PersonalComputersandVideoDisplayTerminalsinBuildings:EnvironmentalIssues Personalcomputers(PCs)andvideodisplayterminals(VDTs)arenearlyubiquitousintodays business environment and create environmental problems at all stages of the equipment lifecycle.

During manufacture, huge amounts of materialincluding toxic materialsand energy are used. Packaging, distribution and use consume additional materials and energy. When no longer needed, the vast majority of computers and VDTs are not reclaimed or recycled. PCs and VDTs area major contributors to an immense and rapidly growing global electronicwasteproblem. EnvironmentalConcerns ThemainenvironmentalconcernsaboutPCsandVDTsare: Energyandmaterialsusedinmanufacturing Healtheffectsonmanufacturingworkers Packaginganddistributionofproducts Energyandmaterialconsumptionduringuse Healtheffectsonusers Shortproductlife Disposalattheendofusefullife

ScaleoftheProblem Globally, 130 millionPCs areproducedannually. The billionthPC wasproduced in2002and unitsalescontinuetoincrease.IntheU.S.alone600millioncomputerswillhavebeensoldby theendof2005,andofthistotal,72millionwillhavebeenrecycledand150millionwillbein landfills. (Betts, 2005). Although sales of PCs were thought to have peaked as recently as 2002, inthefirst quarter of 2005, more than 15million computers were sold in the U.S., with salesofnotebooksup30%anddesktopsup10%fromthesameperiodin2004(CEA,2004). With the emergence of India and China as significant competitors in IT and the broader availability of very inexpensive versions of PCs, the environmental problems created by widespreaduseofPCswillcertainlyincreaseinthenearfuture. PCandVDTs TheBasics Personal, desktops computers became generally available as a product in the early 1980s. PriortotheintroductionofPCs,computersforworkersinbuildingsweredumbterminals,i.e. VDTs and keyboards connected to large centralized data processing units. PCs shifted the paradigmofcomputingbyextendingtheprocessingpowerintotheterminalandbyenabling the terminals to communicate with each other, not just the central unit. That paradigm now appears tobe shifting again to thin client computing and greater centralization of computing facilities.

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DesktopandportablePCsareassembledfromavarietyofelectronicscomponentsintegrated circuitboards,powersupplies,harddrives,etc.insideboxesofmetalandplastic.Peripheral componentssuchaskeyboards,mice,etc.,generallyaresmallelectroniccomponentshoused in molded plastic shells. Information displays for PCs come in two general types, traditional televisionlikeCRTsandthenewerflatpanelLiquidCrystalDisplays(LCDs). EnergyandMaterialsUsedinManufacturing There are two fundamental problems with computer manufacturing: 1) material and energy intensityoftheproductionprocessand2)toxicityofthematerialsinvolved. MaterialsandEnergy A UN study found that computer and screen manufacture takes at least 530 pounds of fossil fuels,48poundsofchemicalsand3000pounds(1.5tons)ofwateraltogethermorethanthe weightofarhinocerosoracar.(UN,2004)Fora50poundcomputer/VDTcombination,this makesa materialstoproduct ratioof71:1, not includingpacking, distribution, delivery,usage, anddispositionenergyandmaterialscosts.Incomparison,acarorarefrigeratorrequiresjust oneortwotimesitsweightinnaturalresources. Incombinationwiththeshortlifecycleofthetypicalcomputer,theveryhighenergyintensityof computer manufacturing results in an annual life cycle energy burden that is surprisingly high[about]1.3timesthatofarefrigerator,(Williams,2004)itselftypicallyahighenergyuse appliance. Compared to many similarly ubiquitous appliances, life cycle energy use of a computer is much higher during manufacture (81%) than during its operating lifetime (19%) (ibid.) ToxicityofMaterials Ingeneral,computerequipmentisacomplicatedassemblyofmorethan1,000materials,many of which are highly toxic, such as chlorinated and brominated substances, toxic gases, toxic metals, biologically active materials, acids, plastics and plastic additives [which themselves contain polybrominated flame retardants, and hundreds of additives and stabilizers]. (SVTC, 1999)AlthoughmanyofthecomponentsusedinPCandVDTmanufactureareknowntoxins, manyofthemixturesandmaterialcombinationsmayhaveunknownhealthimpacts(ibid.),as therehasbeenlittlestudyonhowsuchcombinationsinteract. Thebiggestknownproblem is lead. Each computer ...display contains anaverage of4 to8 poundsoflead.The315millioncomputersthatwillbecomeobsoletebetween1997and2004 contain a total of more than 1.2 billion pounds of lead. (SVTC, 2001, 3). Lead is a bioaccumulative toxic heavy metal that can damage the blood and nervous systems and has especiallyacuteaffectsonchildren. Inadditiontolead,PCsandVDTscontainadditionaltoxicmaterials(SVTC,2001): Printed circuit boards and batteries contain cadmium, a bioaccumulative toxin that damagesthebonesandliver.

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 CRT VDTs sometimes contain barium, a toxin that causes brain swelling, muscle weakness,aswellasheart,liverandspleendamage. PCBs, cables and plastic casings contain brominated flameretardants, endocrine disruptersthatimpairnormaldevelopmentofallspecies,particularlytheyoung Cables and plastic computer casings contain Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC) and release highlytoxicdioxinsandfuranswhenburned.(Hrudey,2005) Switches, PCBs, and flat panel VDTs contain mercury, a bioaccumulative toxin that causesbrainandkidneydamage,anddevelopmentaldefectsindevelopingfetuses. Oldercapacitorsandtransformerscontainpolychlorinatedbiphenyls(PCBs),probable carcinogenswhichcauseliverdamage,damagetoreproductiveandnervoussystems. (UCDavis,2001) HealthEffectsonManufacturingWorkers The ongoing dangers of computer manufacture to workers and communities are well documented. Silicon Valley, the birthplace of the industry where several hightechrelated epidemiologicalstudieshaveidentifiedclustersofmiscarriagesandbirthdefects,nowhasmore toxic Superfund sites than anywhere else in the U.S. (Smith, 2000). Computer component productionincluding semiconductors, printed circuit boards, disk drives and VDTsuses particularly hazardous chemicals, and workers involved in chip manufacturing are now beginningtocomeforwardand[report]cancerclusters.(SVTC,1999). PackagingandDistributionofProducts Assuming an average PC/VDT combination ships in two, 200lb test corrugated cardboard boxesthePCina24x24x16boxweighing2.95poundsandtheVDTina24x24x24box weighing 4.2 poundsthe 130 million systems produced annually would require nearly 929 millionpounds,or464,750tonsofcardboard(Uline,2005). Computer equipment is generally wrapped in plastic bags and padded with expanded polystyrene(EPS)foam(orsimilar)inmoldorpeanutfoam.Whilecomprehensivefiguresfor therecyclingrateofallPCmanufacturerspackagingisnotavailable,10%ofallEPSpackaging isrecycledeachyear(EPS.org,2005)atalimitednumberoflocationsintheU.S.Dellswebsite notesthatpackagingredesignwereprojectedtosave5percentreductionincubesizeandan annual 1100ton decrease in weight of shipped corrugate and foam (Dell, 2005) which representslessthan0.2%ofthetotalcardboardestimatedtobeshippedabove. The Corrugated Packaging Alliance (2005) claims that 76% of all corrugated is currently recoveredforrecycling.AssumingthisratefortheU.S.andapproximately60millionPCssold here annually (projected from CEA, 2004), 107 millions pounds53 thousand tonsof cardboardendupinlandfills. With the exception of Japans Containers and Packaging Recycling Law and the 25 EU countriesundertheWEEEdirective,therearenorequirements thatthepackagingassociated withPCsandVDTsbetakenbackbymanufacturersforreuse,resultingineitherthedisposalof packagingmaterialsinlandfillsorrecyclingtypicallydowncycling.

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PCs are a globalbusiness. Raw materialsandcomponents(many of themfossilfuelbased) areshippedaroundtheworldduringthemanufacturingprocess,andthenmanyofthefinished productsareshippedaroundtheworldagain,consumingtremendousenergyresourcesinthe process.MostoftheworldscomputersareassembledintheU.S.,whichmeansthatmostPCs usedabroadmustbeshippedthere(Terra.wire,2005). EnergyandMaterialConsumptionDuringUse A typical PC and CRT combination uses approximately 145 watts of power while on, slightly morewhenworkinghard,andlesswhilesleepingorwhenanLCDorflatpanelVDTreplaces aCRTVDT.Withover220millionPCsinuseintheU.S.(ComputerIndustryAlmanac,2005) operating 8 hours per days (though many run 24/7) and 250 days per year, total energy use wouldbenearly64billionkilowatthours.Atanaverageannualcostof$.10/kWh,thatsover$6 billioninannuallyenergycostofPCandVDTsalone.Addingprinters,scanners,hubs,servers andotherinfrastructureandaccessoriesdrivesupthesenumbers. HealthEffectsonUsers Otherthanergonomicproblems,therearenoprovennegativehealtheffectsdirectlyattributable toPCsandVDTsinbuildings.However,criticscontinuetoraiseissuesandconcernsabout effectsonindoorairqualityfromoffgassingandtheuseofflameretardantchemicals.Arecent studycontendsthatpotentiallydangerouselementsofbrominatedfireretardantsareturningup industsamplesswipedfromcomputers.Theresearchindicatesthatthemostcommonlyfound exampleofthesesubstances,widelyusedfirepreventioncompoundsknownaspolybrominated diphenylethers,orPBDEs,havebeenfoundtocausehealthproblemsinlabanimals. Perhaps of greater concern is the report's contention that PBDEs, whichhavebeenshownto presentreproductiveandneurologicalriskstoanimalsusedinlabtests,remainpersistentinthe environmentandcontaminatefoodsupplies,animalsandhumans.Theresearchersclaimthat the PBDE threat is greatest in North America, where women were found to have the highest levels of the chemicals present in their breast milk, and that PBDE levels are doubling in the U.S.populationeverytwotofiveyears.(Hines,2004) Thereare also ongoing concerns about the breast cancer with the use of CRT VDTs, ozone fumes from laser printers, various reproductive hazards (London Hazards Center, 1993), the offgassing of PVC (see the GreenIT white paper, Cabling Hazards) and the muchdebated effects of exposure to Electromagenetic Fields and Radiation (EMF/EMR). A recent report commissioned by the European Union determined that no negative health effects from EMF/EMRcouldbeproven,butthatfurtherstudywaswarranted(EUROPA,2002).

DisposalattheEndofUsefulLife

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WhilebuildingslastdecadesandHVACandfurnituresystems10ormoreyears,typicalPC lifespansrangefromtwotofouryears(Kyrnin,2005)theseshortlifecyclesaredrivenby upgradesandadvancesintechnologysuchnew,moredemandingsoftwareapplications (ComputerTakeBack,2004). Lowtakebackratesandincreasingdependenceonelectronicsforconvenienceandessential business functions has become a serious problemdue to the increasingly rapid advance of technology,wearecreatingastockpileofusedandobsoleteequipmentthatwehavenomeans todealwith.TheNationalSafetyCouncilprojectsthatnearly250millioncomputerswillbecome obsoleteby2007.(U.S.EPA,2005) In2003HP,DellandIBMalone,shippedapproximately60millionPCs.Itisestimatedthatin that same period 12 million PCs were taken of out service. (SVTC, 2003). While all three manufacturersofferrecyclingprograms,thetakebackrateisrelativelylow(Spooner,2004). Forexample,Dellsold55millionmachinesbetween1997and2001buthasrecoveredonly2.2 million(SVTC,2003).Electronicsthatarenotstockpiledorrecycledendupinlandfills,orare shipped abroadfor recyclinganalarming 50to80percentofAmerican Ewaste destined forrecyclingactuallybecomesglobaltoxictrade.(ComputerTakeBack,2004). DangersofLandfillDisposal Discarded computers are hazardous waste (SVTC, 2001) and when landfilled, all the toxins identified above are in danger of release into the environment. As of 2001, consumer electronics contributed 40% of all lead found in landfills, and roughly 70% of heavy metals including mercury and cadmiumall of these mix together and have the potential to contaminategroundwater,evenastheycauseotherenvironmentalandpublichealthrisks.All garbagelandfillsleak.(SVTC). CNetNewsnotesthat45mercuryrelatedand21electronicsbillshavebeenintroducedatthe state level in the U.S., and California, Oregon and Arkansas bills propose to add fees to the priceofPCs[topreventlandfilldisposaland]coverrecyclingcosts(2005).Thereiscurrentlyno U.S.federallegislationonreductionoftoxicsinPCsoronrecyclingortakebackpolicies.In California,landfillingCRTs(whichareconsideredhazardouswaste,astheyareinotherstates, including Massachusetts, Minnesota and Maine) is prohibited. Nationally, in states without specificlandfillbansforCRTs,anynonresidentialCRTcontaininghazardouswaste[including lead]isbannedfromlandfilling(ComputerTakeBack,2004). Recycling The National Safety Council reported in 1999 that only 11% of discarded computers were recycled, compared with 28% of overall municipal solid waste. Other estimates of computer recyclingrangefrom5%to15%,comparedtoa42%rateforoverallsolidwasteanda70%rate formajorapplianceslikerefrigerators,washingmachines,anddryers. Unfortunately,muchEwasteisnotproperlyrecycledbutisexportedasEwastetoChina,India andotherPacificRimcountries,wheremuchofthesematerialsareburntintheopenairthe most dangerous method of Ewaste disposalto reclaim the most valuable constituents of
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electronics,suchasgoldandcopper(SVTC,2001).Thispracticeresultsindangerousorfatal levelsoflead,PCBsandothertoxins.Evenwhenproperlyrecycled,newevidenceisemerging that computer recyclers themselves have high levels of dangerous chemicals in their blood (SVTC,1999). AccordingtotheInternationalAssociationofElectronicsRecyclers,ninecountriesalreadyhave corporate "takeback" lawsfor discardedelectronicsincluding computers in some casesand that22morecountrieswilljointhemwithinfiveyears(CNetNews,2005).Atthesametime,the European Union has passed and begun implementing the Waste Electrical, Electronic EquipmentDirective(WEEE),whichtakeseffectacrosstheEuropeanUnion(EU)in2006.Its objectivesarethepreventionoflandfillingwasteelectricalandelectronicequipment,promoting thereuseofelectricalandelectronicequipment,andimprovingtheenvironmentalperformance ofalloperatorsinvolvedinlifecycleofelectricalandelectronicequipment.(KTL,2005).The associated Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive (RoHS) bans use of some toxic materialssuchaslead,cadmium,andsomebrominatedflameretardants(Greiner2002)which willrequiretheuseofproductsthatdonotusesuchtoxicmaterials.

Sourcesforadditionalinformation ElectronicProductRecoveryandRecycling(EPR2)andElectronicsRecyclingSummitA seriesofpresentationsonmanyfacetsoftheissuesdiscussedinthispaper. http://www.nsc.org/ehc/epr2/2001pres.htm U.S.EPAoneCycling http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/hazwaste/recycle/ecycling/index.htm EnvironmentalNewsNetworkRegulararticlesonsubjectsrelevanttothistopic. http://www.enn.com/today.html?id=535 SiliconValleyToxicsCoalitionInformationclearinghouseonhightechtoxicsissues. http://www.svtc.org/ ConsumerReports http://www.eco labels.org/greenconsumers/products.cfm?product=desktopcomputer&page=GovtIndustry GreenDesignComputerRecyclingPageInformationongreendesignandcomputingfrom CarnegieMellonUniversity. http://www.ce.cmu.edu/GreenDesign/comprec/

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GreinerEnvironmental,Inc.(2002).Environmental,HealthandSafetyIssuesintheCoated WireandCableIndustry.RetrievedApril14,2005fromUniversityofMassachusetts,Lowell, MassachusettsToxicsUseReductionInstituteWebsite: http://www.turi.org/content/content/download/913/4501/file/Wire_Cable_TechReport.pdf IDC.(2005).EMEAPCsaleshealthyshock.CitedatTheInquirer.net.RetrievedMay10, 2005fromhttp://www.theinquirer.net/?article=22575 KTL.(2005).WasteElectricalandElectronicEquipment(WEEE)Directive(2002/96/EC). RetrievedApril16,2005,from http://www.ktl.com/support/Compliance/Waste%20Electrical%20and%20Electronic%20Equipme nt.pdf Kyrnin,Mark.(2005).UpgradeorReplace?RetrievedMay17,2005from http://compreviews.about.com/od/general/a/UpgradeReplace.htm LondonHazardsCenter.(1993). VDUWORKANDTHEHAZARDSTOHEALTHChapter 7.RetrievedMay17,2005fromhttp://www.lhc.org.uk/members/pubs/books/vdu/vd07.htm AlexandraMcPherson,BeverleyThorpe,andAnnBlake,Ph.D.BrominatedFlameRetardants inDustonComputers.RetrievedMay17,2005from http://www.computertakeback.com/docUploads/bfr%5Freport%2Epdf?CFID=13891765&CFTOK EN=37839413 Smith,Ted.(2000). Wanted:SiliconValley.RetrievedMay17,2005from http://www.newdream.org/newsletter/pdf/toxicavengers.pdf Spooner,JohnG.(2004).WeighingtheresultsofPCrecycling CNETNews.com.PublishedonZDNetNews:April16,2004.RetrievedMay10,2005from http://news.zdnet.com/21009584_225193657.html SVTC(SiliconValleyToxicsCoalition).(1999).JustSayNoToEWaste:Background DocumentonHazardsandWasteFromComputers.RetrievedMay10,2005from http://www.svtc.org/cleancc/pubs/sayno.htm SVTC(SiliconValleyToxicsCoalition).(2001).PoisonPCsandToxicTVs:CaliforniasBiggest EnvironmentalCrisisThatYouveNeverHeardof.RetrievedMay11,2005from http://www.svtc.org/cleancc/pubs/poisonpc.htm SVTC(SiliconValleyToxicsCoalition).(2003).FourthAnnualComputerReportCard. RetrievedMay10,2005fromhttp://www.svtc.org/cleancc/pubs/2002report.htm#VDTs Terra.wire.(2003).UN:Recycledcomputersavoidhightechenvironmentalhazards. RetrievedMay10,2005fromhttp://www.terradaily.com/2004/040307230047.pmc330xv.html

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UCDavis.(2001).PCB's(PolychlorinatedBiphenyls).RetrievedMay11,2005from http://www.envtox.ucdavis.edu/CEHS/TOXINS/toxins.html Uline,2005.Catalog.RetrievedMay17,2005fromhttp://www.uline.com/ UN(UnitedNations).(2004).ComputersandtheEnvironment: UnderstandingandManagingtheirImpacts.RetrievedMay10,2005from http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=10007&Cr=computer&Cr1 U.S.EPA(U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency).(2005).eCycling.RetrievedMay10,2005 fromhttp://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/hazwaste/recycle/ecycling/index.htm Williams,Eric.(2004).EnergyIntensityofComputerManufacturing:HybridAssessment CombiningProcessandEconomicInputOutputMethods.RetrievedMay11,2005from http://pubs.acs.org/cgibin/abstract.cgi/esthag/2004/38/i22/abs/es035152j.html

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