Guido Adler's "The Scope, Method, and Aim of Musicology" (1885): An English Translation with an Historico-Analytical Commentary Author(s):

Erica Mugglestone and Guido Adler Reviewed work(s): Source: Yearbook for Traditional Music, Vol. 13 (1981), pp. 1-21 Published by: International Council for Traditional Music Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/768355 . Accessed: 09/10/2012 13:02
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GUIDO ADLER'S "THE SCOPE, METHOD, AND AIM OF MUSICOLOGY" (1885):AN ENGLISH TRANSLATIONWITH AN HISTORICO-ANALYTICAL COMMENTARY
by Erica Mugglestone Introduction of Austro-German In 1884 a triumvirate music historians, Friedrich Chrysander, PhilippSpitta,and Guido Adler,foundedthefirst journal of musicology,'thenewestfledgeling amongstthesciences,2 namely,the Musikwissenschaft [MusicologyQuarterly].The Vierteljahrsschrift ffir firstissue opened with a paper written the scope, by Adler, defining methodand aim of thenew science.This provedto be a potent formative influence on the establishment and development of the academic disciplineof musicologyin Europe and elsewhere, notably the United States of America,an influence thatis strongly feltto thepresent day. Thus, in theNew Grove Dictionaryof Music and Musicians (1980: s.v. "Musicology," by Vincent Duckles, et al.), its importanceis made evidentin thatit is summarised as thestillextantmodel of musicology. accessibleto a It is thepurposeof thispaper to render Adler'sthought the historicalcontextin which the wider readershipby: 1) sketching its themes, and assumptions; 2) indicating metaphors paper was written; of the text. a translation in a sense, its metalanguage;3) providing Withregardto thefirst two of theseaspects,commentary is directed is made to determine Adler's solelyat thepaper in question.No attempt overallphilosophyof history or thedevelopment of his thought beyond of all his assessment 1885; such would be the aim of a comprehensive writings.And with respect to the third of the above aspects, in thetext, carewas takento adhereas closelyas possibleto the translating withregardto itssemantic content. Thus, forexample,theterm original Tonkunstis translated as 'tonal art', ratherthanapplyingthe generally term'music'in itsstead, in orderto retain,ifat all possible,some of the connotationsthatare implicitin Adler's use of the term,as well as to of an interpretation thatmight not be justified. preventthe imposition However, with respectto Adler's syntax,it was deemed advisable to break down lengthy sentences and paragraphsintoshorter units,and to utilisepunctuation and othertypographical in orderto clarify formating and promoteease of comprehension. Wherenecessary, Adler's thought notes elucidate problemsencounteredin translation.For purposes of clarification, occasionallythe originalGermanword is given in square and alternative translations. brackets,as are also interpolations

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HistoricalContext in Moravia (thenstillpartof the Guido Adlerwas bornat Eibenschiitz now known as Ivancice in Czechoslovakia) Austro-Hungarian Empire, moved to Vienna afterthedeath of in 1855. Nine yearslaterthefamily of musicand composition his father, and in his teenshe studiedtheory He intended and Dessoffat the Vienna Conservatory. underBruckner of Vienna, the law at and studied a University takingup legal career, at the Vienna Handelsgericht even servingbriefly [Court of Trade or In 1880 in musichistory. but decided to pursuehis interest Commerce], on thebasic historical he was awarded a doctoratewith a dissertation music up to 1600. Two years later he categoriesof Westernliturgical witha as a university his Habilitation[accreditation lecturer] completed of harmony. on thehistory dissertation of In 1882 Adlerwas appointedas a Privatdozent lecturer] [unsalaried ofmusic a professor ofVienna,becoming at theUniversity musichistory historyat Prague in 1885, the year of publication of the paper in of Viennaas an to theUniversity question.Threeyearslaterhe returned of he theInstitute Here founded of music Ordinarius [professor] history.3 which became a Music Historyas a centrefor musicologicalresearch, in other of similardepartments model forthesubsequentestablishment in 1927. He remainedthereuntilhis retirement universities. and Austriahad led the thenineteenth Germany century, Throughout As Hanslick's modernmusicalscholarship. restof Europein establishing musicaland academic successorin Vienna,Adleroccupiedan important position,and his careercoincidedwith the most productiveperiod in at the time of his appointAustro-German musicology.Nevertheless, of music had the history universities ment,withinthe Austro-German lagged behind the other arts in becoming establishedas an entity Adlerwas veryconsciousof the of generalhistoriography. independent thefine vis-a-vis in of the status academia, especially discipline fledgeling of thisspecific context.4 arts,and his paper mustbe read in terms Themes,Metaphorsand Assumptions in terms in Adler'spaper maybe summarised The sequenceof thought named in its title,thatis, its scope, of the threeaspects of musicology outlineof thehistorical and aim. He beginswitha brief method, developas a self-conscious mentof thescienceof music,fromits inception art, ofabstracting rulesof successivestages-such as thepragmatics through procedure in composition, or the development of notational symbols-to its modern culminationin a study of the works of art themselves. as thestudyofmusicto thatofmusicperceived Adlerlimits Essentially to a studyofEuropean,Occidental and as suchitis confined an artform; music. The focus is on music viewed solely as a product. The to be appliedis thatof analysis,and he studiestheworkof methodology art in termsof notation,structure (form),and what he calls moodin orderto date it historically substance/aesthetic content, by means of of its species. The datingof a work is necessaryto the determination

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to place it withinthe historicalprocess, and to enable the researcher thecreationof art. determine thestylistic laws governing From this Adler derives his dichotomous schematisationof the discipline of musicology,which he divides into an historicaland a ofitssubject-areas section,each ofwhichis discussedin terms systematic research he sumsup and itsauxiliarysciences.The aim of musicological of the in the closingmottoas 'the discoveryof truth and advancement beautiful'.It is also expressedas one of didactics,both in termsof the contemporary composer, the artisteand the audience.5Indeed, Adler as somewhatakin to that of a perceivesthe role of the musicologist of thefaith', a not unusualquasi-religious and defender point 'promoter he recallsto mind of view in thenineteenth and in thisrespect century, Schumann'simaginative conceptof the Davidsbiindler. to what is suggested in thearticleon musicology in theNew Contrary Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians (ibid.), Adler's styleorientated methodology is not a part of the "cultural-historical forit is essenagainstpositivism", emphasis"thatwas "in parta protest tially positivistic in outlook. Collingwood defines positivism as "philosophyacting in the service of natural science" (1980:126), and "consistedof states thatnaturalscience,in the view of the positivists, two things: laws." The former facts;secondly, first, ascertaining framing was "only the firststage of a process whose second stage was the of laws", whichwere to be framed from "through generalising discovery of laws was thegoal of scientific The framing thesefactsby induction". endeavour.To quote Adler,the"actualfocalpointofall music-historical of thelaws of art of different work" is the "investigation periods",this taking"the highestprecedence";and again, "to attain his main task, namely, the researchof the laws of art of diverse periods and their the historian of art utilisesthe organiccombinationand development, of nature; that is, by same methodologyas that of the investigator the inductivemethod . . the emphasis here lies in the preference, of the scienceof art and thatof the analogy betweenthe methodology naturalsciences". In order to show how Adler's thinking was shaped by the natural bothin hisuse ofmetaphor and as theparadigms ofhismethod, sciences, it is as well to outlinebriefly in thenaturalsciencesin the developments nineteenth centuryand to relate these to his text. Rapid strideswere made especially in the sciences of geology, biology, and organic and thefirst two are mentioned chemistry, by Adler. The comparative method, developed in comparative anatomical The development study,shaped thatapplied in othernaturalsciences.6 of the science of geology owed much to such a use made of palaeoncanal beds in tologicalobservation.In 1799 WilliamSmithwas digging wereto be foundin the England,and noticedthatthesame typeoffossils same type of rock strata. Using thisknowledge,he devised a table of units,and builtup a geologicmap of England,Wales, and stratigraphic part of Scotland. At around the same time, Georges Cuvier and AlexandreBrongniart observed that fossilsare generallythe similarly

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same in corresponding beds of rock,but differ fromone fairly markedly bed to another.In thisway theyseparatedtheTertiary strataof north and central Franceintonaturalunitsand arranged thesein chronological sequence.Palaeontologythusprovideda vistaintopast aeons, becoming an ally not only of stratigraphy, but also contributing to biological research therecognition of theantiquity of lifeon earth.In by validating thisway itsupported theconceptof evolution, whichin itsturn changed palaeontologyfroma practicalrule-of-thumb techniqueinto a fullyfledgedscience. In establishingmusicology as an academic discipline,Adler was to make the study of the historyof music scientific. In attempting his own book, Der Stilin derMusik (1911),withParry's comparing Style in Musical Art, published in the same year, he described Parry's artistic", approach as "primarily statingthat he himself"stressedthe scientific side" (1934:172). His own research led himto regard experience thepalaeologicaldatingof a workof artas thefirst stepin musicological In a sense, thisprocedureis analogous to the palaeoninvestigation. the musical fossil tological datingof rock strata; one is thus studying recordforthesame purpose,thatof dating. Moreover, the concept of a geological stratumis associated with anothercommonplacenineteenth notion,derivedfromJohann century Gottlieb idealistic ofhistory. Fichte claimedthateach Fichte's philosophy has a character ofitsown whichis concretely embodied periodofhistory in a singleidea. In Fichte's is the hands, theKantiannotionthathistory ofa 'natural' out through humanagency, unfolding plan whichis carried became a logical sequence of successivecharacteristic 'ideas', which,by virtueof theirlogic, provide the dynamicsof cause and effect, and of historical theperiodisation ofhistory. processes,thesequencesuggesting As regards in biology,themodern conceptofspecies,whichoriginated the seventeenth century,was applied in particularby Linnaeus to tracing classifying plantsand animals.Earlyhypotheses possiblelinesof continuousdescentbetweenspecies and generafinallyfloweredin the of evolutionpermeated the conceptof naturalevolution.The dynamics in history, in sociology,and above all, nineteenth world-view, century not surprising in biology. It is therefore that Adler's metaphorical language is rich in images of organicgrowthand decay, and that his is evolutionist. His style-critical methodbegins conceptof musichistory withan anatomicaldissectionof a work of art in orderto ascertainits of stylistic laws can, in a sense,be equated with species,and his framing thelaws of musical'naturalselection'.7 determining AlthoughAdler's views on the artistas creativegenius 'buildinga reflect standardninetemplein thegrove',and on musicas an artform, teenth aesthetic century concepts,it should be noted thathis empirical methodowed muchto contemporary arthistorical style-critical writings. As Kuhn states (EncyclopaediaBritannica, 14thed., s.v. "Aesthetics"), in 1864 Hippolyte Taine "proposedthatstylesofartshouldbe studiedin the same way as the kindsof plantsare studiedby thebotanistand as subject to evolutionary development."In Germanythisapproach was

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as Burckhardt and Wdlfflin. The history adopted by such art historians of stylesin the visual arts came to be termedKunstwissenschaft (the and theoretical in approach. The scienceof art),and was bothhistorical trendsand principlesrunning discipline sought to grasp underlying individuals and their works. It has rather than through studying epochs, been pointedout thatAdlershoweda deep awarenessofdevelopments in the sciencesof art and musicas sister thefieldof art history, regarding sciences,so that to speak of a 'tonal art' insteadof music was, in his view, both logical and justifiable.

THE SCOPE, METHOD AND AIM OF MUSICOLOGY

Guido Adler Musicology originatedsimultaneouslywith the art of organising fromthe throatfreely tones."As long as naturalsong breaksforth and withoutreflection; as long as the tonal productswell up, unclear and so longalso there can be no questionofa tonalart.Only in unorganised, that momentwhen a tone is comparedand measuredaccordingto its this is done by ear, thenwith instruments thatmeasure pitch-at first when one takesaccountof theorganicrelationpitch-; at thatmoment ships between several tones and tonal phrases bound into a unified whole, and the imagination organisestheirproductin such a way that norms,only theymay be assumed to be based on primitive-aesthetic thencan one speak of a musicalknowledgeas well as an art ofworking with tonal material. All peoples ofwhomit can be said thatthey have a tonalart,also have a tonal science, even if not always a developed musicologicalsystem. The moreadvanced thefirst, themoredevelopedis thesecond.The tasks of musicologyvary accordingto the state of development of the tonal art. In the beginningthe science endeavoursespecially to determine, defineand explain the tonal material.This accountsforthe importance of the musical canon amongstthe Greeks,that is, the teachingof the mathematicaldetermination of intervals,and the rankingof scientia musicaewitharithmetic, and astronomy geometry, by manymediaeval writers. Within a shorttimethedemands[on thescience]increase;music is classedamongsttheliberalarts,and theyoungstudent of tonalartand tonal science is presentedwith a complex systemof musical maxims whichhave been abstracted from tonalproducts.The symbols particular fortonesare developed,and their pitchand durationare measuredand regulated more accurately. Indeed, for a time tonal production is muzzledand curbedby theserulesand measures, untilit again paves for itselfa pathway; and once more the demands on the science alter. It shouldclarify therelationship betweenmusicalartand theartof poetry, and should delimitthefieldappropriateto tonal art. The genuine,true artist carries on working unconcernedly;the scholar of art now confronts theinvestigation of theproductsof art. The modernscienceof

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art will base its researchabove all on theworks of art. Whichare then or features thosefactors whichwill guide thescientific of a examination tonal work? If a work of art is underconsideration, it mustfirst of all be defined palaeologically. If it is not writtenin our notation,9it must be transcribed. criteria forthedeterminaAlreadyin thisprocesssignificant tionof thetimeof originof theworkmaybe gained. Then thestructural nature of the work of art is examined. We begin with the rhythmic features:has a time signaturebeen affixed,and if so, which; which are to be found in the parts; how are these temporal relationships of theirperiodicrecurrence?10 groupedand what are thecharacteristics One could justas well beginwithtonality, namely,thetonalnatureof individualvoices and onlythenthatofthewhole-as was customary for a timein theMiddle Ages, but is today,withjustice,no longerthecase. The individualpartsare examinedwithrespectto cadences,transitions, and accidentals,and placed in relation to the whole. Thereafter the mustbe clarified: also therange [ambitus] and polyphonicconstruction of thevoices; theimitation distribution ofthemes and motives depending on theirentries at different and thedifferent time-intervals pitch-levels, of their succession; whether themes are augmented or diminished, or placed in oppositionto each other;further, inverted themanagement of consonancesand dissonances,their or free and resolution preparation entry.The way in which the individualvoices move in termsof one anotheris thenpursued; the relationship betweenmain and subsidiary voices, the adoption of a cantus firmus,the way it is employedand broken down into segments,and the way in which the themesand and determined. motivesare carriedthrough, are considered have a text,thenthisis critically Should thecomposition examined;at to the way it has been set or firstonly as poetry,then in reference and combinedwiththemelody.Here one mustgo intotheaccentuation, in relation to themusical-rhythmic elements. theprosodiccharacteristics of the textoffers further clues with respectto The treatment important theevaluationof thework. thentheway in which the If the compositionis purelyinstrumental, are handled, must be gone into. The instrumentor instruments mustbe examined,thatis, theway in whichtheinstruinstrumentation and -bodies" are unitedand separated,contrasted mentalsound-groups and blended. Togetherwith this, the realisation[Ausfiihrung]-better or realisation[Aus- oder involvedin performance still,the pragmatics to on theinstruments be the considered; fingering Auffiihrbarkeit]-can of the intensity be used in this instance,the mannerof performance, of the[instrumental] volumeof soundat different points,thedistribution voice types,etc. have are establishedand special particulars When the main features natureofthework,thenone to theindividual been ascertained according can addressthequestion,to whichspecies12 of artdoes thepiecebelong, of theperiodwhen namely,to whichspeciesaccordingto theperception and in our view. Withthiswe approach-for theworkof art originated,

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definitive decision about the period of originof the us-the important work, and herewe can distinguish: or theepoch generally, (a) theperiodin whichit was created;either it can be attributed to morespecifically theschool, or finally directly to a particular a particularartist,and in the latter case further oder Tondichters].13 creative periodof thecomposer[des Tonsetzers an altogether accurate The older thework, the harderit is to affix date to theperiod of origin. at a timeto which, (b) it can also happen that a work originated accordingto itsnature,it no longerbelongs;it can bear thestampof a past artistic epochs epoch. One can comparethecoursesofartistic scale. Just withgeologicalstrata,even if only on a verydiminished as the earth'scrustwas fashionedout of formations belongingto different epochs, so also thetotalpictureof an age revealsa distinctiveartistic character. In such a case we mustdistinguish, therefore, between the period of actual originand that to which the work belongs by its nature. And even then, one will notice particular features in the work which betray that, despite the outward it yet does not wholly correspondto the analogous characteristics, it belongs by virtueof its structure to and of the which age spirit texture. One says thenthatthework is createdin themannerof this or thatperiod or school, thisor thatcomposer.14 The determination of themood-substance the [des Stimmungsgehaltes] aestheticcontent,may be seen as the touchstoneof criticalreflection. of course,thiscountsas thesole point,thealpha and omega Frequently, of criticalanalysis. Scientifically speaking,thisaspect can be perceived have been made. Here too one only when the other determinations musical mood-substance. attemptsto grasp firstof all the specifically effort to try to translate thisinto However,in mostcases itwillbe a futile as textor only as idea, words, and even when a poeticsubject,whether served the composer [Tondichter] as the basis of the work of art, it would be a courageous undertakingto articulate scientifically the between the analogy, as regards theiridentityand theirdifferences, mood-substances to both parts,i.e., word and tone. This is appropriate works in which the likely to be relativelyeasier in musical-dramatic action offers a firmer basis [forsuch apperception]. in musicoThese are, in generaloutline,the objects of investigation of thisscienceis to be constructed. Fromthisthesystem logicalresearch. section. subdivides15 into an historicand a systematic It consequently of music organisesitself16 The history accordingto epochs-large and small-or accordingto peoples, territories,17 cities,and schools regions, is eitherchronologicalor regional,or chronoof art; the summing-up logical and regional. In the final and highestinstance,however, the historyof music looks at artisticcreationsas such, in theirmutual withoutspecial considerconcatenationand theirreciprocalinfluence, of individualartists who have particiation given to the lifeand effect pated in thissteadydevelopment.

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The subjectsof thehistorical sectionare as follows: themusical (1) theknowledgeof notations.As alreadymentioned, relationto the art itself.The mediaeval symbolsstand in intimate theproduction, notation determine and stipulate symbolsespecially, so that one can already achieve an historical categorisation-perhaps thechief--of European,Occidentalmusic,according to thediversity ofnotationalsymbols,intotheepoch of theneumes, the epoch of mensuralnotation,and thatof metric denotation;"'a division that roughlyapproximatesthe subdivisioninto Roman, Gothic, and Renaissance epochs as applied in the field of architecture. of historical (2) the summing-up usuallycalled groups [categories], musicalforms.The tonal productsof a particular period mutually in common,and on theotherhand, have, on theone hand, features different featureswhich are suited to placing them in distinct villanella,madrigal,praeambulam, categories.The motet,frottola, ricercar,sonata, suite, symphony (in the modern sense), etc., to specific their belong,as regards development, periods,and in this way excellentinsights[viewpoints]may be gained towards an art-historical evaluation. It is probablynot overall [iibersichtlichen] to how mention here names and terminology necessary frequently shifted are arbitrarily and misused. of the laws of art of different (3) the investigation periods,which takes the highestprecedence;this is the actual focal point of all taskof thescholarof art music-historical work. The mostsatisfying from thebeginnings is to demonstrate and establish how, proceeding of works of art graduallygrows; of simple melody, the structure normslatentin from thesimplest theartistic thesis, how, proceeding the tonal productsbecome more and more complicated;how tonal a cultures; how, little by little, systems pass away withdisappearing to a limband so growsorganically; how chain of cells attachesitself of progressive elementsstandingoutside the mainstream developmentperish because they are notviable. One can say thatthelaws of as thechangesare, art as manifold art changewiththegenerations; to thebeautyattainable attainsdifferent stageswhich,withreference withintheirlimitations, cannotbe overstepped. In the explicationof the laws of art of a particular period, one must in thepracticeof thatare discerned betweenthoseprinciples distinguish because thetheoreticians, forthe as theory, artand thosethatare taught of history at a certaindistance, most part, only followin thefootsteps on whatis past. Only withregardto and whilelifepulseson, theyreflect this aspect can the division into theoreticaland practical music be as is no such thing senseof theword, there approved. In theactual strict is usuallyin of music. As theory a theory theoretical music,but rather withcontemporary conflict practice,one hitupon thenot veryapt term 'theoretical music', to which many French music researchersin clingstillto thisday. particular, has pulledahead of history, It has seldomoccurredthata theoretician and then it was usually a blunderwhich the art practicesof the day

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ofMoravia wanted ignored.To singleout but one instance:Hieronymus to introduce musicacoloratain thesecondhalfof thethirteenth century, As a result,the long beforemusicwas ready to take up chromaticism. attempt remained isolated, and was, despite its ingeniousness,an and practiceare impossibleproposition.It may also happen thattheory to be foundunitedin one person.Then we mustdecidewhether he really operatesin the spiritof his age or in thatof a past epoch. In the first thelaws of artof theperiodconcerned instance,thetaskof investigating is made easier; however,one mustalways, above all, retaintheworksof art themselves at the centreof investigation. The explanation of the various ways in which art is practised,is connected withtheselaws. Vocal and instrumental intimately techniques have changed with the progressof art. On occasion the exerciseof on the productionof art. This is techniquehas acted as an influence in vogue, which have even particularlythe case with instruments occasionally, on the one hand detractedfrom,or on the otherhand extended, creative activity. Frequentlyworks of art place on the demandsto whichhe can do justiceonlyafter a long periodof performer theperforming artistes let themselves be guided, study.In thebeginning in theirrendering, generallyby theirinstinct; graduallythe interpretationbecomes clearerand moreestablished, and in thisway a tradition artisteshave taken a creativerole, at a specific develops. Performing juncture,in the productionof art, namely,with regardto the use of ornamentation.This feature owed its appearance to natural and unnaturalimpulses,and, in the seventeenth and first half of the eighteenthcenturies, like a creeperor parasite, threatened to smotheror thehealthytree. depleteof nourishment The instrumentalrealisation of polyphonic compositions with different at thetimeof theflowering of instrumental instruments, music, was also generallyleft to the practisingmusicians,and the rules of in the ensuingusage. Intimately instrumentation connected germinated withthehistory of orchestration is thehistory of musicalinstruments as regards their constructionand usage-a subsidiary sphere of the historical sectionof musicology. A great numberof auxiliarysciencesare affiliated to thissectionof musicology: (1) general history, with its ancillary sciences, palaeography, chronology, diplomatics, bibliography, library and archival knowledge; and in the fieldof musicology,musical palaeography and bibliography are especiallyimportant ancillarysubject-areas; and philology,which are inextricably (2) the historyof literature, connectedwith music research,in thesame way as in vocal works the musical tone is inseparablefromtheword; (3) historyof the mimeticarts (orchestics and dance), which are likewiseorganically linkedwithmusic; and finally, (4) thebiographyof composers[Tondichter] as well as thestatistics ofmusicalassociationsand artinstitutions. In recent times biographical studieshave disproportionately pushed their way into thefore-

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front of scholarly attention and have even been regarded as Xar' in realityonly musicology ,19 whereas theyconstitute o'yv an ancillary fieldof musicology-even thoughan important one, to be sure. In thisfield,besides theproductsof art of thecomposerin question,only those aspects should be examinedwhichstand in a director indirect to the artistic relationship temperament [Artung] -a guidelineobservedby some excellent biographies.Such aspects include the physicalnatureof the artist,his education,the models whichhe studiedand whose stylehe has absorbed,theinfluence of the environment on his artisticoutlook, the artisticposition he affected hisemotional occupies,thoseeventswhichhave profoundly life,the way in which he composes, his attitudetowardsthe other his ethicaland culturalstandpoints. arts,as well as, finally, The second main subdivisionin musicologyis thatof the systematic section. This restson the historicalsection,and may be divided into threeparts: (a) a music-theoretical section,whichis reallyspeculative, (b) a music-aesthetical section,and section. (c) a music-paedagogical In this subdivisionthose laws of art which have emergedfromthe historical as the highest-I say highestand not latest,as development thesetwo conceptsdo not always entirely coincide-are systematically organised,and are either: and foundedas such, or (a) clarified in art, thecriteria ofwhich (b) [viewed]withregardto thebeautiful or finally are beingdetermined, withreference to a paedagogical-didactic (c) [explicated] purpose. The objectsofinvestigation ofcritical research determine herethesubdivisioninto: thatis, thesumming-up and clarification ofall therules, (1) rhythm, normsand laws affecting thetemporal of musicalworks; properties in relation to thedynamics theabsolutemusicalrhythm of all bodies and themetreand prosodyof languages. of the tonal thatis, thesumming-up and clarification (2) harmony, ways of propertiesof successive tonal series, and contemporary connecting tones and tonal progressions; the formation and foundationof the tone system,thatis, the unifiedoverviewof the tonal materialof each culturalepoch. (3) melody, that is, the resultsderivingfromboth of the aforementioned subdivisions yield the investigationof the internal of therhythmic thereciprocity and harmonic elements relationships, of theworksofart. One could call thissection"Melik",whichit has already sometimesbeen termed(even if not, to the best of my It explainsthepeculiarknowledge,with thisprecisesignification). ities of monophonic,homophonicand polyphonicmusic, and so themedium ofthematic attains,through is, thescientific study--that of thesignificance and rankof musicalideas in a work investigation of art-the consideration of theso-calledmusicalart forms, thatis,

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the abstractionsfrom the various mono- and polyphonic tonal with "Melik"is either structures. absolutelymusical,or is connected prosodyand metre,in whichcase it extendsthe object of examination to diction. and foundationof the highestlaws of art lead, of The formation to thecomparisonof individualnorms.Theirevaluationand necessity, comparison lead, thus, to the field of aesthetics.*The elevation of demandsthat and rulesto theaforementioned height principles specific on the one hand, withtheworks of art, the researcher occupy himself, and on the otherhand, with the mindsof theperceiving subjects.Two confront the researcher, and to get to the bottom of goals, therefore, theirreciprocalrelationships must be the ultimateaim of aesthetics. of thecriteria that Above all, however,what is at stakeis therecognition a workas an artistic thatcharacterise make a work of art; thosefeatures speaking,only product.Is everytonalproducta work of art?Generally are those which bear the criteriaof the beautifulin art in themselves the prevenient designatedas works of art. Therefore questionmustbe answered,what is thebeautifulin musicand how is thisrelatedto the all generalconceptof the beautifulin art? Throughthisdetermination are at the are not demonstrable, tonal productsin which thesecriteria as inartistic. same timedesignated One could pose the question, however, also in anotherway: must Are those tonal productswhichdo not everywork of art be beautiful? to of not also works of art? For these the criteria beautiful correspond example, the requiemlitaniesin parallel seconds and fourths-as they in in theAmbrosianliturgy were customarily sung in Italy,particularly of anguish and Milan; are these only pathological manifestations or are theyalreadyworks of art? They are, to be sure, the contrition, latter,in the sense thata certaintechnicalskill is requiredin order to but do theycorrespond as a result also to thedemandsof them, perform in art?20 not thebeautiful These questionsare of thegreatest significance, of the beautifulin art, but also for other only for the determination theses directly or indirectlyconnected therewith,which in total thatcomplexusually characterised of tonal constitute as the aesthetics art. Some of themostimportant pointsare hereextracted: of music. Is theeffect when (a) originand effect necessarily greater themeans of expression becomes richer and multifarious? (b) the relationshipof tonal art to nature. Are there also tonal to nature,as Goethe maintained? thatare contrary systems of music to culture,climate,and the national (c) the relationship economicrelationships of a people; for,besides thepurelymusical the progressof art outsideof the specific factors,stillothersaffect ofwhichon thedevelopment constructional theinfluences elements, of art cannotbe overlooked.
* The expression of "Philosophyof Music", used by Fetisto describe"theinvestigation neither for historical nor for aesthetic artisticproductsand theirchanges",suffices of different scientific fields. musicology;thisonly mixesup the terms

12 / 1981 YEARBOOK FOR TRADITIONAL MUSIC

(d) thesubdivisionof tonalart accordingto thenatureof its origin, or thepurposeswhichit serves; or thelocalitywhereit is practised, [forexample],church,chamber,concerthall, theatre, opera, etc. to its abilityto express;the (e) thelimitsof tonal artwithreference of sound materialsthatmay be utilised,as opposed to delimitation othersounds or noise;21those areas in which it is connectedto or divorcedfromthe otherarts. Here we mustalso discuss the transitionsinto theamorphousand thefortuitous (accordingto Goethe's designation). of tonal art, as ethics stands in immediate (f) the ethical effects relationto music,both accordingto the older as well as the more modern philosophers,whilst some speak of an ethical basis for musical feeling. Modern philosophers also pose the question concerningthe position music takes in relation to metaphysics, of all theseconsiderations. whichcan be regarded as thetouchstone Beside thesescientific questionsthereare some musical issues of the of musicand artfriends day whichdisturbthesouls of art-enthusiastic into enemycamps; hostilezealots, and cleave asunderlarge multitudes as, for example, the musical tapeworm:22 "when did the apogee of religioustonal art occur, or what is genuinechurchmusic?" Furtheris thequestionof] thestrife about rankbetweenvocal and more, [there instrumental music, which was already stimulated by Plato and Aristotle;or the musico-political question: in the musical drama, does or does theactionreign The theword or thetonepredominate, supreme? of manywho of theseand similarissues arouses the interest settlement of them lies latentin artand and theresolution are otherwise indifferent, science. subdivisionwe may As the thirdmain subsectionof the systematic name musical paedagogy and didactics. If the laws are establishedin abstractoand foundedin thenaturalsciences,thentheymustbe sifted this with a didactic purpose in mind. Accordingly, and put together of music,which comprisesthebasis of providesthe generalrudiments of scales, the natureof musical knowledge;for example, the structure intervals and various rhythms, etc.; a theoryof harmony,thatis, the ofcounterofharmonies; theteaching thecombination tenets concerning of or successivecombination thesimultaneous point,thatis, concerning and furthertwo or moreindependent voices; a theory of composition; more thedidacticmethodsused in vocal and instrumental training. theonly possibleor named is not necessarily The seriesof disciplines this of thedidacticsection.For two centuries even thebest arrangement has been valid, and only in recenttimesdoes one regardthe hierarchy indeed, even as damaging.Even if theoryof harmonyas superfluous, would not be of thediscipline are accepted,theprogress theseinstances would have to be subsumed altered,as thenthebasic tenets materially withinthe of music.A moreexactorganisation underthegeneraltheory to be would individualdisciplines seem, however, urgently required.**
** This subjectwill be treatedmorefullyin a special paper.

MUGGLESTONE

GUIDO ADLER'S MUSICOLOGY / 13

The relationshipof this paedagogical subdivision to the abstract scientific one can be generally as thesystem of didacticsbeing expressed satisfied to selectthenormsand rulesnecessary forlearning theart,and to presentthe propositionslaid down and establishedby the science, withoutgoing into researchand deepersubstantiation based (generally on the natural sciences). It teaches, for example, the prohibitionof consecutive fifths to rule,but harmony when writing seeks also strictly to account for the groundsunderlying thisprohibition and enquiresof theperiod of its introduction, intocorrelation withthis bringing history to thisaspect thefactthatat one timeno one paid attention prohibition harmonic -indeed, [whichone may describeas] thedownright primary It pursuesthegraduallimitation of way ofcombining sequencesoffifths. the prohibition's application,and then,having resolvedtheprevenient of its connection historical with the question,turnsto the investigation the grounds-perhaps the physiologicalnatureof the ear, considering dependence upon the alterationof the partials-and thus reaches a detaileddetermination as to whichcases justify theuse oftheprohibition of consecutivefifths, or is not and in which cases it is superfluous, observedby morefree-wheeling research practice.In thisway scientific fashionsthebasis on which the disciplineis taught. A new and very rewarding adjacent fieldof studyto the systematic subdivisionis 'musicology', thatis, comparative This takes musicology. as itstaskthecomparing of tonalproducts, in particular thefolksongsof and territories, withan ethnographic variouspeoples,countries, purpose in mind, grouping and orderingthese according to the variety of in theircharacteristics. [differences] The auxiliarysciencesof systematic are: musicology -acousticswithits associated field,mathematics; in thoseareas concerning aural sensation; -physiology, particularly -psychology, particularlyin those areas concerningthe mental conceptualisationof tones and interval relationships,and the practical counterpart thereof, namely, the theory of musical which may be regardedas a part of generallogic; thinking, metreand poetics; -grammar, -and, as an ancillaryfieldto the musical paedagogical subdivision, generalpaedagogics. Manifold otherareas of knowledgemay also be touchedupon, and stand partiallyin the interchange of ideas; areas which it is considered to mention(see Table I). unnecessary The methodology of musicologicalresearch dependson thenatureof the subject under investigation. In palaeographical matters, the researcher as a method of applies every means usually characterised researchin thehistorical sciences.He followsall paths thatthe auxiliary researcher and the palaeographerhave levelled,but in the manuscript fieldof [musical]notationhe musttreadcertainbypathslyinga littleto one side of thebroad mainstream. Here experience willbe theteacher.In historical themusicresearcher utilises matters, philologicaland literary anew every pathway that the science in question has laid out. Here,

14 / 1981 YEARBOOK FOR TRADITIONAL MUSIC

TABLE 1 In Tabular Form,an Overview of the EntireConstruction*** appears thus: MUSICOLOGY I. HISTORICAL (Historyof musicaccordingto epochs, peoples, empires,nations,regions, cities,schools of art, artists).
A. Musical palaeography (notations). B. Basic historical categories(Grouping of musicalforms). D. Historyof musical C. Historical instruments. sequence of laws. 1. As theyare in the presented works of art of every epoch. 2. As taught by the of the theoreticians age in question. 3. Ways of practising art.

sciences: Auxiliary

GeneralHistorywithPalaeography,Chronology,Diplomatics, and ArchivalScience. Library Bibliography, and Philology. Historyof Literature Liturgical History. Historyof MimeticArtsand Dance. of musicalassociations, of composers,Statistics Biographies institutes and performances.

purposesof comparison,thesynoptictable accordingto Aristides overviewof theGreek whichcontainsthemostcomprehensive Quintilianus, systemof musicaldidactics,is given. SYSTEM OF MUSIC I. A.

*** For

9EQPHTIKON (Theoreticalor speculativesection)

B. re(vuL6vu (Special-technical)
e. c. dp/ovuwx?d. /Ierptj? (RvOytm (Harmony) (Rhythm) (Metrics)

dv (Physical-scientific) uvaOr b. wvauxr? (Physics)

a. caPLO/rTLXr

(Arithmetic)

MUGGLESTONE

GUIDO ADLER'S MUSICOLOGY / 15

II. SYSTEMATIC of thehighest laws in theindividualbranchesof tonal art). (Establishing

and A. Investigation of these founding laws in: 1. Harmony(tonal). 2. Rhythm (temporal). 3. Melody Coherence25 of tonal & temporal. B. Aesthetics of tonal art. 1. Comparisonand evaluationof these laws and their relationto the subjects, perceiving withrespectto the of the ascertaining of the criteria musicallybeautiful. 2. The complexof and indirectly directly relatedquestions. C. Musical paedagogicsand didactics(The compilationof these laws withrespectto teaching purposes). 1. Scales. 2. Theoryof harmony. 3. Counterpoint. 4. Theoryof composition. 5. Orchestration. 6. Vocal & instrumental teaching methods. D. "Musicology" and (Examination comparisonfor ethnographic purposes).

Auxiliarysciences:

Acousticsand mathematics. Physiology(tone sensation). Psychology(tone perception, tone-judgement, tone-feeling). Logic (musicalthinking). and poetry. Grammar,metrics, Paedagogics. etc. Aesthetics,

II.

IlPAKTIKON- fAIAETTIKON

or practical (Didactic section)

C. Xpjrxdv
f. yjtXoroda

Performance (Theoryofcomposition) D. Qa irgtXvxdv praxis)

(Melodic (Rhythmic composition) composition or applied rhythm)

h. ro(lqats i. 6p?apvteX k. g. 5v6pOorolda AtxrJ l. Oroxptrtx-q (Poetics)(Instrumental (Singing) (Dramatic action) performance)

16 / 1981YEARBOOKFORTRADITIONAL MUSIC

however, he will have to proceed with a litle more caution because, whilstmanyphilologists have succeededsplendidly and have veeredoff thepath of life,everyhistorian of art,on thecontrary, mustlistento the lifepulse of theartistic forms and would not wish to kill themwithhis probe. To attain his main task, namely,the researchof the laws of art of diverse periods and theirorganic combinationand development,the of artutilisesthesame methodology historian as thatof theinvestigator of nature; that is, by preference the inductivemethod. From several thatwhichis commonand separatesthoseaspects exampleshe extracts whichdiffer, and utilisesalso themethodof abstraction in which,from sectionsare neglected and others givenconcreteconceptions, particular The setting is also notinconceivable. A more preferred. up ofhypotheses detailedexplicationof theforegoing is reserved fora special paper; the ofthescience emphasisherelies in theanalogybetweenthemethodology of art and thatof the naturalsciences. The setting laws of art and their up of thehighest practicalutilisation in musicalpaedagogicsrevealthesciencein unmediated contactwiththe actual life of art. The science attainsits goal to its fullestextentonly when it remainsin livingcontactwithart. Artand thescienceof art do not existin separatecompartments, theboundariesof whichare sharply it is farmoreone and thesame field,and onlytheway in drawn; rather whicheach is treateddiffers. The artist builds his templein thegrove,in thegrovewherefragrance is newly revived, time and again, fromfreelygrowingflowers.The of arttillstheearth;he educatesthedisciplesto hislife'stask theoretician and accompanies the inspiredcreatoras a lifelong companion. Should the scholar of art observe that matters are not turning out in the best ofart,thenhe directs it onto thepropercourse. Ifthebuilding interests is already erected,then the historianof art protectsand defendsit and repairsthe damaged portions.Should it become quite dilapidated,then it in orderto preserve it forfuture he buttresses Withthese generations. operations, however, the true frienddoes not content himself.He arranges and organises the whole, and in this way makes it more or brought accessibleto thepublic. Should it be stormed down, thenhe it a certaindistance,and saves it in thisway it or withdraws surrounds forperiodsthatwill once again show the properappreciationof it. thelivingflower One of his loveliesttasks,however,is to keep fresh thenecessary kingdom by arousingand furthering gardenof theearthly on art have endeavouredto mostof thewriters interest. Unfortunately, withdrawfromthisexaltedduty. Ultimately theyare the guardiansof order. They codify,as has been shown, the correctpracticethathas should-also keepitflexible must-or rather becomelaw; however,they When the artistabandons the regionof with regardto life'sexigencies. of thenthehistorian in orderto conquera new territory, his forefathers art does not allow the old to become desertedand desolate, but at the withhis armyof thedual taskof assisting, same timetakesupon himself a hand in in theoccupation[oftheterritory] theartist by lending helpers,

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making the newly acquired soil arable, and setting up the equipment needed to construct a new work. His experiences serve to advise the refusesuch overconfidence, young builder. Should the latter,through will then he either to fail helpfulparticipation, altogether completethe or the building will soon collapse because it stands on building,23 unstablegroundand is unable to withstand thewind and weather. From the cradle to the grave the researcher of art accompanies the ofthelatter, children thetruth ofhislife'scourse,will artist;thespiritual be shieldedand defended of art beyond thegrave. As by the historian of judgement in thecase of thedeceased artist is easy, it is independence to retain the same attitude also with to obligatory respect the living artist.Voltaire'sexpression "son doit des egards aux vivants,on ne doit aux mortsque la verites"24 a implies,despiteitsapparentcourteousness, consideration greater danger,namely,that,just as one shows particular towards one person, towardsanotherone acts just as inconsiderately, and so allows oneselfto be guided by predetermined and sympathies whose distortions stainmanya page in thehistory ofwriters antipathies, about art. As a result, the most importantbasic tenet should be: thelivingas the dead, nothing but the truth." "Concerning Besides the pursuitof its absolute endeavours-as a consequenceof whichit regardsitself as an end in itself, not concerning itself about its widerpractical utilisation-thesciencewill thencontribute to theproper and evaluationof thevariousepochs of art,and on that comprehension ofitsinvestigations, result theestablishment basis, to themostimportant of thesupremelaws withintheindividualbranchesof art. And, in view of the confusionin the contemporary state of the arts and the evident vacillationin artistic it will contribute also to theimproveproduction, mentof thepresent ofart. It has been asserted situation thattheincipient expansion of the science of art is a certainsign of the decline of art. However, it has been explained above that the creation of art is impossiblewithouta knowledgeof art. Should it actually occur that reflection and research take theupperhand, thenthiswould forthetime demonstrate thathistorical had strengthened. beingmerely appreciation This has, however,long been recognised as highly advantageousto the of works of art. apperception If thescienceofartkeepswithin itsnaturalboundsand unites withthe artistsin specifictasks, as, for example, in restoring, and arranging historical forit to jeopardisethe works,thenit is impossible performing ofart,quiteapartfrom thefactthata genuine creative production power allows itselfto be guided and educatedbut not suppressed.Above all, mustgrow in strength; it mustlimititself however,the scienceitself in termsof theproperevaluationof thetasksimmediately at hand, and so attainmastery. In the Introduction to theJahrbiichern musikalische Wissenschaft fair & Hirtel, 1863), [Yearbooks for Musical Science] (Leipzig: Breitkopf wrote: Chrysander One should neverforegotheconviction that,that which is created by the spirit,littleby littlein

18 / 1981YEARBOOKFORTRADITIONAL MUSIC

naturaldevelopment, will,in thecourseofgaining insight, again be unified. thisfieldof knowledgeespecially,he commented further: Concerning The main cause of doubt generally adduced, namely, that musical science should ever attain or inner theheight ofthatofthegraphic perfection arts-because music in its essence is too elusive thanthatin its fielda sciencecould evolve which could meetthehighest demands-is an illusion. to elucidatethe foregoing, a sectionin And, as if it had been written Spitta'sFestredeon "Art and the Science of Art",given on March 21, 1883, at theRoyal Academy of theArtsin Berlindeclares: The science of art, few branchesexcepted,still of the beginner. grappleswith all the difficulties Withoutthe backing of a firmtradition, fluctuating in its methodand oftenquestionablein its results,it is considered,even amongstscholars, more as an adjunctto otherscientific disciplines, because itlacks thepowerto standon itsown feet. As it has not only a philosophical,but also a and even an historical and physical-mathematical, philosophicalside, it reaches,in fact,intovarious otherindependent fieldsof science,and it is only its object of researchthat enables it to claim a underthe sun. Furthermore, until place foritself now it has scarcelybeen attempted anywhereto withinthe world of bring to public recognition, of the scienceand societyat large,theunification diverse directionsof the science of art into an thiswillhave to whole. Nevertheless, independent occur in the short or long term. The research material is too rich and important,the preresuccessful quisitesfortheresearcher's overcoming of these problems are too unique, than that it could notbe assumedthatthescienceofartwould achieve a recognised place amongst its sister sciences. But, howeverthatmay be, it is certain that here great scientifictasks lie ahead, the solutionsto whichmustand will be found. towardsa unitary fieldtheoryof musicology May the presentattempt contribute towardsmeeting theseneeds! Everystepthatleads to thisgoal, everydeed thatpushesus closerto it, The more sincerethe will, the signifies progressin our human insight. more effective the consequence;the more comprehensive the expertise, the more meaningfulthe product; the more who share in the the more profoundthe effect[result],which bears the undertaking, value: Discoveryof theTrue and Advancement of theBeautiful. highest

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GUIDO ADLER'S MUSICOLOGY / 19

of this The authorgratefully acknowledgestheconsiderable help givenin thepreparation Dieter Christensen of Columbia University. paper by Professor

NOTES had been in existence since the second quarterof the 1. The termMusikwissenschaft nineteenthcentury, and was fairly established by mid-century. Nevertheless, still used the older term'musikalische in the titleof the Chrysander Wissenschaft' in itstitle, thenew journalsettheseal of journalhe foundedin 1863. By usingtheterm fortheemerging academicdiscipline.It approval on itsacceptanceas thedesignation to do so. is in thissense thatit was thefirst in itsoriginal word 'science'is used throughout senseof 'anysystematised 2. The English body of knowledge'. 3. This was, in fact, the second chair of musicologyto be foundedin the Germanwas establisheda year earlierat Strassburg [Strasbourg], speakingworld. The first took up theappointment. whereJakobsthal 4. It is no accident that the term Kunst [art], and its derivativeand compound formations, outweighby a factorof two the termMusik and its derivativeand Adlerconsistently relatesthescienceofmusicto thescienceof compoundformations. art in general. 5. This can be perceivedmore clearlyin Adler's inaugurallectureof 1898, where the of art, to have an effect on art'. mottonow reads: 'through understanding 6. The comparativemethodwas the ubiquitoustool of scholarshipin the nineteenth otherthanthephysical and was applied in fields and naturalsciencesas well, century, forexample,in linguistics and religion. 7. Stylistic laws reveala processofselection.As muchof Adler'smetaphorical language ofa livingorganism, and musicas an art,in terms thathe perceivedhistory, suggests it is not unreasonableto speak of thisprocessof selectionas in some way 'natural'. in Darwin's theoryof evolution lay in his attributing to The essentialoriginality which naturetheprocessofselection by meansof theconceptofsurvivalof thefittest, it as havingsome kindof mind.In is itself a metaphorical view of nature, conceiving speaking of the investigationof stylisticlaws, Adler's imagery is thoroughly Darwinian. It is not thecomposerwho selects;the musicalformsthemselves grow, like chains of cells, or die because theyare not fitto survive. 8. AlthoughAdler used the word Tonkunst,in the contextof the openinghistorical outlineof thedevelopment of thescienceof music,it seemedappropriate to translate theword in terms of thiscontext. However, theopeningsentence maybe interpreted as meaning that the concept of 'tonal art' is a modern one, synchronic with the of musicology. development 9. Adler was referring to pre-nineteenth centurysystemsof notation.The twentieth has witnessed of notationalsystems. a proliferation century 10. The verb periodisirt has no Englishequivalent.The conceptof periodicity involves of the translation. hence theformat recurrence, regularand irregular 11. The Germanword Klang has theconnotation of timbre, but is an indefinite concept which is best translated as 'sound', even thoughthe lattertermlacks such a connotation. 12. The word Gattungwas similarly translated as 'species'-see Adler (1934). by Strunk This interpretation is impliedby his imagery. is used as a synonym 13. The word Tondichter for'composer'.Adlermay have had the 'sisterscience' of literaryhistoryin mind, or have been using a commonplace Romanticnotion of the composeras poet. The termTonsetzer difficulties. presents Did he mean a 'compositor of tones',or a personwho sets words to music? 14. The word used is Meisterin the sense of a 'master craftsman'. 15. Adler uses the word zerffillt, a meaning'to fall into more than one part', implying 'natural'division. 16. The verbgliedert indicates ofmusicacts likea living that,in Adler'sview, thehistory in theprocessof organisation. organism

20 / 1981 YEARBOOK FOR TRADITIONAL MUSIC 17. In theattachedtable,thetermTerritorien is replacedwiththeterm Reichen,meaning thusindicating Adler'sunderlying 'empires', thought. 18. The word used is Taktbezeichnung. 19. The phrasemeans 'par excellence'. 20. In themuscialtheory of tonalmusic,secondsand fourths are dissonant,thelatterif heardbetweenthebass and an uppervoice; therefore, motionin parallelsecondsand fourths was anathematic. 21. The Germanlanguageis particularly richin wordsfordifferent kindsof sounds. The words used hereare Klang, Schall, and Gerliusch. 22. Adler uses the word Bandwurmmetaphorically, indicatingthat these questions in havinga beginning persist.They are like thetapeworm (head), but no end in sight as theykeep growing a tail. 23. The phrase'unter Dach bringen 'to bringundertheroof',indicates ', meaning literally a late stagein theconstruction of stoneor brickbuildings, wheretheouterwalls have to be completedto theheight at whichtheywill supporttherafters beforetheroofis theroofis supported and put on. In wooden framehouses, by theskeletalframework, is put on beforethewalls are clad. 24. 'One owes respectto theliving,and nothing but the truth to thedead'. 25. Adler uses the term Cohdirenz which has the meaning of a 'natural or logical connection'.This word is closer to his thought thanthatof 'correlation'-as used in the translationof the table given in the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians (1980: s.v. "Musicology")- which suggests relationshipsof a more nature. arbitrary PUBLICATIONS CONSULTED Adams, F.D. 1938 Adler,Guido 1885 1898 1934 1935 The Birthand Developmentof the Geological Sciences. Baltimore: The Williams& WilkinsCo. Methode und Ziel der Musikwissenschaft." "Umfang, Vierteljahrsschrift 1: 5-20. fiirMusikwissenschaft "Musikund Musikwissenschaft." Jahrbuch derMusikbibliothek Peters5: 29-39. Musical Quarterly 20 (2): 172-176. "Style-Criticism." Wollen und wirken: aus dem Leben eines Musikhistorikers, Vienna, Leipzig: Universal.

Carner,Mosco 1944 "A Pioneer of Musicology: Guido Adler." In Of Men and Music, pp. 14-16. London: Joseph WilliamsLtd. Collingwood,R.G. 1946 The Idea of History,Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press; OUP paperback 1956; reprint ed., 1980. 14thed. (1973). EncyclopaediaBritannica, S.v. "Aesthetics,"by Helmut Kuhn; "Comparative Anatomy," by Florence Moog; "Darwin,"by Sir Gavin de Beer; "Darwinism," by Loren Corey Eiseley; "Evolution,"by Sewall Wright;"Geology," by Chester Ray Longwell; "Science, Historyof," by C. Stevens; "Philosophy,"by WilliamHenryWalsh. Engel,H. 1950 "Die Entwicklung der Musikwissenschaft, 1900-1950."Neue Zeitschrift fiirMusik 111: 16-22.

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Ficker,Rudolfvon 1946 "Guido Adlerund die WienerSchulederMusikwissenschaft." Osterreich1 (6): 185-187. ische Musikzeitschrift W. Fischer, 1924-5 "Guido Adlers Methode der Musikgeschichte." Zeitschrift fiir Musik7: 500-503. wissenschaft Heinz, R. 1969 "Guido Adlers Musikhistorikals historischesDokument." In Die Ausbreitungdes Historismusfiberdie Musik, pp. 209-218. Edited by WalterWiora. Regensburg: Gustav Bosse. F. Gustav Jansen, 1883 Die Davidsbiindleraus Robert Schumann'sSturm-und Drangperiode. und Hirtel. Leipzig: Breitkopf eds. Kiihn,Hellmut,and Mahling,Christoph-Hellmut, 1972 Historische und Systematische Musikwissenschaft. Ausgewahlte Autisitze von WalterWiora. Tutzing:Hans Schneider. und Gegenwart. Die Musik in Geschichte AllgemeineEnzyklopidieder Musik, 1949-. Editedby Friedrich Blume. 16 vols. S.v. "Musikwissenschaft," by WalterWiora and Hans Albrecht. The New Grove Dictionaryof Music and Musicians, 1980 ed. Editedby StanleySadie. 20 vols. of Music," by F.E. S.v. "Adler, Guido," by Mosco Carner; "Aesthetics Sparshott;"Musicology,"by VincentDuckles, et al. H. Osthoff, in Deutschland." Acta "Die Anfinge der Musikgeschichtsschreibung 1933 Musicologica 5 (3): 97-107. Pratt,Waldo Selden 1915 "On Behalfof Musicology."Musical Quarterly 1: 1-16. Russell,Bertrand 1945 A History of WesternPhilosophy. New York: Touchstone (Simon & Schuster). Sarton, George to theHistoryof Science. 3 vols. in 5. Baltimore: Introduction 1927-31 Carnegie Institution (The Williams& WilkinsCo.) Studienzur Musikgeschichte: fiirGuido Adler zum 75 Geburtstag: Festschrift Vienna: Universal. 1930