THE EVOLUTION OF SLOPE DESIGN AND LIMIT BLASTING AT SANDSLOOT OPEN PIT, SOUTH AFRICA

Alan R. Bye1, Fred G. Bell2and Colin A. Jermy2

ABSTRACT Sandsloot open pit was commissioned in 1992 and over the past 7 years a number of slope and limit blasting designs have been developed. The paper discusses the evolution of these designs noting the safety, slope stability and cost saving benefits. From a slope design perspective there are numerous configurations which can be used to design the most stable yet economic final wall. Parameters that were varied to accommodate the geotechnical conditions include stack height vs. berm width and angled vs. vertical pre-splits. The evolution of the design has seen the open pit life extended and additional revenue accrued. There are a number of variables to consider when developing a limit blasting programme. Properties such as explosive type, quantity, hole diameter, as well as the number of buffers and their burden and spacing were adjusted in order to find the most effective design for the in situ rock mass conditions. The benefits were a result of the collection of detailed geological and geotechnical data, which is necessary to facilitate the evolution process. As the knowledge of the rock mass improved so the risks associated with the slopes were reduced and not only more stable but also more economic slopes were designed. The paper illustrates the benefits associated with implementing a detailed geotechnical programme. INTRODUCTION Sandsloot open pit is situated on the northern limb of the Bushveld Complex, 250 km north east of Johannesburg, South Africa. The current open pit is roughly 1 500 m long, 800 m wide and strikes north. The open pit is situated at an average elevation of 1 100 m and has a projected depth of 325 m. Sandsloot is currently the largest open pit platinum mine in the world and is one of six potential open pits in the area. Five slope designs have been implemented since the inception of mining. The changes in design were due in part to variations in mining method but mostly due to the enhanced geotechnical database collected over the life of the mine. From a slope design perspective there are numerous configurations which can be used to design the most stable yet economic final wall. The design methodology is discussed, noting the merits and shortfalls of each design. Ultimately the latest design has significantly improved slope stability while extending the life of mine and the potential revenue by millions of dollars. Difficult limit blasting conditions have been experienced on the hangingwall and consequently the designs have evolved as more information is collected and better methods devised. There are numerous variables to consider when developing a limit blasting programme in order to find the most effective design for the in situ rock mass conditions. The design evolution is discussed noting the successes and failures of both the buffer and pre-split designs. As exposures become available during mining operations the geotechnical mapping and testing programme is a continuing process thereby determining any changes in the rock mass characteristics. Based on structural mapping the pit has been split up into geotechnical zones (Figure 1). Each zone was studied individually to gain a thorough knowledge of any active or potential stability problems. What is highlighted is the need for comprehensive geotechnical information in order to make informed decisions that affect mining safety and productivity.

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Potgietersrust Platinums Ltd. (AMPLATS), Private Bag X2463, Potgietersrus, 0600, South Africa School of Geological and Computer Sciences, University of Natal, Durban, 4041, South Africa

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY The Platreef is a pyroxenite ore-body, which is hosted within the northern limb of the basic igneous rocks of the Bushveld Complex. It has an economic strike length of 40 km and contains platinum group elements, copper and nickel concentrations. The Platreef is capped by a sparsely mineralized hangingwall sequence of Main Zone gabbro-norites. This in turn is overlain by Upper Zone sequences of ferrogabbros (Cawthorn, 1996). The mineralization is hosted predominantly within pyroxenite and metamorphosed pyroxenite, locally known as parapyroxenite. The parapyroxenites are conformal with the footwall of the Platreef and are essentially contaminated metamorphosed pyroxenite formed between the cold country rock and the Platreef intrusive phase. The footwall to the Platreef in the Sandsloot open pit is metadolomite known generically as calc-silicate. The calc-silicates are generally yellow to brown in colour, fine grained and are also significantly folded. Remnant bedding is found in the calc-silicates with which a number of bedding faults are associated. Interaction of the basic magma with the footwall sediments of the Transvaal Supergroup and varying degrees of assimilation has resulted in a unique suite of hybrid rock types. These various rock types provide significant engineering geological challenges. Figure 1 : Geotechnical plan of Sandsloot open pit STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY Major structures within the pit affect pre-split blast performance and slope stability and have therefore been mapped in detail so that potential slope failures can be predicted and limit blasting optimized. The open pit is disturbed by three major northeast trending faults. The faults have caused extensive alteration and deformation in the surrounding rock mass, which affects pre-split drilling and blasting as well as bench stability. There are three major joint sets, which influence the Sandsloot area. The most prominent joint set strikes north west, has pronounced slickensides and is associated with felsite veins. A critical joint phenomenon is identified within the set. These large foliation planes (critical joints) dip steeply and are laterally and vertically continuous over hundreds of metres. They not only pose a slope stability problem but also affect pre-split drilling and blasting. Due to the size of the critical joints blast energy is vented up them and drill steels tend to

deflect along their planes. The critical joints have however occasionally been used productively as natural presplits, resulting in considerable savings in drill and blast costs, as well as producing a safer final wall. The Sandsloot area has been intruded by a late phase of quartzo-feldspathic veins, which are associated with the critical jointing of joint set one. These felsite veins cross-cut the open pit, and cause drill and blast problems due to their high strength (320 MPa) and related sympathetic jointing, which provide a vent for blast energy that necessitates a high percentage of blast hole re-drills.

SLOPE DESIGN CONFIGURATIONS

Generally in newly developed open pits initial slope designs are based on sparse information due to lack of geological exposure and tight development budgets. As the pit develops design configurations can be adjusted to accommodate identified failure mechanisms thereby walls become more stable and a safer working environment is developed. There is also the option of optimizing the walls with the enhanced database. At Sandsloot there has been an evolution of slope configurations due to improved geotechnical information and evolving mining processes. There are, however, numerous variations in slope design, which can be applied to accommodate kinematic failure mechanisms and optimize production without compromising overall slope stability. Figure 2 illustrates the evolution of the stack configurations at Sandsloot open pit from angled bench designs to a vertical, double bench design.

Figure 2 : Hangingwall slope design evolution from 1993 to 1998. Designs 1 and 2 were developed for a mining process involving 10 m benches. As the scale of mining was increased and mining benches enlarged to 15 m so the slope design was adjusted as in design 3. By 1997 a substantial amount of geotechnical data had been collected and the slope was steepened as per design 4. As mining progressed according to design 4 it became evident that the risk of planar failures on the western highwall was too high with a 45 m stack configuration. Angled pre-split performance was also unsatisfactory under the difficult hangingwall conditions caused by the planar joints (Figure 3). The stack height was therefore reduced to 30 m and a vertical pre-split adopted as per design 5. In any mining operation there has to be a compromise between theoretical design and practical implementation. It is well documented that in theory angled pre-splitting provides a more stable face than vertical pre-splits but the production pressures of a rapidly developing open pit often do not afford the time to implement technically superior designs. In a mining environment designs must be repeatable on a sustainable basis.

By moving to a double bench pre-split programme, bench preparation, pre-split holes and pre-split drilling time is considerably reduced as pre-split drilling is only required on every second bench. This provides the time to do effective, quality pre-splits well in advance of production faces. The small 2 m mini-berm required for the angled pre-split design regularly causes loose material to remain on the face thereby increasing the risk of rockfall. The problem is compounded when a 45 m three-bench stack is designed as in Figure 2, design 4. The rockfall problem is reduced by designing double benches with a large catchment berm as in design 5. The large catchment berms will accommodate most planar failures on the hangingwall, as well as allowing easy access and drilling space for pre-split rigs. Additionally, the large catchment berms in design 5 allow for the incorporation of ramps into the design slope without reducing the final wall angle. From an overall slope stability perspective a double bench, vertical pre-split design is as stable as an angled pre-split design as you overall slope angle is the same. The implementation of double benching has improved production and safety as well as reducing mining costs without comprising overall slope stability. LIMIT BLASTING Previously at Sandsloot one limit blast design was used throughout the pit with variable success. The use of design zones has proved successful in fine tuning the limit blasting designs to suit the rock mass conditions. Pre-split charges and design configurations have been altered to accommodate a change in rock mass quality. The development of these specific limit blast designs to suit geotechnical zones has improved the limit blasting programme. A successful limit blasting programme can only be achieved if all personnel involved give total commitment, with the overriding consideration being the overall slope stability.
Crest/subdrill damage 3-5 m Design profile

3m

Overbreak and resultant planar failure

Joints Actual profile

Underbreak and resultant hard toe 60o 2-3 m

The adoption of a double bench, vertical presplit programme has resulted in a better compromise between production cost and scientifically designed stable highwalls. The double bench design has afforded the time to effectively pre-split final walls. Additionally, productivity has been improved and mining costs reduced without compromising overall slope stability. With the double bench design, crest damage occurs only on every second bench and this damage is reduced by effective crest protection measures. Crest protection involves reducing the subdrill of production holes directly above the next safety berm. However, a common problem associated with double bench pre-splitting is the large amounts of toe left on the pre-split face upon the completion of digging. The toe can extend 10-15 m up the face (Figure 3). This problem is alleviated by the use of cartridge explosive (doubled up) at the base of the hole. Bulk explosive vertical pre-splitting is cheaper (25%) than angled pre-splitting. The use of bulk explosive can be achieved by placing the ANFO in a 100 mm PVC tube. De-coupling refers to the explosive charge mass being detached from the side of the blast hole, for example by being contained in a smaller diameter PVC tube. Angled pre-split drilling requires specialized

Figure 3 : Schematic and photograph of the slope conditions on the hangingwall.

30 m

equipment, penetration rates are lower and cheaper bulk explosives cannot be used. Although the use of bulk explosive as described in design two (Table 1) is more cost effective, it was unsuccessful due to the following reasons:
The use of a PVC tube with bulk explosive resulted in a short explosive column length where the explosive energy was concentrated in the bottom 4.5 m of each pre-split hole. If the hole contains water, as is the predominant case at Sandsloot, the top 75% of each hole will not have been pressurized during the pre-split blast. This has resulted in the poor generation of a pre-split plane in the upper portion of the bench. Under dry conditions the design would be far more effective. Design 3 documents a change to cartridged explosive to distribute the charge mass evenly up the entire length of the pre-split hole.
The pre-split energy was too low and the spacing too high as illustrated in Figure 4. Design 3 indicates a reduction in spacing from 2.5-2.0 m and an increase in powder factor from 0.77 kg/m2 to 1.23 kg/m2. This is to achieve higher borehole pressures and more persistent pre-split crack. Table 1 : Pre-split blast design changes.
Drill rig Drill hole diameter Polypipe diameter De-coupling ratio Explosive type Charge length Charge mass per hole Powder factor Borehole pressure Buffer standoff (crest) Intermediate standoff Spacing Subdrill Drill hole inclination Drill depth Design 1 Cubex or DM 30 165 mm None 30% TOVEX (800) cartridges 70 % of hole Varies according to depth 0.76 kg/m2 118 MPa 1.64 m No intermediate 1.5 m 0m 80 10, 20 then 15 m Design 2 Drilltech DK 40 165 mm 100 mm 65% ANFO (HEF 110) 4.5 m 50 kg 0.76 kg/m2 118 MPa 1.50 m 4m 2.5 m 0.5 m 90 30 m Design 3 Drilltech DK 40 165 mm None 30% SPLITEX cartridges 23 m 75 kg 1.23 kg/m2 158 MPa 1.5-2.5 m 3m 2.0 m 0.5 m 90 30 m

Figure 4 illustrates the decay of pre-split pressure in a developing pre-split crack. Options A and B illustrate why a successful pre-split was not formed as per design 2 (Table 1). Clearly either an insufficient charge mass or a pre-split spacing that is too wide will result in an unsuccessful pre-split. Option B indicates the correct design as laid out in design 3 of Table 1.

Figure 4 : Graphical representation showing pressure decay between pre-split holes (Rorke, 1999).

TRIM AND BUFFER BLAST DESIGN Due to the structural conditions present on the hanging wall significant overbreak in the top portions of each 30 m bench is occurring while underbreak is common along the bottom half. The difficult geotechnical conditions are a result of a prominent steeply dipping joint set which daylights in the bench face along the hangingwall. This is evident in Figure 3. The blasting practice modifications have been undertaken in order to improve the safety and stability of the highwalls. Two separate buffer designs are used for the double bench pre-split as illustrated in Figure 5. The correct sequence of limit blasting is to blast the pre-split, then main production blast leaving a 20 m trim adjacent to final wall. The trim blast is then taken to ensure minimum damage to the final wall. CONCLUSION The definition of unique geotechnical zones, to which specific designs can be applied has been successful in optimizing the limit blasting and slope design programmes at Sandsloot. The designs have resulted in more stable slope configurations, substantial savings in stripping costs, improved safety and extension of the life of the mine. Delineated kinematic failure zones highlight problem areas and allow adjustment of stack configurations to contain identified failure mechanisms. At Sandsloot one limit blasting design has been used throughout the pit. The delineation of geotechnically similar zones provides the opportunity to move away from one design recipe for the entire pit. The customization of slope designs and configurations can then be developed to allow for local variations in the rock mass condition. REFERENCES Cawthorn, R. G. (1996). Layered Intrusions. Elsevier Science, London. Rorke, A. J. (1999). Preliminary Pre-split and Trim Blast Design Recommendations for Improving Wall Safety. Unpublished technical report for Potgietersrust Platinums Ltd. Blastinfo Africa. Johannesburg.

Figure 5 : Trim and buffer designs for double bench pre-split (Rorke, 1999). ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks are accorded to the management of both Potgietersrust Platinums Limited and Anglo American Platinum Corporation Limited (AMPLATS) for the permission to publish the work. Additionally, the valuable advice of Mr. T. Rorke of Blastinfo Africa is gratefully acknowledged.