thinking of it. As Newton did in the Principia. His hypothesis about the centrifugal force was confirmed by accurate measurements of the surface of the Earth by other scientists. Newton was the first scientist to combine the old natural philosophy and its language of mathematics with the new science and its inductive methodology based on the experimental verification and confirmation of hypothesis. His work was aiming at the future not the past. Influenced the development of modern physical sciences. The laws that Newton propsed over 300 years ago are still valid.

Einstein and Beyond

Microphysics ie. Entering the quantum age. Einstein had 3 papers but it was his last one that made him famous. Theory of Relativity time is part of space, its variable and ever-changing, not eternal and it even has a shape (eg. Gravity is a product of bending of spacetime). In general, Einsteins ideas helped develop a new vision of the universe, turning it into an ever-changing and complex dimension.

Evolutionary Theory
Evolution is to change without any direction at all. It is blind as no living thing can predict the exact physical conditions of the Earth (natural selection). We all have a common ancestor, but we evolved differently due to different environmental pressures (geographical connections and adaptations) therefore a huge diversity of life. Humans are the only living things that can manipulate their environment. Natural selection is a slow and gradual process that chooses from the available variety of life and builds on it. Mass extinctions caused by huge volcanic activity or by a meteorite impact. When this theory came out, it violently overturned one of humanitys best cherished ideas ie. The Great Chain of Being. Darwins Natural Selection mindless, purposeless, mechanical process capable of creating order from disorder. Roman Catholic Church has no objections to the Evolutionary Theory since it cannot disprove nor prove the existence of God, anymore than any other scientific theory. Science relies on reason not belief. Proof for evolution is based on historical evidence.