RESIN TRANSFER MOLDING

Lihwa Fong and S.G. Advani

20

ready for its removal from the mold when sufResin Transfer Molding (RTM) is a closed ficient green strength is attained. Processes mold process in which matched male and that are based on similar principles include female molds, preplaced with fiber preform, Structural Reaction Injection Molding (SRIM) are clamped to form composite components. and different versions of vacuum assisted Resin mix is transferred into the cavity RTM (Figs. 20.1 and 20.2). RTM offers the promise of producing low through injection ports at a relatively low prescost composite parts with complex structures sure. Injection pressure is normally less than and large near net shapes. Relatively fast cycle 690 kPa (or 1OOpsi). The displaced air is times with good surface definition and allowed to escape through vents to avoid dry appearance are easily achievable. The ability spots. Cure cycle is dependent on part thickto consolidate parts allows the saving of conness, type of resin system and the temperature siderable amount of time over conventional of the mold and resin system. The part cures in lay-up processes. Since RTM is not limited by the mold, normally heated by controller, and is the size of the autoclave or by pressure, new
Mixing Head

2 0 . 1 INTRODUCTION

r -------1
I 1
I

Vent Port

I
I I I

I
I I

I
I

---------

Pumpunit

Fig. 20.1 Schematic of the RTM process.

Handbook of Composites. Edited by S.T. Peters. Published i n 1998 by Chapman & Hall, London. ISBN 0 412 54020 7

434 Resin transfer molding

ISOCYANATE POLYOL

HYDRAULICS

MACHME MODE

HEAD

Fig. 20.2 Basic construction of a SRIM machine.

tooling approaches can be utilized to fabricate Advantages are: large, complicated structures. However, the 0 Class A surface: Surface definition is supedevelopment of the RTM process has not fulrior to lay-up. In addition, using matched filled its full potential. For example, the RTM tools for the mold, one can improve the finprocess is yet to be automated in operations ish of all the surfaces. such as preforming, reinforcement loading, 0 Close tolerance: Parts can be made with betdemolding, and trimming. Therefore, RTM ter reproducibility than with layup. can be considered an intermediate volume 0 Design tailorability: Reinforcement and molding process (Krolewski, 1990). combination of reinforcements can be used Several unresolved issues in RTM encounto meet specific properties. tered by composite engineers are in the areas 0 Fast cycles: Production cycles are much of process automation, preforming, tooling, faster than with layup. mold flow analysis and resin chemistry. 0 Filler: Filler systems can be used to reduce During the last decade, rapid advances in cost, improve fire/smoke performance, surRTM technology development have demonface appearance, and crack resistance. strated the potential of the RTM process for 0 Gel coat: One or both mold surfaces can be producing advanced composite parts. The gel-coated to improve surface performance. advantages and associated disadvantages of 0 Good mechanical properties: Mechanical the RTM process are summarized. As the properties of molded parts are comparable development of this process is rapid, some of to other composite fabrication processes. the disadvantages may be overcome by the 0 Good moldability: Large and complex advances made in this technology. shapes can be made efficiently and inexpen-

RTM process 435

sively. In addition, many mold materials can be used. Inserts: Ribs, bosses, cores, inserts and special reinforcement can be added easily. Labor saving: The skill level of operator is less critical. Low tooling cost: Clamping pressure is low compared to other closed mold operations. Low volatile emission: Volatile emissions are low because RTM is a closed mold process. The worker is not exposed to chemical vapors as with the lay-up process. design stage. The usefulness of such design tools is discussed in detail, giving the relevant advantages and disadvantages.
20.2 RTM PROCESS

0
0

The RTM process can be viewed as seven unit operations. The general practice and processing issues are described for each unit operation.
20.2.1 FIBER REINFORCEMENT

Disadvantages are: Mold design: The mold design is critical and requires good tools or great skill. Improper gating or venting may result in defects. Mold filling: Control of flow pattern or resin uniformity is difficult. Radii and edges tend to be resin-rich. Properties are equivalent to those with matched-die molding (assuming proper fiber wetout, etc.), but are not generally as good as with vacuum bagging, filament winding or pultrusion. Reinforcement movement during resin injection is sometimes a problem. In the following sections, the resin transfer molding process is discussed in terms of the unit operations involved, to familiarize readers with the basic steps of the RTM process. The discussion covers details such as materials of construction, mold design, preforming, curing, and demolding. Processing issues are mentioned in each individual unit operation. Relevant variations of RTM such as vacuum assisted resin transfer molding and flexible molding tools are summarized. Process physics is described with emphasis placed on the principles that govern the RTM process; these are applied in the use of computer simulations. Through the design tools such as simulation codes for mold filling analysis, engineers are able to predict or diagnose the problems in gating and venting in the

Selection of the proper reinforcement type should take into consideration loading condition, part geometry (size, thickness), mechanical properties and surface finish. The quantity of parts demanded also determines the selection. The reinforcement normally carries 90% of the load in a composite and provides over 90% of the stiffness. The reinforcement in a composite can be designed to match the strength requirements of the part. The following characteristics should be considered when selecting fiber reinforcements: Volume fraction: ratio of the volume of a given mass of reinforcement to the volume of the same component after molding; Wash resistance: ability of a reinforcement to withstand movement due to fluid motion or solvation of the reinforcement binder by the resin; Wettability: ability of a reinforcement to reach a condition wherein all voids in the reinforcement are filled with resin; Sizing: most fibers are coated with size for better wettability and bonding but the size may influence the cure kinetics during the manufacturing. Most standard reinforcement materials for composites can be used, but fiberglass, carbon and aramid are the most common in RTM. One requirement is that the reinforcement should hold its shape during the injection

436 Resin transfer molding

phase. Therefore, the reinforcements are generally stitched, woven or bonded together. Reinforcement build-ups in certain areas can easily be included. For example, woven roving and fabric can be combined with continuous strand mat and chopped strand mat in applications where higher strengths are required. Hybrid systems composed of high performance reinforcements such as carbon fiber and aramid fiber can also be incorporated in RTM laminates. Surfacing materials called veils can be used in the preforms to hide the imprint of fibers, for improved surface finish. Another application of surfacing veil is to achieve a resin-rich skin to improve corrosion resistance. Stitched fabrics (Fig. 20.3(a))reduce stresses inherent in the woven roving design and lead to higher compressive strengths in the composite. However, other constructions such as 8-HS style of weave (eight-harness satin weave) in Fig. 20.3(b)have been used because of improved wetting characteristics and compressive strength compared to bidirectional woven fabrics. Continuous strand mat is multi-stranded, laid in swirled configuration. The mats nor-

mally have 4-6 wt.% of thermoplastic binder added. They are thermoformable and can therefore be used for highly complex shapes or when the anticipated volume of production makes them economical. Different sizings can be obtained on many reinforcements. Sizings can be tailored to the type of resin system. Sizings are available that are compatible with epoxy, vinyl esters or polyesters. The strength variation with type of sizing can be as much as 20%, so this factor needs to be considered in the choice of reinforcement.
20.2.2 PREFORM

For a flat part, the preform can be as simple as a stack of reinforcements that fit in the mold cavity. As preforms become more versatile, various means of producing preforms are available. Currently cut-and-sew is commonly used to assemble preforms of various shapes for aerospace applications. Other near net shape techniques include braiding, spray-up and thermoforming (Fig. 20.4).

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

I t

1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Fig. 20.3 (a) Stitched fabric; (b) eight-hamess satin weave.

RTM process 437

blank preparation zone

heating zone

stamping zone

unloadinghrimming zone

heatingcuring resinbinder

1 cooling
A

t+
I

Vayum source

demolding

'

forming screen

directed fiber preform

Fig. 20.4 (a) Four station thermoforming preformer; @) spray-up process.

438 Resin transfer molding

If prefabricated preforms are not used, then some means must be found to hold the layers of reinforcement together as they are built up on the tool surface. For example, unidirectional reinforcement is subjected to washing (washing is unplanned reinforcement movement due to resin movement) if proper precautions are not taken to prevent it. To improve conformance of fibers, a tacky resin (e.g. epoxy), dissolved in suitable solvent (e.g. acetone), can be used as a spot glue to hold the reinforcement layers together. The tacky resin will be washed out during the resin injection cycle and will not interfere with the cure of the part. Sometimes veil can be used to hold the layers and prevent washing.

Edge definition: The edges of the composite will be resin rich if the preform is not cut to fit closely to the edge of the cavity or inserts; Fiber distribution:Uniformity of fiber content in preforms, without excessive thinning, wrinkles or folds, is important; Permeability:A measure of resin distribution into the cavity. This quantity is also affected by fiber volume fraction.

Prefabricated preforms can be further bonded together, with or without a core, to achieve part consolidation. For structural composites, this eliminates the need for fasteners and adhesives to assemble discrete parts. New thermoformable reinforcement mats can be Advantages are: used for highly complex shapes or when the 0 Fast loading: Preforms allow fast loading of anticipated volume of production makes them the mold. economical (Carvalho, 1991). 0 Precise fiber placement: Preform placement Design of preforms should go hand in hand can be made precisely without misalignwith part design. For example, preform corners ment. This allows high quality, close are sensitive to radii of the shape. Figure 20.5 tolerance composites for advanced applicashows the thickness reduction of preform over tions molded by the RTM process. different radii. The preform thickness does not 0 Net shape preforms: If thermoformable change appreciably compared to those around reinforcements are used, the stamped prethe corner when the radius is made larger than forms have excellent dimensional stability. a critical value. However, if the radius is less 0 No additional tool: For low production volume of the composite, the tool for preforming can be the same as the tool for molding.

The only disadvantage with use of preforms is that there is an additional unit operation. With the obvious advantages, use of preforms is advisable when volume of production allows their economical use. When designing fiber preforms, following issues should be considered: Corners: The fiber in the bent corner of a preform tends to move to the inside of a radius. This can cause channeling of flow that leads to poor mold filling patterns; Drapability:This characterizes the ability of a fabric or reinforcement mat to conform to contours of the tool;
WRm
Fig. 20.5 Effect of comer radii on preform thickness (Rmis the recommended radius).

1 .o

XTM process 439

than this critical value, dramatic movement of the fibers to the inside of the radius occurs. As a result, channeling becomes dominant in the mold filling stage and induces irregular flow patterns. The edge of a preform is another source of the race tracking of resin. In order to avoid the channeling effect, the preform edge should be cut to fit the edge of the mold cavity. The task of obtaining a good edge definition is normally difficult because of the bulkiness of the layers and inter-layer movement (sliding, rotating) during the mold closing when prefabricated preforms are not used. Preforming of fabrics over tool geometry other than simple flat type will induce shear deformation in the fiber reinforcements. For a biaxial reinforcement, shearing of the weave (Fig. 20.6) is necessary to conform to the contours of the tool. This drapability problem, therefore, has a two-fold significance in RTM. Because of the fiber rearrangement, the nonuniformity of fiber distribution should be accounted for in the design of the composite. Fiber volume fraction and orientation are no longer that of the unreformed reinforcement. Further, such preforms exhibit different characteristics to resin flow. Designers should account for this change in determining the location of vent ports relative to an injection port. In practice, to modify the permeability of preforms, various flow inducing media or mechanisms have been suggested. Application of such high porosity to the preform or inclusion of a runner system in mold design can alter the mold filling pattern.

Fig. 20.6 Draping fabric on a mold causes shearing of the weave.

440 Resin transfer molding

Low viscosity: High viscosities can cause mold pressures that are too high in both the The resin used in the RTM process forms the mold and the injection unit. Raising the temmatrix in the composite after solidification. perature of the resin system is effective to The solid structure is a result from polymerlower its viscosity, but pot life may be ization. To select the resin system, one must adversely affected. take into account of the rheological change Sufficient pot life: This is the time it takes and resin cure kinetics. The formulation of the resin system the resin system's viscosity to reach a level depends on many factors. For example, the that no longer be comfortably handled by the resin system can be combined with promoters, equipment. fillers, internal mold releases, pigments, etc. Tg point: The glass transition temperature Typical fillers, such as clay or calcium carbonshould be as high as possible. As a rule of ate, may reduce cost. The optimum viscosity thumb, the glass transition temperature should for RTM should be less than 500 cP s. Mixing is be at least 30C (50"F), and preferably 55C normally required to form a suspension. (100"F),higher than the service temperature Properties requirements (mechanical, chemical, fire retardancy, etc.) can also affect Toughness: Toughness in a resin system is resin selection; the resin mix can be formu- exhibited by its tensile elongation. If sufficient lated to meet specific needs. Attributes to look damage tolerance is required, the elongation for in resin systems are: should be at least 3%.
20.2.3 RESIN SYSTEM AND INJECTION
e consistent reactivity;
0

ability to wet out the reinforcement; e rapid cure after gel.

The ester-type resin mix is combined with an appropriate catalyst, such as emulsified BPO, MEKP, cumene hydroperoxide, at the mixing head and transferred into the RTM mold. Low profile additives have been developed especially for polyester resins to improve surface appearance. In addition, epoxies, urethanes, vinyl esters, nylon and other hybrid resins are available for RTM. The newer resins may require modifications to the pumping/injection unit to meter and condition the resin mix prior to injection. These new systems offer a range of cost and performance options for the RTM process. Influencing parameters are viscosity, pot life, tensile modulus, glass transition temperature, tensile elongation and moisture absorbance. In considering a new resin system, the choice of the proper resin system for RTM must satisfy the following system criteria. Failure to meet these criteria usually means that the resin system is impractical for RTM.

Young's modulus: This modulus must be over some threshold value or the composite compression strength will be less than the optimum value. A high tensile modulus is required to adequately support the fiber reinforcement and prevent premature buckling. The effect of the resin system on hot-humid performance is important in the composite part. The modulus of a typical resin remains essentially constant until the temperature is close to the ultimate T , when it falls off to zero. Under wet conditions, the strength of the resin usually falls off at the same rate as the modulus because of the effect of absorbed moisture. Absorbed moisture plasticizes the resin matrix and lowers the strength of the composite in non-fiber dominated directions. The amount of moisture absorbed by the resin matrix should be small, normally less than 2%. This limits the amount of mechanical performance degradation at elevated temperatures. One final topic to consider is the injection of the resin system (schematics shown in Figs.

Mold materials 441

20.1 and 20.2). Items to control in the resin mix to assure a consistent, smooth running process include:
0
0 0 0

resin mix temperature; ratio of catalyst or curatiire to resin; resin mix viscosity; amount of air entrained in the resin mix. Presence of air in the mix can lengthen the gel time/induce porosity in the composite and/or affect the mix viscosity.

(a)

Most successful production resin transfer molding operations are now based on the use of resin/catalyst mixing machinery using positive displacement piston-type pumping equipment for accurate control of the resin to catalyst ratio. Back pressure at the mix head may change when a mixed resin is injected into a cavity filled with the fiber reinforcement. Static mixers greatly simplify the process and are easily cleaned at the end of the injection cycle. A static mixer sends the proportioned resin and catalyst through flexible Fig. 20.7 (a) Matched mold with rigid halves; hoses to an injection head employing a (b) matched mold with a flexible mold half. motionless mixer to thoroughly blend the materials together immediately prior to injecGate and vent: This critical part of the mold tion step. design should allow complete wetout with minimal resin wastage.
20.2.4 MOLD

RTM mold design and construction is the most critical factor in successful resin transfer molding. The mold must be constructed so that resin reaches all areas. RTM molds require special considerations compared to other composite tooling. Figure 20.7 shows two possible configurations in RTM processing. The mold must be designed to account for the following factors:

Mold sealing: A perimeter gasket is necessary to keep void content low. Tight sealing is important when vacuum is used. Heatingkooling: A typical RTM cycle consists of a wide range of temperature for initiating the chemical reaction, curing and final demolding. Hence, proper heating/cooling channels need to be designed.

Mold materials: The material of construction 20.3 MOLD MATERIALS dictates life cycle of mold, temperature control The low pressure requirements of RTM allow and press requirement. the use of more types of mold materials than can be used in other composites manufacturCavity design: The RTh4 mold should consoliing. The choice between metal molds and date as many assembly steps as possible. A good polymeric composite molds is chiefly one of design should take advantage of this ability. volume and processing temperatures. High

442 Resin transfer molding

volume and high temperatures dictate metal molds. Steel, the most suitable mold material, provides superior face life. Aluminum is good for construction of prototype molds since the metal is easy to machine, is lightweight and has a reasonably high heat transfer rate, but also galls easily. Cast aluminum and spraymetal tooling are currently available and can be used for higher volume applications. Cast copper alloys are being considered for use in RTM molds due to the potential for increased throughput via heat management and better durability. Composites, for example reinforced polyester and epoxies, are most frequently used for making RTM molds. They can be expected to last for approximately 2000 parts (Isorca, 1992).Higher production volumes may justify the use of higher cost spray-metal or metal tools. In some cases, the mold must be backed up in order to maintain its shape. Conventionally the backup can be done cost-effectively with core material or steel frames to add rigidity to the cross section and to support composite mold faces. The closure of the mold is achieved by mating of the mold surfaces against a perimeter gasket. Therefore, guide pins are usually employed to align the mold halves both laterally and vertically to keep resin from leaking. Advancement in adapting composite tooling to the needs of RTM is underway. For example, lengthening the life of the composite tool face is desirable and effective to maintain quality while keeping costs low. The factors that cause deterioration of the mold face are temperature fatigue and attack by solvents or mold release agents. An electrolytically or vapor deposited nickel shell is a new technique that will extend face life.
20.4 MOLD CAVITY DESIGN

steps. Therefore, the mold designer should incorporate this rule in the design of the mold cavity. Instead of joining several substructures or onto a major structure after molding, it is structurally more effective and efficient to incorporate them into the part before fabrication. This can be easily achieved by joining substructure preforms when practical. In production the number of molds or cavities required is determined by needed throughput. This should take into account the cycle time. For small parts, the designer can incorporate several cavities in a mold. High surface quality with excellent dimensional control can be achieved by electroplating the mold face with nickel. The appearance surface of a part is usually placed on the bottom of the mold. Pinholes are more likely to collect on the top surface. Mold preparation is similar to that used for hand lay-up. Anew tool must to be treated with several coats of release agent. New mold materials provide flexibility in mold design for RTM. For example, to demold a part with vertical sides, it is common to allow several percent draft in the vertical dimension. Flexible silicone rubber has been used for RTM molds in the form of a bladder mold half which is capable of being inflated or deflated depending on the process requirement. During mold filling, the flexible mold wall is pressed against the rigid wall by inflating the bladder with a pre-determined pressure. During the injection cycle, the mold can deform to enhance resin flow. Upon completion of mold filling, the flexible tool can be further inflated to consolidate the composite component. Part removal in this case is easy since the flexible half can be deflated. %s technique allows fabrication of complicated parts that are not ordinarily possible to demold.
20.5 INJECTIONPORT AND VENT DESIGN

One of the most important design rules for RTM parts is to reduce the number of assembly

The injection port allows the resin to be transferred into the mold (Fig. 20.1) and its design

Heating and cooling design 443

may be critical. The location of inlet ports must allow the resin to reach all areas without bypassing part of the reinforcement. Air vents help control internal pressure, bleed out air and provide a visual indication of mold filling. Race tracking, or channeling, in the mold is usually the reason why the resin bypasses areas of the reinforcement. Since the resin will not flow backwards, this tends to create dry patches. The engineering way to ensure complete initial wetout is to gate the mold correctly in the design. This may be difficult even for an experienced mold designer. Use of computer simulations as a design tool has become popular in conventional injection molding. Without an engineering design tool, gates and vents can be put in the mold after molding some trial parts, but many trial runs may be prohibitive in some applications. In the next section, new engineering tools adapted for RTM mold filling will be discussed to overcome the problem. Mold designers have found that RTM molds must be vented to allow the air within the mold to be pushed out by the resin. Gate at the lowest point and vent at the highest point is generally a good design practice. Experienced designers may use symmetry to design the inlet ports and outlet vents to remove entrapped air. Venting ports must be placed to draw the resin through sections of the part that are difficult to wet out. They are best placed at dead ends where the resin would not flow by itself. After the resin has finished bleeding, both injection and venting ports must be sealed off. This allows pressure to build up in the mold, and forces the resin to further wetout other sections of the part. This packing stage allows the part to gel under pressure, decreasing void content in the finished part.
20.6 SEALING THE MOLD

when vacuum is used. Sealing the mold to achieve cavity pressure of 690 kPa (100 psi) or higher is necessary if the void content of the part is to be kept low. The only practical way to accomplish this is to use O-rings. Machining the face of the mold to close tolerances is prohibitively expensive. It is also usually impossible to maintain the mold absolutely flat to achieve a metal-tight seal. O-ring design is well established. The slot has to be cut so that the O-ring can deform when the mold is closed and maintain a seal. Either square or round O-ring grooves can be used. The type of O-ring material used depends on the maximum temperature the 0ring will experience during the fabrication cycle and the type of solvent used to clean the mold. Nitrile rubber material can be used satisfactorily up to 120C (250F). Over 120C silicone rubber can be used to temperature approaching 177C (350F). If help is needed in sealing around inlet or outlet tubes, tacky sealant can be used. This type of sealant is useful for making an O-ring where grooves do not exist.
20.7 HEATING AND COOLING DESIGN

The perimeter gasket seals the edges of the mold to prevent loss of resin and injection pressure. In addition, it is an absolute necessity

The mold should have good temperature control. The RTM mold should be able to heat and cool the part during the fabrication cycle. Most resin systems cure faster at elevated temperatures. During demolding, lowering the temperature is sometimes helpful in removing the part. Even molds that are intended for room temperature-cured resins should be well insulated so that environmental conditions do not change the gel times and viscosity of the resin. Some molds are heated or designed to go into ovens to achieve faster cures at higher temperatures. Normally, the mold is heated and cooled using either hot water or oil. The mold is constructed to allow the heating/cooling fluid to flow through channels (Fig. 20.8) in its interior. The fluid is heated and cooled by conventional means, such as a gas-fired heater and heat

444 Resin transfer molding

heating channel

//////////////

topmold platen
resin flow

oooooooT O O K 000
mold is filled, the pumping system is shut off and immediately flushed, and the part is allowed to cure. Successful configurations demonstrated in the industry show a common factor: that is, the flow of resin is symmetrical about the vent ports, in a manner such that the volume of air left in the reinforcement decreases. This compression effect helps sweep the remaining air out of the part. When the flow path is arranged in such a way that the resin flows into a configuration with increasing volume, there is a tendency to bypass part of the reinforcement. This situation can happen when core material is used. For example, when there is reinforcement on either side of a core, it is possible that slight misalignment in the core thickness will cause dry spots in the part. To overcome this problem, the resin must be introduced on either side of the core simultaneously. Holes may be drilled through the core to allow the resin system to flow to the other side. When this is done, the core floats on the wet reinforcement and equalizes itself. When the injection pressure is too high or reinforcement tends to move in the mold, the following remedies must be considered:

V/HB la

TCO

hh

Fig. 20.8 Heating/cooling by flow channels in the RTM mold.

exchanger. For larger molds, the heating and cooling times will be longer if the heat transfer area does not increase in proportion to the weight. At some point, the production cycle time becomes limited by the rate at which heat can be added or removed, and becomes independent of the curing characteristics of the resin system. Under development is low thermal inertia technology that allows the tool face to be heated by electric wires buried in the face. The construction of the mold face is such that the heat flows into the mold face and not outward toward the mold support structure. This is accomplished by use of a foam core that insulates the bulk of the mold from the tool face. This novel technology, if successful, will allow a more instantaneous transfer of heat where it will do the most good - at the mold face.
20.8 MOLD FILLING

Resin injection is to pump the base resin system to a mixing head through either a single or two pot system. Impingement mixing of the components occurs in the mixing head. The catalyzed mix is then pumped through a static mixer which completes the mixing of the two components. The injection nozzle is attached to the injection port on the mold and the resin system is injected into the mold to pack the mold to a predetermined pressure. When the

Multiple gates: partition the mold along the flow path such that travel distance for resin is reduced.

Curing 445
Runner system: allows the delivery of resin to various parts of the reinforcement quickly without using high injection pressure. Flexible mold wall: allows the deformation of the bladder wall to facilitate mold filling. There are several techniques to modify the flow patterns. Application of high porosity media on the preform or inclusion of a runner system in mold design can alter the mold filling pattern. This is helpful in reducing injection pressure or displacing air. All resin movement must be accomplished within the time allowed before the onset of gelation. Additionally, the resin injection process should not cause movement of the reinforcement and should be done at low pressure so that the mold will maintain its shape without requiring massive backing. Vacuum may be used to facilitate filling the mold and simultaneously assist in removing air from the laminate. This requires good mold sealing and the use of a vacuum pump. Vacuum up to 740-760 mm Hg (29-30 in Hg) has been reported in assisting RTM mold filling (Mosher, 1995). Note that the tooling must be large enough to accommodate the perimeter gasket, air vents, injection ports and guide pins.
20.9 CURING

To convert a resin system into useful products it must be cured or cross-linked by chemical reaction into a three dimensional network. The reaction usually involves either a step growth polymerization, a chain growth polymerization, or a combination of both. The accompanying rheological change in the process is shown in Fig. 20.9 (Macosko, 1989). The curing step constitutes a major portion of a typical RTM cycle. During curing, rheological property changes of the resin system and heat transfer between the mold wall and the resin dictate the cure cycle. Simultaneously, modulus and strength begin to build up at a rate depending on the type of resin and catalyst used and the chemical kinetics of the resin system. Curing can continue after the part is demolded.

Matrix

Time

Fig. 20.9 Rheological change during the curing process. (Reproduced from Macosko.)

446 Resin transfer molding Cure cycle is dependent on part thickness, If the adhesion to the mold face is too strong, the ratio of catalyst or curing agent to resin even exceeding the strength of the composite, and the temperature of the mold and the resin it can be reduced by spraying release agents, system. In some cases, the part is removed normally fatty ester soaps or waxes, on the from the mold immediately after gel occurs. mold surface. After the two mold halves separate, the part The part must develop sufficient green strength for handling prior to its removal from can be removed from the cavity. Part removal the mold. Green strength is the strength a com- methods range from the use of plastic/ posite exhibits after the resin gels, but prior to wooden wedges and rubber mallets to the use complete cure. Gel time is the interval of time of knock out pins. A mold designed for low between introduction of catalyst or curing throughput with hand operated clamps proagent to a thermosetting resin and the forma- ducing a relatively simple, lightweight part tion of a gel. Typical gel times range from would most likely be removed using a wedge several minutes to about an hour depending and mallet. Sophisticated hydraulic ejection systems can be used for high volume, complex on the factors mentioned above. The glass transition temperature, Tg,for an or heavy parts. To be pushed out, the part RTM resin system depends on thermal history. needs enough green strength to survive conFor a given temperature, the Tg increases dra- siderable bending stresses. The most common test for sufficient bendmatically with time until it levels off. As the curing temperature is raised, the T reaches a ing strength is to fold over a corner of the part steady-state value at a faster rate. &e steady- immediately after demolding. If the corner state value for Tg is a function of the curing survives the bending without cracks or a temperature, and usually approaches the cur- crease, the part is accepted. Otherwise, meaing temperature. However, the limit is sures to improve its green strength include bounded by the degradation temperature of any of the following steps: the resin system. 0 allow the part more time to cure in the mold; 20.10 DEMOLDING AND POST PROCESSING 0 increase the mold temperature; 0 modify or change the resin system, e.g. The minimum the curing step must accomincrease the catalyst level. plish is to develop sufficient green strength so that the part can be removed from the mold. There is often excess resin at the edges of the While cost is an important factor, it is not the part and in the vents. Considerable trimming, only criteria in choosing a method to remove a part of the post processing, is common when part from an RTM mold. For example, part reinforcement is clamped in the parting line. weight and complexity, and throughput are Trimming is required for almost all items important considerations. In many ways, the made by the RTM process. Accurate preform choice of ejection methods parallels the choice placement and precise alignment can reduce of clamping methods. the labor in this step. A few precautions are required to facilitate Postcure, one of the post processing operademolding. Before opening the mold halves, it tions, is used for various reasons. A molding is necessary to release the part from one mold cycle including postcure can increase producsurface. The force required is approximately tion throughput. While postcuring in an oven, that to overcome the adhesive force between the temperature is not restricted to that the mold and the composite. Typically, tears of allowed for the mold materials. Therefore a surface skin or flash, both resin rich, can be higher conversion of reactive groups can be found around the comers or edges of the part. achieved. It can also prevent the reaction

Process physics and use o f simulations as a design tool 447

exotherms of a resin system from damaging a composite tool. It is important to hold the part shape during the process of postcuring and cooling to prevent distortion or warpage.
20.11 PROCESS PHYSICS AND USE OF SIMULATIONS AS A DESIGN TOOL

The processing defects addressed in the previous section are often caused by lack of a systematic treatment in RTM part design and process planning. Among the unresolved issues in RTM encountered by composite engineers, those related to the physical processing have developed rapidly during the last decade. The advancement in RTM technology demonstrates the potential of RTM becoming a primary process for producing many composite parts. In this section, the issues in reinforcement preforming, alternative tooling, mold flow analysis, and cure kinetics are revisited. The focus is on the use of models to describe and enhance the understanding of the physical phenomena. The models are built on the experimental evidence and observations, the goal being to reduce the scope of experiments in the engineering applications. Reducing engineering experimentation is achieved by combining three elements: mathematical models, numerical methods and computer software, into a simulation. One example of such software is LIMS (Liquid Injection Molding Simulation) (Advani et al. 1993) which has been developed specifically for mold filling of complex structures in RTM and can be used also as a design tool for manufacturing of complex structural parts as shown in Fig. 20.10. The topics will be presented in the order found in the unit operations of RTM. Draping of reinforcement plays the role of distributing fibers in a way that depends on the tool geometry. Simulation of reinforcement draping allows an engineer to estimate the fiber content distribution. This distribution can change the volume fraction as well as the orientation

Fig. 20.10 Complex structure manufactured by RTM.

in the molded part and therefore is of extreme importance. Tooling and mold construction are critical factors in successful RTM. By considering several alternative configurations, both the injection pressure and the filling time can be reduced. These alternative designs are valuable as the injection pressure tends to rise rapidly when inhomogeneous fiber distributions are present as a result of preforming.
20.11.1 PHYSICS GOVERNING RTM PROCESSING AND NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS

Darcys law for flow through porous media is conventionally used to describe the resin flow in the fiber reinforcement. The generalized form expresses the superficial velocity of resin flow in terms of a factor, which is permeability divided by fluid viscosity, multiplied by pressure gradient. This expression together with the mass conservation in the mold are solved together using various numerical methods. A typical example of this method combines finite element method with control volume method (Bruschke and Advani, 1990a, 1990b, 1991, 1994; Advani, 1994; Young et al., 1991a, 1991b). The solution is moved forward in time after

448 Resin transfer molding

the pressure field is obtained during the filling process. The pressure solution obtained from the mold flow analysis can be used to position the gate and vent. This lends a design engineer 'infinite' options when facing the task of mold design. The design rules are no longer restricted to the rule of symmetry used by experienced designers to position the inlet and outlet ports. Instead, a composites engineer would be able to optimize the overall design based on criteria such as minimizing the injection pressure.

surface. The length of the cell segment can be changed as a result of slippage to accomodate this effect. A dome shaped part will serve as an example of this draping simulation. First, a square bidirectional mat is draped. The workpiece is initially configured so that warp and weft tows are perpendicular to each other. Then draping starts at an arbitrary point on the tool. The initial constraints used in this case study are prescribed along the central tows in both the warp and weft directions. The length of the cell segment is assumed to be constant. In the draped configuration shown in Fig. 20.11, the degree of deformation varies from 20.11.2 PREFORMING cell to cell. The minor angles in the preform For bidirectional mats, woven or stitched, range from 90" to a minimum of 35". The shear draping an arbitrary tool surface depends on also results in fiber volume fraction increase two deformation modes: shear deformation up to 70% for the dome. This information can and inter-yarn slip (Potter, 1979).A mat of this assist a designer in material selection, setup of nature is treated as a net that consists of many processing conditions and part design: a cells (Van West, 1990).Therefore, draping over process engineer can use this information to a surface of double curvature requires the net find out where to make necessary cuts in order to map on the surface by changing the internal to accommodate for induced deformation. As angles in each cell. The four sides of a cell are a rule of thumb, formability of preform mat made up of fiber tows. These tows, under the relies on absorption of such deformation by preforming condition, are inextensible. At the reinforcement material. A good material high deformation regions in a reinforcement, can withstand high deformation without slippage may be necessary to drape the tool wrinkle formation.

Fig. 20.11 Draped dome.

Process physics and use of simulations as a design tool 449

or the preform is driven by the pressure difference. Therefore, the equation of motion is a One benefit of this process is that it can con- function of the bladder as well as the reinsolidate several complex three dimensional forcement material (Lucey, 1992). On the parts into one molded piece. The key to preform part, the compressibility of the reinaccomplish this is tool design. From the design forcement in the thickness direction plays a point of view, a flexible mold wall is very major role. On the bladder part, factors such as desirable to mold certain parts with difficult- inertia, damping, and rigidity of the elasor impossible-to-demold geometry. While a tomeric material can also be included when hard tool makes clamping and demolding dif- they are significant. ficult, the flexible mold provides a convenient From lateral compression tests, the alternative for mold design of these types of load-deflection curve of the fiber reinforceparts. Figure 20.10 shows an example of possi- ment material behaves like a nonlinear spring. ble features which may be molded using this The elastic constant of the preform depends on concept. In this part, one can easily see the its state. Preform permeability is a function of small draft angle and the stiffeners which can fiber architecture and porosity. Since the make demolding difficult. Moreover, the porosity of the preform changes with the beads and the flanged opening in the bulk- thickness, the permeability can be expressed in head of this frame are features that are terms of the cavity thickness. impossible to mold using conventional rigid Figure 20.12 was obtained from the numerimolds. cal simulation of two cases: one with rigid walls To avoid unconstrained wall movement, and the other with a flexible mold wall. In the the bladder pressure is higher than the injec- case with rigid mold walls, the pressure drops tion pressure. The motion of the flexible wall linearly with respect to the flow distance. This is
20.11.3 ALTERNATIVE TOOLING

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.0

Fig. 20.12 Pressure distribution in the 1-D mold near the end of mold filling for flexible and rigid tool.

450 Resin transfer molding

caused by the constant permeability of the pre- pressure drop and overall filling time which is form inside the mold. The pressure curve for the impossible to attain simultaneously in convencase with a flexible mold wall reflects the fact tional tooling (Fong and Advani, 1995). that the fluid flow in the filled region exhibits a smaller pressure drop. This reduction is benefi20.11.4 GATING, VENTING AND VOID cial to the molded parts as it causes less fiber CAPTURE washout and preform deformation due to the In this section, computer simulations for RTM resin. Figure 20.13 shows the results of computed mold filling are discussed to overcome the gatgap thickness of the 1-D mold with a flexible ing and venting problem. Mold filling mold wall. The straight line shows the thick- simulation is an effective way of positioning ness in a rigid tool. From this distribution, one injection and vent ports. Gating and venting can see that the gap height is a function of time are critical in the mold design because they during the filling process as well as a function determine whether complete wetout is achievof pressure. Near the injection gate, the resin able under normal operating conditions. A gate designed at the lowest part and vent pressure balances the applied pressure from the bladder and increases the gap thickness to at the highest point is generally a good pracits maximum in the 1-D mold. As a result, the tice to allow the air within the mold to be resistance to the incoming flow has reduced pushed out by the resin. Experienced designsignificantly as shown in the previous figure. ers may use symmetry to design the inlet Through the numerical study, the potential ports and outlet vents. However, the picture is of the flexible tool design has been demon- often complicated by the geometry or the strated. It has the advantage of reducing the presence of inserts. The engineering way to

0.005

0.004

0 . 0 0 3

0.002

0.001

0
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

X
Fig. 20.13 Gap thickness variation in the 1-D mold near the end of mold filling.

Process physics and use of simulations as a design tool 451

ensure complete wetout initially is to gate the the design tool. The situation would be much mold correctly in the design. more complicated if mold filling is coupled Figure 20.14(a) shows a square plate with with phenomena such as preform deformation two cutouts in the part. The injection port is and channeling in the corners and along the first positioned at the center of the lowest part. edges. The flow fronts corresponding to the gate At the microscopic level, heterogeneities design are indicated by the curved contours. always exist in the preform media. For examContours in this figure indicate different time ple, the fiber tow may have a permeability steps. For example, the contours closer to the several orders lower than that of the intergate represents area that is filled first and the stices. Therefore, micro-voids form when the contours closer to the vent the last filled orientation of the fiber tow does not allow the region. As a result of colliding flow fronts in displacement of the air inside the tow. A novel the middle and top portion of the part, the fig- approach in mold filling analysis is reported ure demonstrates the capturing of dry patches by modifying the equation of mass conservaor macro-voids. These voids can degrade the tion to account for the fluid absorbed by the properties of the molded composite signifi- fiber tows (Fong and Advani, 1994). Void cantly. Void capturing is important in the entrapment inside tows is found to be depenprocess simulation to avoid formation of such dent on the microstructure, the vent pressure, defects. Figure 20.14(b) shows an alternative and the ratio of the difference in the permedesign that eliminates venting in the middle of ability of the tows and the permeability of the the part. As a result of injection in the corner, preform (Pillai and Advani, 1994; the vent port has to be positioned differently. Ranganathan et al., 1994). This demonstrates the power and simplicity of

Vent Port

I Injection port

(b)

Injection Port

Fig. 20.14 Design of injection ports: (a) central injection; (b) corner injection.

452 Resin transfer molding

20.11.5 SENSOR CONTROLLED INJECTION

Sensor controlled injection is multiple injection in an 'intelligent' way without involving a complex control algorithm. It requires placement of gates along the flow path at a number of locations. The injection gate is also a sensor capable of detecting the arrival of resin. These gates are then activated or deactivated in the order of first on, first off, and, therefore, allow the mold to fill in a series of steps. For example, Fig. 20.15 is a simple mold which has four injection gates. To help visualize the concept effectively, a 1-D mold is used. The T-column represents different time stages in the filling process. In this example, only one gate is allowed to open at a time. As the injection starts at T1, the first gate is open and the remaining three are closed. As the flow front progresses through the mold, it hits the second gate location at time T2. The injection unit shuts off the resin to gate one and opens the second injection gate. Instead of having the resin flow through the whole length in the mold, the length is divided up into a number of intervals. Therefore, the overall flow resistance decreases as the effort required is for the resin to flow from one gate to the next closest gate in the flow path.

Figure 20.16 shows the pressure calculation from the mold filling simulation. The pressure drops linearly in the one dimensional flow. As the flow front progresses from the inlet toward the vent under a constant flow rate boundary condition at the inlet, the pressure build-up looks like the schematic shown in the lower left figure. For the multiple gate with sensor controlled injection, the pressure at the first gate increases up to a limit when the flow front hits the next sensor. When the next gate is open, the previous gate is shut off. So the pressure build-up is only limited by the length of the interval. Therefore, the maximum pressure seen in the mold is only a fraction of the pressure compared to the lower left figure.

n n q--\
a

Flow Length

Flow Length

CONTROL SCHEME
T1 T2 T3 T4

Fig. 20.16 Representation of pressure during mold filling.

ON OFF OFF OFF

OFF ON OFF OFF

OFF OFF ON OFF

OFF OFF OFF ON

Table 20.1 shows the results from two sets of computer simulations. For either case, only one gate is open at any time during the mold filling stage. The first column uses constant flow rate and the second column uses constant
Table 20.1 Comparison of processing parameters
PP
Slnglegnfr

/
Gate with flow front sensor

Mold

s2nglegate

Fig. 20.15 Control scheme for a 1-D model.

Single-gate injection Sensor-controlled injection

100%
48%

100% 36%

Process physics and use o f simulations as a design tool 453

pressure. If only one injection gate is used, the pressure under the constant flow rate boundary condition will reach a maximum. Compared to the sensor controlled injection with four gates, the pressure at the gate is only 48% of the pressure reached by the single gate injection. In terms of filling time, the two molds are subject to a constant pressure boundary condition. Results show that the mold filling for the single gate injection takes almost three times that for the sensor-controlled injection. An example is shown in Fig. 20.17, which elaborates on how one can utilize a sensor to eliminate a dry spot during molding. In Fig. 20.17(a), where no sensors are implemented and the injection gate is at the location as shown, a dry spot will appear in the middle of the part. However, an extra gate in the middle as shown in Fig. 20.17(b), if triggered at the point the fluid reaches the midframe, can prevent this void, as indicated by Fig. 20.17(c). This feature is incorporated in a numerical simulation such as LIMS and can be systematically studied for a given geometry to decide the best strategy when in situ sensing capabilities are incorporated in the fabrication phase (Liu et al. (1995)).
20.11.6 MOLD FILLING WITH RESIN DELIVERY SYSTEM

Conventionally, an injection port serves as a point source where fluid is pumped. The drawback of a point source is that the pressure value tends to rise rapidly to an extent that could be detrimental to the preform. By extending the point source into other forms proves to be effective in reducing the pressure build-up. To implement this concept, one can use multiple point sources as discussed previously. A line source has been popular in vacuum assisted RTM because of its ability to fill the mold using 1 atm of pressure. A line source may be modified to serve as a runner by allowing more fiberfree space in this delivery system. This is the channeling effect, now used to advantage in mold filling. Further extending the fluid source may possibly yield a 'plane' source. The actual implementation of a plane source may include a high-porosity layer in the stack-up of the reinforcement mats. The layer can possess a permeability several orders higher than that of the fiber preform. The result of this is a three-dimensional mold flow with fluid propagating rapidly through the spreading plane or surface first

t Vent

1Vent

Fig. 20.17 Use of sensors to eliminatedry spots: (a) no sensor; (b) extra gate sensor; (c) void prevented.

454 Resin transfer molding

followed by percolation of the resin through the thickness of the preform. For three-dimensional flow, venting the mold may become less intuitive. In practice, vacuum assistance can provide part of the solution.
20.12 CONCLUSIONS

Resin transfer molding is a practical process for much of the composite industry. The quality of RTM molded parts can equal that by conventional autoclave processes and its economic advantages are obvious. Although the underlying principles of RTM appear at first to be simple, this is often not the case. The challenge for RTM is to bring together the disciplines of preforming, mold design and process development with existing fibers and resins. This can be best achieved through an understanding of the physics governing RTM and by current simulation technology.
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