Soil Physical Properties II: Bulk Density, Particle Density, and Porosity I. OBJECTIVES 1.

To understand the difference between particle density and bulk density. 2. To understand the relationship between soil bulk density and soil texture. 3. To calculate the bulk density (Db) of a field soil using the core method. 4. To calculate soil particle density and total soil porosity. II. BACKGROUND Soils are comprised of solids, liquid, and gas. In general, soil consists of approximately 45% mineral material, 5% organic matter, and 50% pore space through which liquids and gases move. The amount of pore space is determined by the arrangement of the soil particles. The proportion of pore space is low when soil particles are very close together (e.g., compacted soil) and is higher when soils have high organic matter. Sandy soils normally have 35-50% pore space, while medium to fine-textured soils have 40-60% pore space. Pore space decreases with soil depth because subsoil tends to be more compacted than topsoil. The ability of the soil to hold and transmit water and air is impacted by the (1) amount of pore space in the soil and (2) pore size distribution. Soil pores can be classified into three main groups depending on the diameter of the individual pore. Macropores are large diameter pores ( 0.1 mm) that tend to be freely draining and are prevalent in coarse textured or sandy soils. Mesopores are medium sized pores (0.03 mm 0.1 mm) that are common in medium-textured soils or loamy soils. Micropores are small diameter pores (<0.03 mm) that are important for water storage and are abundant in clay soils. It is sometimes helpful to envision soil pore space as a network of tiny tubes of varying diameter. Imagine how the diameters of those tubes would impact the movement of gasses and liquids relative to aeration, drainage, and infiltration. Soil Density Density is the relationship between the mass (m) and volume (V) of a substance.

Based on this relationship, an object or substance that has high mass in relation to its size (or volume) also has a high density (D).

The solid (mineral and organic) particles that make up a soil have specific particle density (Dp), which is defined as the mass of solid particles in a unit volume.

The particle density of a soil is not affected by particle size or arrangement; rather it depends on the type of solid particles present in the soils. Because mineral soil particles are heavier than organic matter, they have a higher particle density on a unit volume basis. The average particle density of a mineral surface soil is about 2.65 g cm-3, which is the average density of quartz. Soil bulk density (Db) is a measure of the mass of soil per unit volume (solids + pore space) and is usually reported on an oven-dry basis.

Unlike the measurement of particle density, the bulk density measurement accounts for the spaces between the soil particles (pore space) as well as the soil solids. Soils with a high proportion of pore space have lower mass per unit volume, and therefore have low bulk density. Typical mineral soils have bulk densities that range from 1.0 to 1.6 g cm-3. A bulk density greater than 1.6 g cm-3 may indicate soil compaction, which means these soils have a low proportion of pore space and, therefore, low porosity. Alternatively, soils with a high proportion of organic matter tend to have bulk densities that are less than 1.0 g cm-3. The bulk density of different soils varies based largely on soil texture and the degree of soil compaction. Sandy soils with low organic matter tend to have higher bulk density than clayey or loamy soils. Soil bulk density is usually higher in subsurface soils than in surface horizons, in part due to compaction by the weight of the surface soil. Bulk Density and Porosity The bulk density indirectly provides a measure of the soil porosity (amount of pore space). Soil porosity is the ratio of the volume of soil pores to the total soil volume. In general, clayey soils have an abundance of very small pores (micropores) that give them a higher total porosity compared to sands, which are dominated by larger, but fewer pores. Consider the relative sizes of a single sand grain and several clay particles existing as an aggregate (Figure 1). Low porosity tends to inhibit root penetration, water movement, and gas movement.

Figure 1. The relationship between soil particle size and soil porosity. There are more pore spaces between the clay than sand particles because clay particles are much smaller. Thus, clay soils tend to have a higher total porosity than sandy soilsall else being equal. However, the relationship between texture and bulk density is tenuous and depends on a variety of factors such as organic matter content and depth in the soil profile. Bulk density (Db) is closely related to the soil porosity through the following relationship:

Soil porosity values range from 0 to 1. Soils with a high bulk density have low total porosity because empty pores do not have any mass. Figure 2 illustrates the overall relationship between porosity and bulk density. When the bulk density is zero, porosity equals 1, meaning there are no particles. If the bulk density is equal to the particle density, then there are no pores and porosity is zero. Between these two extremes are the values for soils. Clayey soils tend to have lower bulk densities and higher porosities than sandy soils.

Figure 2. The relationship between soil bulk density and porosity. Soil Sampling to Determine Bulk Density Soil sampling to determine bulk density is quite simple, but requires patience and care because obtaining an accurate volume of soil is critical. The samples are obtained by driving a container of known volume into the soil. The container is then oven-dried and weighed. Dividing weight of soil (g) obtained by the volume of the container (cm3) gives the soil bulk density value (g cm-3). Figure 3 illustrates a typical bulk density sampler. The construction allows the sample container to be driven into the soil without undue disturbance or compaction. Compaction increases the mass in a given volume, which increases the measured bulk density. Accidental compaction during sampling can lead to an overestimation of bulk density. Figure 3. Example of a soil bulk density sampler.

III. PROCEDURE Bulk Density (Core Method) 1. Drive the soil core into the ground and remove the intact core. After collecting, weigh the soil core and report the mass (g) to 2 decimals in Table 1. Label the soil core with your group number and place the intact core in the drying oven. (Note: This step will be completed during the previous laboratory period.) 2. Soil core samplers are 10 cm in diameter and 10 cm high. Calculate the volume of the soil core sampler using the equation: V = r2 h, where V = volume (cm3), r = the radius of the core sampler (cm) and h is the height of the core sampler (cm). Record the volume of the soil sampler in Table 1. 3. Remove soil core from the drying oven and weigh. Report this value (in g) to 2 decimal places in Table 1. 4. Remove the soil from the core sampler and clean the container. Do not discard the soil; store the soil in the provided container labeled with the soil information and your lab group name. 5. For each soil, weigh the soil core sampler. Report this value (in g) to 2 decimal places in Table 1. 6. Determine the mass (or weight) of the oven-dry soil by subtracting the weight of the core sampler (line 4) from the weight of the core sampler + dry soil (line 3). Record the weight of the oven dry soil (g) to 2 decimal places in Table 1. 7. Calculate the bulk density of your samples (Db = M/V) and record the value in Table 1. Make sure to specify the correct units. 8. Determine the mass (or weight) of the moist soil by subtracting the weight of the core sampler (line 4) from the weight of the moist soil + core sampler (line 1). Record the weight of the moist soil (g) to 2 decimal places in Table 1. 9. Using the weight of the moist sample and oven-dry sample, calculate the amount of water that was removed by drying. Particle Density and Porosity Note: This experiment will be completed twice with two different soil samples. However, porosity will only be calculated for the soil that was used in the bulk density exercise. 1. Obtain a clean, dry 100 mL volumetric flask. Weigh the flask and record the weight in Table 2.

2. Using a funnel, carefully fill the flask with water to the line indicated. Dry the outside of the flask. Weigh the flask plus water and record the weight in Table 2. 3. Determine the weight of the water by subtracting the weight of the flask + water from the weight of the flask. Record the weight in Table 2. 4. Empty the flask and dry the outside. 5. Carefully add 25 g of soil provided to the flask. Fill the flask approximately way and swirl the contents gently to remove air bubbles. 6. Slowly add water to the flask and soil to the line indicated. Dry the outside of the flask. Weigh and record the mass of soil, water, and flask and record the mass in Table 2. 7. Determine the weight of the water in the flask containing soil by subtracting the weight of the soil from the weight of the flask + water + soil. Record the weight in Table 2. 8. Record the difference in the weight of water in the flask with and without soil. Record this value in Table 2. 9. Determine the volume of water that was displaced by the sand. (Use the conversion 1 g water = 1 cm3 of water.) This value represents the volume of soil solids. Record this volume in Table 2. 10. Calculate the particle density (D) of the soil using the formula: D = mass of dry soil/volume of soil solids. Record this value in Table 2. 11. Calculate the porosity of the sample using the formula: Porosity (%) = 1 (Db/ D). Record the porosity in Table 1. (Use the Db values you calculated using the core method to calculate porosity.)

IV. DATA COLLECTION Table 1. Soil Bulk Density Core Method Instructions: Record all values to 2 decimal places and include the appropriate units. Include a name or brief description of the soil samples under the heading Soil sample. Soil Bulk Density Parameter Soil sample

1. Weight of moist soil + core sampler 2. Volume of soil 3. Weight of dry soil + container 4. Weight of soil core sampler 5. Dry weight of soil (3-4) 6. Soil bulk density 7. Weight of moist soil (1-4) 8. Weight of water removed (7-5)

Table 2. Soil Particle Density and Porosity Instructions: Record all values to 2 decimal places and include the appropriate units. Include a name or brief description of the soil samples used in this in the boxes labeled soil 1 and soil 2. Soil Parameter Soil 1 Soil 2

1. Weight of flask 2. Weight of flask + water 3. Weight of water (2-1) 4. Weight of soil 5. Weight of flask + water + soil 6. Weight of water (5-4) 7. Difference in mass of water (3-6) 8. Volume of soil solids (= volume of water displaced by soil). 1 g = 1 cm3 9. Particle density (D) of soil 10. Bulk density (Db) of soil (From Table 1) 11. Porosity

V. LAB REPORT A full lab report will be required for this lab exercise. Please follow these guidelines to prepare your report: Introduction The introduction can be written from the first few pages of each exercise in the lab manual. a. Background: Write one or more paragraphs (about page) giving a brief description and background of the topic as described in your lab manual. Please answer the following questions as part of the background section: 1. What is soil bulk density? 2. How is soil bulk density conceptually related to soil porosity? 3. Indicate 3 factors that can strongly influence soil bulk density (e.g. organic matter content) and how they influence bulk density. b. Objectives: State the objectives of the lab exercise in your own words. Results/Data Include the completed data tables from your Results section for all exercises preformed as part of the lab. Tables may be photocopied, scanned, or recreated in a spreadsheet as long as they are legible. Include sample calculations (one of each type) when relevant. Discussion/Conclusions Discuss each objective as stated in the Introduction. This includes how the objective was met, the outcome of any hypotheses tested, and the experimental results. This section is not a listing of experimental procedures. It should be a thoughtful discussion of the principles studied as well as their importance and application. Weak discussions showing a lack of thought or effort will be graded as such. The following discussion points should be addressed in your lab write up. 1. Was the measured bulk density of your soils within the range common for most mineral soils? If not, discuss specifically some possible reasons. Do you expect any problems related to the growth of crops or plants in your soil based on the measured bulk density? 2. How would you expect the soil texture and bulk density of the surface soil to compare with the texture of a subsurface (Bt) horizon? 9

3. Suggest two practical ways that you could change the bulk density of a soil. How would these changes impact the pore size distribution (micro-, meso-, macro-pores)? Address all three and the specific reason for the changes. 4. Were there differences in the calculated particle density of your soils? If so, discuss some reasons for the reported differences. VI. SUGGESTED READING Brady, N.C. and R.R. Weil. 2008 The nature and properties of soil (14th Ed.). Prentice Hall. Upper Saddle River, N.J., Chapter 4. Singer, M.J. and D.N. Munns. 2006. Soils: An Introduction (6th Ed.). Pearsons Prentice Hall, N.J., Chapters 2 and 3. Soil Science Society of America. 2010. Glossary of soil science terms. SSSA. Madison, WI. Available at: https://www.soils.org/publications/soils-glossary

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