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30 July 2013
The views expressed here are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect those of ADB
Outline
Background and objectives Methodology Key findings Policy implications
Next steps
Background
Global crises impacted Asian migration and remittances at different levels: global, country and household levels. Impact at household level: based on migrant household surveys in BAN, INO and PHI (ADB and IOM 2011).
Results were presented already, but further analysis with more gender dimension was needed. Follow-up surveys with gender lens in 2012 in INO and PHI, where feminization of migration is very strong.
Main Objectives
Using gender lens:
Examine the trend and impact dynamics. Analyze the gender-differentiated impacts. Identify the coping mechanisms.
Unit of analysis:
Methodology
Analyzed gender-disaggregated data from ADB-IOM survey in 2010 (first survey). Period covered: Oct 2008 to Sept 2009. Sample: 217 and 200 migrant households in INO and PHI. Revisit (second) survey in 2012 to collect more genderrelevant data. Period covered: 2009 to 2012. Re-sample: 100 households each in INO and PHI. Conducted FGDs and RTDs with migrant households, returning migrants and key informants. Combined results of surveys and FGDs/RTDs in the analysis.
Impacts Examined
Impacts
Migrant Workers
Migrant Households
Coping Mechanism
Coping Mechanism
20
16.4
18.8
1200
('000 persons)
17.4
1000 800 600 400 200 0 2006 2007 2008 Indonesia 2009 2010 2011
15
14.5 12.8
10
5.6 6.0 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.7
2006
Philippines
2007
2008
2009
Philippines
2010
2011
Indonesia
Migrant Earning
Related to education, skill and occupation.
INO: Women mostly in domestic work and men in manufacturing and construction. PHI: spread over various occupations (services, technical/professional, sea-based, construction and domestic work). Earning more than INO. INO: monthly earnings fell by 15% and 4% for men and women migrants.
Philippines
29
5,000
28
27
3,000
26
2,000
25
1,000
24
23
Before Crisis
First Period
Before Crisis
First Period
Men
Women
Regression Analysis
Variables
Number of migrant worker's children Level of education of migrant worker Migrant worker's length of stay abroad Constant
Household size Number of migrants in household Level of education of household head Sex of household head Knowledge of the global financial and economic crisis Sex of migrant worker Age of migrant worker
4.6098*** [0.000]
Observations
R-squared 0.538
Robust pval in brackets *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1
0.098
0.369
Working conditions
Working condition deteriorated, and more profound than impact on earning.
INO migrants reported more deteriorating working conditions (60% compare to 15% for PHI). Factors: delays and withholding salaries, overtime loss, benefit reductions and wage cuts. Country and gender influence very strong.
Philippines
100% 80% Reduction of benefits
80%
60% (%)
60%
40%
40%
20%
No change
20%
0%
Men Women Total
Impact on remittances
Remittance Dynamics
Remittances increased (in both survey periods), despite the adverse impacts on earning and working conditions. PHI remit more regularly than INO (may be due to Migrant household share in PHI already 25%, INO only 3%) Men remitted larger amount than women. PHI: men remitted 2.4 times more than women. INO: men remitted 1.2 times more than women. Women made more transactions to remit than men
Philippines
35 30
25
1600
('000 Rp)
('000 PhP)
1500 1400
20 15 10
1300
1200 1100 1000 Before crisis First period Second period Men Women Average 5 0 Before crisis First period Second period Men Women Average
Remitting Frequency
PHI migrants remit more regularly than INO migrants. INO: women remit more regularly (monthly) than men.
PHI: men remit more regularly than women.
Returning migrants
INO: accounted to 25% of household members.
50% and 25% of women and men received assistance from their employers
PHI: Very small, only 3% of household members with very few received assistance.
More women reported facing difficulties after returning, including in finding a job.
Returning migrants
Indonesia
40 40
Philippines
29
30 (Number)
20
21
14
20
10
10 7 0
10 8 2 4 2 4 0 2011 1 0 2012
2011
2012
Before 2008
0 2008
0 2009
2010
Men
Women
Total
Returnees
INO
Most returnees found a job within 6 months. 25% and 15% of women and men returnees would like to work abroad again.
PHI
Mostly found a job in 6-10 months. 50% of them would like to work abroad again.
More 10% of Filipino household members have joined the labor force, mostly men.
Philippines
(%)
(%)
40% 20% 0%
Men
Women
Total
Men
Women
Total
80%
60% 40% 20% 0%
(%)
40% 20% 0%
Men
Women
Total
(%)
Men
Women
Total
Wage employee- full time/regular/permanent Wage employee casual/ temporary/part-time/contract Self-employed (own account) Unpaid family worker
(Number) (Number)
10
20
30
40
50
52 2 14 14 2
Moderately improved
Greatly improved
Indonesia
Moderately improved
13 4
Slightly improved
Slightly improved
No change/the same
No change/the same
Slightly deteriorated
Moderately deteriorated
20
10
(Number)
50 40 30 20 10 0
2
11 1 37 33 7 5 10 7
Slightly deteriorated
13
Greatly deteriorated Not specified/no answer
1 10 20 30 2 3 4 17 8 16 19 17 3 2 5 1 2 1
Moderately deteriorated
21 10
(Number)
10 0
20
30
Greatly improved
Moderately improved Slightly improved No change/the same Slightly deteriorated Moderately deteriorated
Women
Greatly deteriorated
1 2
Greatly improved
5 12 7
Slightly improved
Moderately improved
Philippines
14 19
No change/the same
25
5 3 Men 1 2 3 1
Greatly deteriorated Moderately deteriorated
Slightly deteriorated
Reasons: Reduction in remittances and wage cuts, and for the PHI includes exchange rate volatility.
72
35
14 3 7 1 0 1 0 0 3 0 0 4 6 0
13 0
Indonesia
Philippines
Philippines
80%
60%
40%
20%
Women bear the brunt of the crisis as they must also hold reproductive responsibilities.
Men
37 29 12 28 26 14 22 25 1 2 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 50 56 72 53 56 61 51 56 65 62 100%
Women
5 3 1 1 3 1 5 3 0 0
0% 20% 40% 60% 80%
0 10 11 11 10 12 8 8 10 10
100%
B. Philippines
Reducing food consumption Cutting down on buying clothes Cutting medical expenses Cutting down on tobacco and alcohol Growing own food Selling valuable possessions Using savings Borrowing money Doing own household chores Falling behind on repayments
28 23 17 11 7 7 13 8 34 6 100% No
38 36 24 13 14 11 14 12 51 13 100%
Men should be the breadwinner and women should be at home taking care of family and finances. Women need to work only if financial situation calls for it. Yet, more women going abroad for employment.
This exemplifies a strong push factor out of necessity, calling for gender mainstreaming policies.
Indonesia
100
80
60 (%) (%) 50 40
60
41
20 4 0 1
17
12
7
20 10 4 0 5 5 Total
Total
Men
Women
More women returnees seek to work abroad again as returning and finding job at home are more challenging.
Migrant households were also affected by the crises through the adverse impact on domestic labor market, and women often bear the brunt more.
Reintegration programs need to have better targeting especially for women to ensure their success.
Home and host governments and civil society organizations need to act better following reports of abuses.
Programs need to improve targeting and coordination.
Next steps
Further publications and disseminations in other forms
Policy dialogues with stakeholders