PHOTOVOLTAICS

MATERIALS AND DEVICES

By
VIRESH DUTTA
PHOTOVOLTAIC LAB., CENTER FOR ENERGY STUDIES,
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY , NEW DELHI 110016
INDIA
E-mail : vdutta@ces.iitd.ac.in
 OUTLINE
● PHOTOVOLTAIC EFFECT

● PHOTOVOLTAIC DEVICES :

- FIRST GENERATION :
CRYSTALLINE Si
- SECOND GENERATION :
THIN FILMS
DYE SENSITISED SOLAR CELL
ORGANIC SOLAR CELL
- THIRD GENERATION
 Solar Photovoltaic Generation
● Direct Conversion of Solar Energy

● Optical Absorption – Electron Hole Pair

Generation
● Charge Separation by “Internal” Electric
Field
● Charge Transport to the Contacts
● Power Delivery to the Load
● Photovoltaic power generation achieved by
exposing semiconductor devices called
solar cells to solar radiation.

● The semiconductor absorbs the incident

photons .

● Photo-absorption leads to electron-hole

pair generation (EXCITON).

● Photo-generated carriers are separated

due to an electric field.
● This creates photo-voltage and photo-current
through the external circuit - Power
Generation.

● Photovoltage maximum for open circuit – Voc

● Photocurrent maximum for short circuit - Isc

● Power zero at both these operating points

● Maximum Power Point- PMAX

● Fill Factor- FF
● Efficiency- η
● All the physical processes internal to the
device- no associated gas emission, no noise,
no wear and tear ( except for slow
degradation taking place )

● Intermittent DC- can be converted to ac

using power converting circuits, whole system
pollution free and maintenance free

● Battery storage for night applications –

additional cost for equipment and operation
& maintenance
I-V CHARACTERISTICS
ENERGY BAND DIAGRAM FOR P-N
JUNCTION SOLAR CELL
I-V CHARACTERISTICS OF A TYPICAL CELL
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
Solar cell is a Large Area device involving
several physical processes :

Exciton (bound or unbound) creation

Carrier Transport by Drift or Diffusion
Recombination processes-
( Band- to-Band, Intermediate state
mediated, Auger, Grain Boundary)
Charge carrier collection at Ohmic and
Psuedo-ohmic contacts
Interplay between these processes hides the
complexity of the device!
Optical Absorption
Optimum Band Gap
 CRYSTALLINE SI
● Available from Semiconductor Industry ( Euro 20-29 /Kg)

● Specific Si Consumption by PV industry at present 14

Tonnes / MW ( to be reduced to 10-12 Tonnes / MW in
near future)

● For a PV growth rate of 27% the shortfall of economically

prices Si ~ 22000 Tonnes in 2010

● Dedicated Solar Grade Si production plants by all the

major Si producers ( 1500-3000 Tonnes of additional Si at
Euro 25 /Kg)

Lower prices can be achieved using fluidised-bed reactor or

tube reactor
● Si Ingots from molten Si by crystal pulling
Czochralski Si or Directional Solidification ( Multi-
crystalline Si) or Ribbon Growth.
Float Zone Si – Purer and Expensive
● Circular or Square Cross-section ( Psuedo-Square
for Modules) : 150-200 mm Diameter or 150 mm x
150 mm
● Wafering ( ~ 300 µm ) using wire saw. 180 µm wire
and SiC abrasive gives kerf loss of ~ 250 µm .
Wafer thickness of 180 µm ( ~ 100 µm ) with 90%
yield ( currently 60%). Kerf loss reduction to 160
µm using thinner wires and smaller abrasive
particles. Recycling of SiC Slurry
● Reduction in loss in wafering ( ~ 50% ) by developing
Ribbon technology ( EFG-Si)
 16%
7%

17%

60%

Cost of wafers
Materials Processing
Labour accounts
Investment cost

Production cost of Si solar Cell

● TYPICAL VALUES ( Si Solar Cells):

JSC = 40 mA/cm2
VOC= 600 mV
PMAX = 15 mW/cm2
FF = 0.8-0.9
η = 14-16 %
 Present status of efficiencies of
bulk Si solar cells
2010 Target: 20% cell, 16% module efficiencies

Efficiency(%) Strucure Organization

24.7 PERL cell, 4cm2 Univ.New South Wales

21.5* HIT cell, 100cm2 Sanyo , Voc=725mV

21.6 Laser fired contacts Fraunhofer, sc-Si

21.5 All back contact Sunpower, Si PV-FZ,149cm2

20.3 Laser fired contacts Fraunhofer, mc-Si, 1cm2

19.5 Buried contact UNSW Solar Car Team

18.3 Buried contact sc-Si, BP Solar

17.6 Buried contact mc-Si, Uni. Konstanz

17.7* Manufacturing process Kyocera, 232.5cm2

* Production level
 High-Efficiency Bifacial Ga-doped Cz Si Solar
Cells with a-Si Back Surface Passivation

Ag Ag
contacts contacts
SiNx
100 Ω/ƀ
0.5-2.0 Ω-cm, n+ emitter 0.5-2.0 Ω-cm,
Ga-doped, p-type Cz Si Ga-doped, p-type Cz Si
300 µm thick 100-200 µm thick
τ = 200 µs τ = 200 µs
intrinsic a-Si
p-type a-Si
p+ Al-BSF ITO
Al contact
S≤100 cm/s Ag/Al
contacts
S>500 cm/s
η = 17.5% η = 19%
 HIT cell
( HIT : Heterojunction with Intrinsic Thin-Layer )

- High efficiency by excellent surface passivation with a-Si layers

- Less thermal stress through low temperature process (~ 200oC)
- Advantage in high temperature performance
Isc 3.86 A F.F. 77.0 %
p/i amorphous silicon Voc 717.0mV Eff. 21.3 %
transparent 5 5
AM-1.5, 100mW/cm2, 25℃
electrode Cell size : 100.0cm2
4 Measurement in Sanyo 4

Output (W)
Current (A)
200 µm 3 3
n c-Si 2 2

1 1
i/n amorphous silicon
0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Structure
Voltage (V)
Approaching the 29% limit efficiency of Silicon
solar cells
R.M.Swanson, SunPower Corporation

Efficiency limit: 29%

PERL

HIT
 THIN FILM SOLAR CELLS
● Low cost alternative (!) to Si technology
● Integrated Module Production
● Flexible Substrates
● Use in Buildings with improved aesthetics-
homogeneous appearance
● Large scale production using Thin Film
Technologies
 SUBSTRATE
● Substrate device structure: Metal or Metallic coating
on Glass / Polymer
● Superstrate device structure: Transparent Conducting
Oxide
● Flexible substrates for roll to roll deposition.
● High temperature deposition requires expensive and
rigid substrate, whereas low temperature process can
use less expensive substrates.
● Major Expense in the device
● CIGS solar cells based on superstrate
structure inferior to substrate structure-
Interdiffusion of CdS during high
temperature CIGS growth.
● Na diffusion from substrate improves the
grain growth. ( use of NaF)

● CdTe cells use superstrate structure for

contacting to CdTe. CdS diffusion helps
reducing the lattice mismatch.
● High temperature deposition require
borosilicate glass.
● Amorphous Si solar cells on Glass and
Stainless Steel substrates – Roll to roll
deposition and glass-in –module-out
technologies.
● P-I-N cells usually fabricated with glass
substrate ( superstrate configuration).
● N-I-P cells on metallic substrate
( substrate configuration).
● Effect of plasma on TCO coating
 Transparent Conducting Oxide
● N-type degenerate semiconductors with good
electrical conductivity and high transparency in
the visible region.
● Contact as well light transmission
● Bi-layer structures using a highly conducting
layer for the low resistance contact and a much
thinner high resistivity layer ( called HR layer by
CdTe groups and buffer layer by CIGS groups) to
minimize forward current through the pinholes in
the window layer.
● Microstructure and texture control for HAZE-
scattering assisted light absorption in a-Si solar
cells ( increased path length in thin cells)
 WINDOW LAYER
● Heterojunction with the absorber layer
● No light absorption – no photcurrent generation
● For high optical throughput- large band gap
● Thin layer – to minimize series resistance
● Matched electron affinity- conduction band
spikes
● Lattice Mismatch- important for epitaxial or
oriented growth
● Chemical Bath deposited (CBD ) CdS is mainly
used.
● Thinner layer( < 50 nm) over a large area-less
loss in the blue region
● Cd free CIGS solar cells : InxSey, ZnO, ZnOS
using PVD for in-line process.
● CdTe solar cells have intermixing to minimize
the effect of lattice mismatch ( 9.7%).
● Very thin (~10nm) n and p layers in a-Si to allow
all light absorption in the i layer.
● aSiC:H as window layer
 ABSORBER
● Copper Indium Gallium Diselenide and
related compounds:
● CuInS2 with EG ~ 1.53 eV an ideal PV material-
difficult material due to S
● CuInSe2 with EG ~ 1 eV – optical absorptance
coefficient 3-6 x 105/cm)
● Wide range of anion-to-cation off stiochiometry.
● N or P type doping by introduction of native
defects.
● Benign nature of structural defects- devices
using polycrystalline films.
● Alloying with Ga, Al or S to increase the band gap
, Voc and efficiency.
● Tandem solar cells using alloys(?)
CIGS solar cell structure and process

Thick, Materials Process

Grid 3 µm, Al / 50nm, Ni E-beam evaporation

AR layer 100nm, MgF2 E-beam evaporation

Window 500nm, n-AZO / 50nm, i-ZnO RF sputtering
Buffer (BZO, GZO) (MOCVD)

50nm, CdS
Absorber CBD
(Cd-free Zn(O,S,OH)x,In(OH)S)

Back contact 2-3 µm Cu(In,Al,Ga)(Se,S)

Co-evaporation
(Sputtering + Selenization,
(Wide bandgap, CZTS)
Sulphurization)
Substrate
1 µm, Mo DC sputtering

2-3mm, SLG
Cleaning
(Sus, Ti, Polymide)
MIASOLE CIGS PLANT
● Cadmium Telluride:

● Ideal material due to its optical and chemical

properties.
● Direct Band gap of 1.4-1.5 eV – optimum of
photovoltaic conversion.
● Cd deficiency giving p-type films ( making junction
with n-CdS)
● Well passivated crystallites and high chemical and
thermal stability.
● Activation treatment using CdCl2
● Difficulty in forming good stable ohmic contact
● Environmental problems due to Cd ( Cd
Sequestering, end of life module treatment to
remove Cd and Te and reuse of recovered material).
Cross section of CdTe solar cell
● First Solar one of the major CdTe module producer

● Safe for people, animal life and the environment

● No appreciable leaching of Cd in ground water if

discarded into land fill

● No release of Cd in a vapour form in fire

● A safe method of using Cd by sequestering in a PV

module than other uses.

● ‘Cradle to Grave’ Technology

Emissions from use of conventional
fuels for electricity generation
● Amorphous Si :

Low process temperature- module production on flexible and

low cost substrates.
● Low material requirements- inherent high absorption ( no k-
selection rule)
● Hydrogen incorporation to eliminate dangling bonds and allow
de-pinning of Fermi level.
● Poor charge transport properties- use of p-i-n junction
● Light induced defects – Staebler-Wronski effect
● Degradation of cell efficiency on light exposure – stabilized
efficiency
● Use of thinner layers to reduced this effect- tandem cells
● Use of a-Si alloys for I region in different cells (SiC,SiGe)
● Diffusely reflecting front and back contacts for optical
confinement
● Micromorph solar cells using microcrystalline Si – reduction
of SW effect
● Low rate of deposition- VHF, ECR PECVD, Hot Filament
 Amorphous Si
● Single, Double and Triple Tandem Junctions.

● Microcrystlline Si, Micromorph Si

● Hybrid cells of A-Si:H and microcrystalline

providing ~ 75% of all thin film production

● Cell stability with efficiencies ~ 10% or more

● Increased deposition rate

● Design modification for better light harvesting

 Solar Cells Structure
Overview (KIER)

Glass
Glass SnO2:F(AU) or textured ZnO:Al

photon
Textured ZnO:Al
p-type µc-Si:H (20nm)
Intrinsic µc-Si:H(2㎛)
n-type a-Si:H(30nm)
ZnO
Ag
µc-Si:H pin component cells
p-type a-SiC:H (20nm)
intrinsic
a-Si:H(200nm)
n-type a(µc)-Si:H
Buffer (ZnO)
p-type µc-Si:H (20nm)
Intrinsic µc-Si:H(2㎛)
n-type a-Si:H (30nm)
ZnO
Ag
a-Si:H/µc-Si:H pin tandem solar cells
Structure & Processes

Fabrication and Characterization

Apparatus
Deposition of tandem solar cells Glass rf sputtering
- 2 PECVDs, 1 VHFCVD, 1 HWCVD, 1 rf sputter ZnO:Al TCO(front & back)
Reduced contamination, improved interface

n-layer PECVD
In-line transfer
in a vacuum

µc-Si:H

Glass

i-layer
p-layer
µc-Si:H
Glass
Glass
Glass PECVD
Clean room process
60MHz VHFCVD
- e-beam & thermal evaporator
- rf & dc sputter
- Annealing furnace
- Laser scriber
 Experimental
Structure & Processes

Textured front ZnO:Al

Deposition : rf magnetron sputtering with 4” ZnO:Al2O3(2.5wt%) target (pressure, temperature)
Chemical texture etching : 1% HCl + 99% DI water, 20 – 60sec

Solar cells (multi-chamber cluster system)

p μc-Si:H : 13.56MHz PECVD, 250oC,SiH4(1sccm), H2(180sccm), 0.5Torr, 16W, 0.023nm/sec
p a-SiC:H : 13.56MHz PECVD, SiH4(6sccm), H2(5sccm), CH4(16sccm), B2H6(1sccm)0.2nm/sec
i a-Si:H : 60MHz VHFCVD, SiH4(7sccm), H2(60sccm), 8W, 0.17nm/sec
i μc-Si:H : 60MHz VHFCVD, SiH4(5sccm), H2(95sccm), 16W, 0.16nm/sec
n a-Si:H : 13.56MHz PECVD, SiH4(5sccm), H2(5sccm), PH3(5sccm), 5W, 0.1nm/sec

Back reflector
Ag (thermal evaporation), ZnO/Ag and ZnO:Al/Ag

Intermediate layer
ZnO:Al

Characterization
Solar cells area : 0.36cm2 (n a-Si:H and ZnO back reflector etched for cell isolation)
I-V : dual light solar simulator (WACOM Inc.)
Spectral response with filtered light bias (red & blue) (PV Measurement Inc.)
 BACK CONTACT
● In CdTe and CIGS devices, contact to the p-type
semiconductor.
● Metal Work Function > Semiconductor Work
Function
● Mo for CIGS because of its relatively inert
nature during the highly corrosive CIGS
deposition- thin MoSe2 layer formation
● No metals having work function > 4.5 eV for
CdTe- Au, Ni, HgTe,ZnTe:Cu, Cu doped Graphite
paste, Sb2Te3.
● Psuedo-ohmic contact by creating Te rich layer
by Br-Methanol etching.
● In a-Si devices, contact to the n-type
semiconductor – no such requirement – Ag, Al
● Improved long wavelength response using ZnO /
Ag or Al.
 INTERFACES
● TFSC comprise several layers of different semiconductors and
metal- large number of interfaces.
● Presence of grain boundaries in polycrystalline films – internal
interfaces
● Matched Lattice Constants, Electron Affinity/Work Function,
Thermal Expansion Coefficient
● Modifications in interface properties due to device processing
involving sequential deposition of multilayers at different
deposition conditions.
● Post Deposition treatments involving high-temperature annealing
alter interface and intergrain properties.
● Interfacial defect states , chemical and metallurgical changes
affect optoelctronic and transport properties.
● Manipulation of interfacial structure, chemistry and metallurgy
provides a powerful tool to tailor / engineer the Fermi level,
bandgap, electric field and their gradients to improve the device
performance.
● Use of a buffer layer at p/i interface in a-Si:H solar cells
increases Voc.
● Textured substrates causing interfacial roughness- improved
photoresponse
 MANUFACTURING
● Photovoltaic Modules involving the sequential
deposition of different thin films over a large
area substrate.
● Substrate cleaning, TCO, Window Layer and
Absorber layer formation
● Laser or Mechanical scribing ( upto 3) to define ,
interconnect and isolate the cells.
● Metallization for interconnection
● Lamination
● External leads
● Monolithic Integration of the cells in the module
manufacturing process with minimum area loss.
● Device uniformity over a large area- bad area can
destroy the entire module performance
Source-Photon 04/2006
Different Materials: Module Costs
 Nanotechnology: Application
to solar photovoltaics
● Quantum dot Solar cells
● Nanorod-Branched nanocrystal based solar cells
● Nanocrystal-Nanocrystal combinations
● Dye Sensitised Solar cells(DSSC)
● Dye Sensitized solar cells using TiO2 nanotubes
● ZnO nanowire solar cells
● Quantum dots as sensitizers for DSSC
● Nanocomposite or 3D solid state solar cells
DSSC using TiO2 nanotube arrays
External Quantum efficiency of tetrapods and rods
 All-Inorganic nanocrystal solar cells

Bilayer

Mixed

CdTe

CdSe

Valence Bands

Conduction Bands

Donor-acceptor inorganic nanocrystal solar cell

Effect of iodine on nanocrystalline II-VI
semiconductor thin film morphology
Structure Morphology
Film
Without voltage 700V Without voltage 700V

Spherical particles and sub

HgS Hexagonal Hexagonal Spherical particles
micron rods
Nanotubes with Nanotubes with bamboo
HgS: Iodine Hexagonal Hexagonal
bamboo structure structure
Spherical particles and
HgSe Cubic Cubic Spherical particles
submicron rods

HgSe: Iodine Cubic Cubic Nanotubes Nanotubes

HgTe Cubic Cubic Spherical particles and

Spherical particles
submicron rods

HgTe: Iodine Cubic Cubic Nanotubes Nanotubes

CdSe Hexagonal Hexagonal Spherical particles Nanorods

CdSe: Iodine Hexagonal Hexagonal Nanofibers Nanofibers and Nanorods

CdTe
Cubic Hexagonal Spherical particles Nanorods

CdTe: Iodine
Hexagonal Hexagonal Nanofibers Nanofibers and Nanorods
 Dye Sensitized Solar Cells
(DSSC) : Mimicking Photosynthesis
● Photosynthesis – Conversion of Solar
Energy into Chemical Energy
● Two Stage Process – Light Reactions +
Dark Reactions
● Light Reactions use Photon Energy to
create “Energy Carrier Molecules”
{Chlorophyll}
● Dark Reactions using these molecules
creates carbohydrates {Carbon Fixation}
 Photovoltaic Effect in DSSC
● Light Reactions use Photon Energy to create “Energy
Carrier Molecules” – Photon Absorber with electron
excitation from lower energy state to higher energy
state
{Organic Dyes or Inorganic Semiconductors}
● Dark Reactions using these molecules to separate the
electrons and holes using electron and hole transporting
mediums
{TiO2 as electron transporting and electrolyte
containing a REDOX couple for hole transporting}
Internal Processes inside Dye sensitized
solar cell
DSSC vs P-N Junction Solar Cells
Separation of Light Harvesting and Charge
Transportation processes in DSSC
vs Semiconductor layers involved in both these
processes
- Semiconductor Properties have strong influence on
the device characteristics
- Purer materials causing enhanced material and
production costs
- Majority carrier transport in DSSC
¾ Dye sensitized solar cells (DSSC) promises to be an
inexpensive method for solar to electrical energy
conversion

¾ Utilizes the electrical potential difference between

the photo-absorber electrode and the electrolyte to
separate the photo-generated carriers and generates
electrical work externally.

¾ The costly diffusion process to form p-n junction is

avoided

¾ Less sensitive to the grain boundaries etc. in the

material compared to p-n junction solar cells
 DSSC Design
● Electron and holes separated by the sensitizer
layer preventing recombination.
● Too thick a layer may prevent electron and hole
injection
● Flat electrode with monolayer of dye will have
poorer light absorption and hence efficiency
● Use of nanocrystalline TiO2 to provide a larger
area with dye coverage increasing both light
absorption and electron injection
● Mesoporous layer to further increase the light
harvesting
Photoelectrode Materials

9 TiO2
9 ZnO
● SnO2
● Nb2O5
● ZrO2
 Sensitizer
● Ru-Polypyridine Family
● Soaking the mesoporous layer in the dye to
create the required monolayer coverage over
a large area with good adhesion to TiO2
surface
● High Incident Photon to Current Conversion
efficiency (IPCE) = Light Harvesting
Efficiency (Dye Spectral & Photophysical
Properties) * Charge Injection Yield (Excited
State Redox Potential & Lifetime) * Charge
Collection Efficiency (Structure &
Morphology of TiO2 layer)
 Electrolyte & Counter Electrode
● Organic Electrolyte containing Redox
couple (Iodide I- / Tri-iodide I3-) : Liquid
Electrolyte
● Volatile organic liquid replaced by Gel,
Polymer electrolyte, Ionic Liquid
● Counter Electrode coated with a catalyst
(Pt- 5 to 10 µg /cm2) for cathodic
reduction of triiodide to iodide : anodic
corrosion
 200nm
SEM image of the photo-electrode prepared by spray deposition method
SEM image of ZnO photoelectrode
TiO2 based dye sensitized solar cell characteristics

10 S4 Sample Voc Isc

S3
S1 0.486 6.657
8
S2 0.525 7.381
S2 S3 0.558 9.123
S4 0.581 9.733
current density (mA/cm )
2

S1
6

0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Voltage (V)
ZnO based dye sensitized solar cell characteristics designed in our lab

10
Zn4
9
Zn3
8 Sample Voc Isc
Zn2 Zn1 0.461 5.589
Current density (mA/cm )

7
2

Zn2 0.527 7.373

6
Zn3 0.558 8.386
Zn1 Zn4 0.560 9.123
5

0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
voltage (V)
Nanowire dye sensitized solar cell

Mat Law et al., Nature materials, May 2005

 Manufacturing costs

Active area Costs/m2

Efficiency Based on the forecasted Based on the present material
future material costs costs

70€/m2 90€/m2 120€/m2 150€/m2

7.5%(ECN 1.2€/Wp 1.6€/Wp 2.1€/Wp 2.7€/Wp

masterplate)

8%(EPFL) using 1.2€/Wp 1.5€/Wp 2.0€/Wp 2.5€/Wp

robust electrolyte

10%(EPFL>1 cm2) 0.9€/Wp 1.2€/Wp 1.6€/Wp 2.0€/Wp

11%(EPFL <1 cm2) 0.8€/Wp 1.1€/Wp 1.4€/Wp 1.8€/Wp

 Dye Dye
TCO glass 13.89% 21.15% Screen printable pastes
13.46%
14.81% Screen printable pastes
12.96%

Various materials
Various materials TCO glass 16.35%
12.96% 23.08%
Running Costs 5.77%
37.04% 8.33% Investments
Investments 20.19%
Running Costs

1 MWpeak/year 4 MWpeak/year
Analysis A Analysis B
 Present problems

● Low efficiency compared to p-n junction solar cells

● Only a very limited number of dyes give high photocurrent
quantum yields and the stability of the dye against photo-
degradation is a major problem.
● Amount of dye adsorbed on the photo-electrode is
limited. The low coverage of the semiconductor surface by
the dye molecules, typically a monolayer
● Due to the usage of liquid electrolyte sealing of the cells
is a major problem
● Interpenetrating network between the oxide material and
the dye is not easily possible
 Inorganic 3D solar cell

Efficiency ~ 5%

Other possible materials

CISe, CdX(X= S, Se and Te), HgX, HgCdTe, PbS, InP, CuS.
Extremely thin absorber layer (ETA) solar cell

Other possible materials

Nanocrystalline CuInS2,
CdX(X= S, Se and Te),
HgCdTe, PbS quantum dots,
InP, CuS.

Efficiency 2.1%

Structure of ETA solar cell

ORGANIC PHOTOVOLTAICS
-Low Cost
-Disposable
-Flexible
- Variety of shapes
- Thin films
-Processible from solution
-Tunable in conductivity
-Metallic Vs semiconducting
-Light Weight
Organic photovoltaic material differ
from Inorganic semiconductor in the
following respects
*Photogenerated excitations (excitons) are bounded and do not
spontaneously dissociate into charge pairs.

*Charge transport proceed by hopping between localized states, rather

than transport with a band, and mobilities are low.
[CdSe (at 300 K) : 1050 cm2 V-1 s-1, conjugated polymers below 1 cm2
V-1 s-1]

*The spectral range of optical absorption is relatively narrow compared to

the solar spectrum.

*Absorption coefficients are high so that high optical density can be

achieved, at peak wavelength, with films less than 100 nm thick.

*Many materials are susceptible to degradation in the presence of oxygen

or water.
Organic Material for solar cell application:
PPP- Poly (Para phenylene)
PPV- Poly (Para Phenylene vinylene
CN-PPV- Cyano-subsituted PPV
MEH- 2-methoxy, 5- (2-ethyl-hexyloxy)-PPV
MCP- CN substituted MEH-PPV
PANI- Poly (aniline)
Pc - Phthalocyanine
PEDOT- Poly (ethylene dioythiophene)
Per - Perylene diimide derivative
PIF- Poly (indenofluorene)
PT - Poly (thiophene) , PVK- Poly (vinyl Carbazole)
Advantages & Disadvantages of
Polymer based Photovoltaic Devices
Advantages
* Increased quantum efficiency by increased mobility under applied bias

* Possess flexibility

* Adjustability of the electronic bandgap through molecular tailoring

* Easy processability

* Possible to fabricate devices using coating or printing technique at room tem

* Low cost device fabrication

* Large area device formation

* Possess low specific weight

Disadvantages

* A strong driving force is required to break up the photogenerated

excitons.

* Low charge carrier mobilities limit the useful thickness of devices.

* Limited light absorption across the solar spectrum limits the

photocurrents.

* Very thin devices mean interference effects can be important

* Photocurrent is sensitive to temperature through hopping transport.

* Current efficiencies < 3-5%

* Long term stability

Hybrid absorber for photovoltaic :

-Improving light harvesting

- Improving photocurrent generation
- Improving charge transport
- Stability
- Understanding device function
Properties of Hybrid Materials Depends on :
Individual Organic and Inorganic
Components
Size of the Individual Components (bulk /
nm)
Interface between the Two Components
Different Approaches in Polymer Solar Cell
First organic solar cell

Polymer-Polymer Layer Devices

Laminated film
Au/PEDOT/POPT:MEH-CN-PPV
(19:1)/MEH-CN-PPV:POPT
(19:1)/ca
Power conversion efficiency ~ 1% (by Tang [Kodak] in 1986) Power conversion efficiency ~ 1.9 %
Friend’s group in Cambridge, Nature, 395,
C.W. Tang, Appl. Phys. Lett., 48,183 (1986) 257 (1998)

Polymer Layer Device Polymer-Inorganic Blend Device

CdSe nanorod/poly-3(hexylthiophene) blend
film
Power conversion efficiency = 1.7 %
Huynh et al., Science, 295, 2425 (2002)
Power conversion efficiency ~ 1.2 %
Jenekhe et al., Appl. Phys. Lett., 77, 2635
(2000)
Geometry for PN Heterojunction PV Cell

polymer IPN device

IPCE~ 4 % at 550 nm
Halls et al., Nature, 376, 498 (1995)
Our Approach for Hybrid Solar Cell

Al

CdX, and TiO2 {X= Te, Se and S}

Polyanilinene
,MEH-PPV, P3HT.
Acc. Don. hν
ITO

Glass

e-
h+

Al ITO
Photoinduced Charge Transfer in organic
semiconductor
Photocurrent generation
 THIRD GENERATION
PHOTOVOLTAIC DEVICES
 Tim Coutts’s report on 33rd
IEEE PV Specialist Conference
● Building on the many years of investment
in research and development, the PV
industry is now the fastest growing
industry in the world. Given this rapid
translation of research to the market
place, this year’s keynote addresses
focused on experiences of industry and
the investments being made by private and
government entities.
● Howard Berke, senior advisor to Good
Energies and Founder of Konarka
Technologies, Inc., talked of developing
organic PV products based on a light-
activated conductive polymer active layer,
having over 6% efficiency.
● A very interesting talk was given by Dave
Eaglesham of First Solar entitled “The Pathway
to Grid Parity” ­ that is the drive to cost parity
with electricity from the fossil-fuel grid. First
Solar is the current benchmark for low-cost PV
module manufacturing, with a cost that is well
below c-Si PV and a proven production cost all-in
of $1.14/W. The company is growing quickly and
is on the verge of being the first Giga Watt
producer. This talk outlined the current status,
the issues around managing rapid growth and
rapid technology change, and the pathway to
further reductions in cost.
● Impressive results were presented on the
component sub-cells and process technologies for
advanced (4-6 junction) multijunction concepts.
● These results include: ·
31% conversion efficiency at 13x for a 3-
terminal 2-junction GaInP/GaAs solar cells for
spectrum-splitting PV module ·
~8% efficiency on InP-based GaInPAs/GaInAs
2-junction cells with a GaAsSb/GaInAs tunnel-
junction.
Successful demonstration of a GaInP/GaAs 2-
junction cell on wafer-bonded Ge/Si epitaxial
templates.