S-18 3150 Generation of High Voltages

GENERATION OF HIGH
VOLTAGE
Lecture 8
S-18.3150 High Voltage Engineering
S-18.3146 Suurjnnitetekniikka
https://noppa.aalto.fi/noppa/kurssi/s-18.3150

2
Week Date Lecture Topic Exercises
37 10.9 1 General + Safety + High Voltage Lab Tour
38 17.9 2 Electrostatic Fields + FEM 1 + FEM + Seminar tasks
39 24.9 3 Gas Insulation
40 1.10 4 Liquid and Solid Insulation 2 + PD lab
41 8.10 5 Transients 3
42 15.10 NO LECTURE
43 22.10 EXAM WEEK
44 29.10 6 Overvoltages and Insulation Coordination 4
45 5.11 7 HV Testing and Measurements 5
46 12.11 8 Generation of High Voltages Seminar presentations
47 19.11 9 Seminar Presentations Left over seminars
48 26.11 Ensto, Porvoo Surge Arrestor Lab
https://noppa.aalto.fi/noppa/kurssi/s-18.3150 3
10.12.2012
S1
14:00 17:00
???
EXAM
18.12.2012 S4 09:00 12:00
10.01.2013 S1 13:00 16:00
DC SOURCES
Van der Graaff
Rectifier Circuit
Cascade Circuit

DC SOURCES
VAN DE GRAAFF transporting charges with a moving belt
Charge is sprayed onto an insulating moving belt from corona points (sharp needles)
Charge removed and collected from the belt connected to the inside of an insulated
metal electrode through which the belt moves
The belt returns with charges dropped and fresh charge is sprayed onto it (belt speed
1000-2000 m/min)
6
The potential of the HV
electrode at any instant is
U = Q/C
Potential of electrode
rises at a rate of
C
I
dt
dQ
C dt
dV
= =
1
By 1931 Robert Van de Graaff could charge a sphere to
750 kilovolts, producing a 1.5 megavolt difference
between two oppositely charged spheres.

Constructed in an unused airship
dock at Round Hill, Massachusetts.
Generator was originally used as a research
tool in early atom collisions and high energy X-
ray experiments
Oak Ridge National Laboratory, USA
25 MV tandem electrostatic accelerator located inside a 30 m high pressure
vessel

DC SOURCES
HALF-WAVE
RECTIFIER
A single diode is
used to pass either
the positive or
negative half cycle of
AC while blocking
the other
FULL-WAVE
RECTIFIER
Converts both
polarities of input
waveform into DC

DC SOURCES
The supply voltage charges C
1
to . During
the positive half-cycle D
2
is conducting and
charges C
1
. As the AC signal reverses polarity
D
1
starts to conduct now further charging C
1

to 2.
With each change in input polarity, the
capacitors add to the upstream charge.
The increase in voltage, assuming ideal
components, is two times the input voltage
times the number of stages
= 2n
CASCADE CIRCUIT converts low level AC to higher level DC using a ladder
construction of diodes and capacitors
11
C
2
C
1
C
2
'
C
1
'
a
b
b
c
c
I

C
3
'
a
C
3
d
d
u
2
2
2
2
2
a
b
a
b
c
c
d
d
= 2n = 6
D
1
D
2
D
3
D
4
D
5
D
6
Cockroft-Walton (1932):
CW multiplier
Heinrich Greinacher (1919):
Greinacher multiplier
The number of stages n has a large effect on
voltage drop U and ripple amplitude U
When all of the cascades capacitance C are equal, output
voltage U is:
12
( )
4
1 +
=
n n
fC
I
U o
U
C
2
C
1
C
2
'
C
1
'
a
b
c
c
I
n = 1
n = 2
b
where
u
t

4
U
U
a
b b
c
c
2U
0
Largest voltage drops occur at lower stages since they
have to charge the higher stage capacitors
To decrease voltage drop and ripple, lower stage
capacitance could be larger
Voltage drop U and ripple U are smaller with
larger frequency and capacitance
|
.
|
\
|
+ + = A =
12 4
3
3
2
2 2
2 3
n
n n
fC
I
u n U U u n U o
Doubling capacitance of lowest capacitor in AC column(C
1
= 2C)

Voltage in C
1
is only half that of the other capacitors
Now voltage drop is decreased and average U becomes:

Increasing the number of stages n significantly decreases efficiency
Most efficient way to decrease voltage drop and ripple is to increase frequency
13
5 stages: U = 10140 90 kV = 1310 kV
10 stages: U = 20140 700 kV = 2100 kV
= 140 kV, f = 1000 Hz,
C = 10 nF, I = 10 mA
Staging of capacitance causes uneven voltage distribution
Smaller capacitance at top stages would experience
majority of the voltage stress (requires higher voltage withstand)
Differentiation
U
1
2 3
4 5
I

2C
C
|
.
|
\
|
+ + =
12 4
1
3
2
2
2 3
n
n n
fC
I
u n U
Stray capacitance also an issue with increasing stages
1.2 MV Cascade DC Generator
AC SOURCES
Single-Stage Transformer
Cascade Transformer
Resonant Transformer
Tesla Transformer

AC SOURCES
1. Iron core 2. LV winding
3. HV winding 4. Field grading shield
5. Grounded metal tank/base 6. HV bushing
7. Insulating shield or tank 8. HV electrode
16
SINGLE-STAGE TRANSFORMER up to 400 kV
CASCADE TRANSFORMER
connecting HV windings in series
17
I
n
s
u
l
a
t
i
o
n

300 kV
output
200 kV
199 kV
1 kV
1 kV
99 kV
100 kV
1 kV
input
U
2
2U
2
3U
2
U
1
U
1
U
1
LV primary winding
HV secondary winding
Excitation winding
1.
2.
3.
First transformer is at ground potential, The
second and third transformers are kept on
insulators
The high voltage winding of
the first unit is connected to the
tank of the second unit
The low voltage winding of
the second unit is supplied from
the excitation winding of the
first transformer (in series with
the high voltage winding)
The rating of the excitation winding
is almost identical to that of the
primary winding.
AC SOURCES
900 kV 600 kV Cascade Transformer

AC SOURCES
( )
2 2
C L
X X R Z + =
( ) R X X R Z
C L
= + =
2 2
|
.
|
\
|
=

R
X X
C L 1
tan
RESONANT TRANSFORMERS Resonance to multiply input
20
Re
Im
R
Z
X
L
X
C

Re
Im
R
X
L
X
C
LC
1
= e
~
I
U
R
U
R
= IR
U
L
= IX
L
(X
L
= L)

U
C
= IX
C
(X
C
= 1/C)
C
L
S
e
r
i
e
s

R
C
L

c
i
r
c
u
i
t
:

X
T
=0
R
2R
R
0
U, I

Test Specimen Reactive Power = (U
out
)
2
/ X
c
where X
c
= 1 / 2fC
load

Reactor Losses = Real power dissipated in reactor. Resistive losses in reactor
windings, magnetic losses in reactor core and stray losses in tank structure
Test Load Losses = Real power dissipated in test object. Losses in insulation due
to leakage current, losses in termination equipment, and external stray losses

Quality
Factor Q

Test Specimen Reactive Power
Reactor Losses + Test Load Losses
Output Reactive Power
Input Real Power
=

=

C L
X X =
C L
X X =
0 =
U
out
= Q U
in
Simplified diagram of series resonance test system
21
~
L R
C U
2
U
1
Transformer secondary winding connected across HV reactor inductance
L and capacitive load C. Resistance R is the total series resistance of
the circuit
Resonance:
Inductance of reactor L is varied
On-site testing may have fixed L (compact and lighter)
Resonance frequency depends on test object capacitance
Frequency must be adjustable f = 1 / 2 (LC)
Typically
used for
cable and
capacitor
testing
Resonance is sensitive to partial
discharge
Sinusoidal waveform deteriorates
Voltage fluctuations
DISADVANTAGES
Clean sinusoidal output
Smaller power requirements
Series inductance compensates test objects capacitive reactive
power
No high-power arcing and heavy current surges occur
if test object fails
Resonance ceases at the failure of the test object
Cascading is also possible (up to 3000 kV)
Simple and compact test arrangement
Reactor is considerably lighter than a transformer of equivalent
power
No repeated flashovers occur in case of partial
failures of test object and insulation recovery.
It takes Q number of cycles to charge test object to full voltage
ADVANTAGES
Series Resonance Transformer
800 kV Resonance Transformer (Series/Parallel)
Series Resonance Transformer (On-Site)
Motor
3-
Gen.
f
Frequency
Converter
Breaker Breaker
Excitation
Transformer
HV
Reactors
Voltage
Divider
Test
Load

AC SOURCES
TESLA COIL high frequency resonant transformer (high voltage, low current, high frequency AC)
26
Circuit consists of a weakly coupled primary and
secondary oscillatory circuit (only share 10 20% of
magnetic field)
Large air gap due to HV (avoid inter-winding breakdown)
System is excited to oscillate at high frequencies
by periodic discharge of the primary side capacitor
via a spark gap
Primary is fed from a supply through C
1
, spark gap is
connected across primary and triggered at a desired voltage U
1
C
1
C
2
L
2
L
1
M

Spark
gap

Supply
U
2
U
1
Based on circuit parameters and the ratio between
primary and secondary windings, voltages in excess of
1 MV can be generated (output voltage U
2
is a function
of parameters L
1
, L
2
, C
1
, C
2
and mutual inductance M)
Voltage gain is proportional to the square root of the ratio
of secondary and primary inductances
Secondary winding has same resonance frequency as
primary (windings are tuned to a frequency of 10 100
kHz by means of C
1
and C
2
) Voltage gain is proportional
to the square root of the ratio of the primary capacitor
C1 to secondary capacitance C2
IMPULSE VOLTAGE SOURCES
Impulse Voltage Circuit
Marx Generator

IMPULSE VOLTAGE SOURCES
IMPULSE VOLTAGE GENERATOR basic circuit applicable to both LI and SI
1. Surge capacitor C
1
is charged and the switch is closed
Switch is typically a triggered (ignitable) sphere gap (trigatron)
2. The charge in C
1
is distributed quickly between load
capacitance C
2
so that the voltage over both becomes
equal
During this distribution phase some energy is transformed into
heat mainly by damping resistance R
1
(determines impulse
voltage front T
1
)
Once C
2
is charged, voltage has reached its maximum value
(impulse voltage peak U
p
)
3. Next, the discharge phase starts. Remaining energy is
transformed into heat mainly in discharge resistance
R
2
(determines impulse voltage tail T
2
).
31
U
2
C
2
R
2
R
1
C
1
U
0
R
v
U
t
Single stage impulse generator reaches ~ 100 kV
For higher voltages basic circuits are constructed on top of
each other to create n stage generators
32
C
2
R
2
R
1
C
1
R
v

Typically 100 250 kV
per stage
Can reach tens of stages
(not limited by voltage
drop)
Indoors: 400 4000 kV
Outdoors: 10 MV
Typical energy 10 20 kJ

Marx Generator Erwin Marx (1923)
1. Capacitors are charged in parallel to desired voltage and first spark gap is triggered
2. The rapid change in potential causes the subsequent gaps to ignite causing the stages to be
connected in series
3. Output voltage is the product of charging voltage and the number of stages U
0
= n U
c
33
R
C
R
C
C
S
C
S
R
D
R
E
R
C
C
S
R
D
R
E
R
D
R
E
R
D
C
B
U
C
R
C
R
C
C
S
C
S
R
D
R
E
R
C
C
S
R
D
R
E
R
D
R
E
R
D
C
B
U
C
U
O
3 Stage Impulse
Generator
CHARGING DISCHARGING
R
C
R
C
C
S
C
S
R
D
R
E
R
C
C
S
R
D
R
E
R
D
R
E
R
D
C
B
~
Charging
Discharging (T1)
Discharging (T2)
2
0 1
2
1
U C W =
Impulse generators are usually designed C
1
>> C
2
so that energy,
is sufficient to achieve desired pulse shape
35
Efficiency
Time to peak
Voltage over test object
R
C
R
C
C
S
C
S
R
D
R
E
R
C
C
S
R
D
R
E
R
D
R
E
R
D
C
B
U
0
U
C
2 1
2 1
1 1
C C
C C
R
+
~ t
( )
2 1 2 2
C C R + ~ t
( )
1 2
1 2
2 1
2 1
0
0
) (
t t
t t
t t
t t
e e
C R
U
t u

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
~
1
2
1 2
2 1
ln
t
t
t t
t t
p
T
2 1
1
0
0
C C
C
U
u
+
~ = q
U
0
= nU
C
C
1
= C
s
/ n
C
2
= C
b
+ C
test object

R
1
= nR
D
+ R
D

R
2
nR
E
R
C
R
C
C
S
C
S
R
D
R
E
R
C
C
S
R
D
R
E
R
D
R
E
R
D
C
B
U
0
U
C
1.0
0.9
0.5
0
U
t
T
p
T
2
Damping resistance R
1
and load capacitance
C
2
determine front time T
1
and time to peak T
p
Discharge resistance R
2
and surge
capacitance C
1
determine time to half value T
2
Charging resistors R
C
limits current to protect
source

IMPULSE CURRENT SOURCES
Surge Currents
Rectangular Pulse

IMPULSE CURRENT SOURCES
Standard surge currents used in testing:
0.1
0.5
0.9
1.0
i
t
T
2
T
1
0.1
0.9
1.0
i
t
T
t
T
d
< 0.1
T
d
+20 %, T
t
1.5T
d
=
500 s, 1000 s, 2000 s, 2000 3200 s
Testing of surge arrestor ability to discharge
charges with different cable lengths
T
1
/

T
2
10 % =
1/20 s, 4/10 s, 8/20 s, 30/80 s
Simulate lightning current stress
Rectangular Pulse Impulse
Basic circuit for impulse current generator:
Current impulse should be exponentially
decaying or strongly attenuated (damped)
in case of oscillations (b = imaginary, i)
39
bt e
bL
U
t i
t
sinh ) (
0
o
=
3
2
1
i
t
1. Exponential over-damped pulse
2. Weakly damped oscillating pulse
3. Undamped oscillating pulse
R

L

C

U
0
i

Test
object

L
R
2
= o
LC L
R
b
1
4
2
2
=
In theory, could be done by charging a cable to a desired voltage
(dependant on current) and discharging into test object using a switch
In practice, cable would need to be 75 km long for a 1000 s pulse
40
R

U
0
i

C
n
L
n
C
n-1
L
n-1
L
n-2
C
n-2
L
1
C
1
Practical
solution
is a LC
chain
LC
n
n
T LC
n
n
T
t d
1
2
1
2
+
~
~
n = number of LC units
Pulse peak duration
and total duration
Required total capacitance
and total inductance
2
) 1 ( 2
CR L
n R
nT
C
d
~
~
n = 8 is optimal
Basic circuit for long rectangular current generator:

S-18 3150 Generation of High Voltages

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GENERATION OF HIGH

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