UNIVERSITY OF SASKATCHEWAN DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL & POULTRY SCIENCE ANIMAL SCIENCE 410.

3 GRAZING ANIMAL PRODUCTION LECTURE MANUAL 1998

by

Dr. Roger D.H. Cohen

BEEF CATTLE HERD MANAGEMENT

INTRODUCTION Cattle have been valued as a source of food, clothing and power for as long as people have domesticated animals. In today's societies, beef consumption is still a major indicator of the standard of living in a population. The beef cattle of the world belong to two species: Bos taurus and Bos indicus. Bos taurus cattle are largely European in origin and are adapted to temperate climates. Some breed representatives include Hereford, Angus, Shorthorn, Simmental, Charolais, Maine-Anjou and Limousin. Bos indicus cattle are Afro-Asian in origin and are adapted to tropical climates. The most important breed representatives are Brahman, Red Sindhi and Sahiwal. Beef cattle were first introduced to North America from Spain by Christopher Columbus on his second voyage in 1493. Although British and European breeds of cattle were introduced to North America in the early 17th century, there was little interest in selection and improvement of cattle until the late 18th century. Cattle were initially required to graze the existing native rangelands with no provisions for supplementary feeding during winter, drought and other extreme climatic conditions. There was little or no correction of nutritional deficiencies in the forage. This method of husbandry still exists today in many parts of the world. The economic value of cattle in developed societies has increased greatly during the 20th century. For example, in Canada by 1988, beef production accounted for 55.2% of the farm receipts from livestock and 26.9% of the total farm receipts from all agricultural enterprises. Nevertheless, the beef industry is still the least intensive of all agricultural industries. Because of low fecundity and the great length of time taken for progeny to reach slaughter weight, the beef cow produces only about 70% of her body weight as slaughter weight per year. This compares unfavorably with the sow who produces about 8 times her body weight and the hen who produces about 100 times her body weight as slaughter weight per year. However, cattle consume only 17% of their feed as concentrates compared with 85% for swine and 94% for poultry and are, therefore, much less competitive with man for feed resources. Cattle derive their agricultural importance from the effective conversion of energy not useable by people (eg. grass and crop aftermath) into high quality protein and other essential nutrients for human consumption. STRUCTURE OF THE BEEF INDUSTRY The beef industry is divided into two enterprises, cow/calf and feeder. These may be conducted independently, with transfer of ownership of calves at weaning to independent premises; simultaneously, with retention of calves on the original farm through to slaughter; or as an integrated enterprise, with retention of ownership of the cattle, but transfer of them to some independent premises at some time between weaning and slaughter. THE COW / CALF ENTERPRISE The cow/calf enterprise can be sub-divided into the production of purebred and commercial cattle. Purebred cattle are sources of germ plasm, most commonly bulls though occasionally heifers, for other purebred and commercial breeders. Purebred cattle are eligible for entry in a breed association registry and represent a product descended from a selected long line of ancestors of similar type and breed. They are produced with the aim of improving efficiency of production, 2

frame size and carcass quality. Calves which are not kept in the herd for replacement purposes are not usually fed to slaughter but are fed to at least one, and frequently two years of age and sold as breeding stock. The costs associated with feeding are usually greater than those of commercial cattle. Promotion and advertising of the product through the media or show ring is also an integral and expensive part of the purebred enterprise. Although showing beef cattle has declined in importance in the purebred enterprise, it remains a popular way of advertising in the industry. Performance testing of cattle has increased in popularity in the last 20-30 years because of its ability to provide proof of superiority. However, there is evidence that performance testing may have been used more as a marketing tool than as a means of improving productivity in the purebred industry. In the commercial cow/calf enterprise, calves are produced to be sold at weaning, carried through to slaughter or to be reared as replacement heifers. Crossbred cows are frequently the basis of the commercial herd and these cows are usually bred to bulls of a third breed (terminal sire). For example, popular crossbred cows are Hereford x Angus or Hereford x Simmental and Charolais bulls are popular terminal sires but combinations of all breeds are in use in the industry. Most beef calves are born in late winter or early spring to keep winter feeding costs at a minimum and to allow the cow to make maximum use of fresh spring/summer pasture growth for lactation. Nevertheless, fall calving is practiced in some herds to reduce the incidence of neonatal calf diarrhea or to take advantage of higher prices for calves sold in spring or to increase pasture utilization by the calf. However, both growth rate and weaning weight are usually reduced in fallborn compared with spring-born calves. Milk yield is also lower in fall compared to spring calving cows, the advantage increasing in favor of spring calving cows if ambient temperatures during winter fall to -5oC or below. In addition, fall-calving cows must be bred during winter but bull fertility is lower during winter than summer and bull libido is highest in spring. Furthermore, there is an increased requirement for feed in the winter if the calves are born in the fall because the nutritional requirements of the lactating cow are greater in winter than spring and summer. The provision of additional feed for fall-born calves is also important to ensure adequate nutrition through winter. All these requirements increase feed costs relative to spring-born calves. Many cow/calf operators sell their calves at weaning to operators in the feeder enterprise but retention of ownership through to slaughter is becoming increasingly more common. Ownership may be retained by either feeding the calves from weaning to slaughter on the home farm or ranch, or moving the calves at some stage between weaning and slaughter to the premises of a feeder enterprise operator. The latter is usually referred to as 'custom feeding'. Plant breeders have been effective in providing varieties of crops that are more adapted to lower rainfall, local temperatures and day-length, fewer frost-free days, and that are more resistant to pests and diseases. This has resulted in a continual encroachment of profit motivated cash cropping into the traditional rangeland areas grazed by the cow/calf herd. The result has been a declining number of farms and ranches, which depend on beef production as their major source of income. For example, in Canada there are approximately 80,000 cow/calf herds and the average size is less than 50 cows/herd. Fewer than 15% of Canadian herds derive their major source of income from beef cattle. In the United States, approximately 74% of farms and ranches have fewer than 50 cows.

SASKATCHEWAN BEEF INDUSTRY PERSPECTIVE In 1975 there were 1.3 million beef cows in Saskatchewan. By 1986 the number of cows had declined to 761,000. This decline reflected high grain prices, high interest rates and government policy which

favored grain production over livestock production. By 1994, the number had risen again to 1.2 million reflecting lower grain prices, lower interest rates and changes in the grain transportation act. This is typical of the cattle cycle, which is accentuated more in Saskatchewan than the other provinces because of the importance of the grain industries. Atypically, cattle numbers have remained fairly constant since 1994, reflecting generally good seasonal conditions and continued low grain prices. The average cow herd size in Saskatchewan is 55. The majority of cattle in Saskatchewan are complementary to cash cropping. Frequently, the farm has some land unsuitable for cropping but suitable for pasture and hay (i.e. saline, rocky, treed or light soil areas). Cattle are also a means of using crop aftermath (stubble, straw, chaff, etc.) or they fit some crop/pasture rotation. Very few beef cows are kept in confinement (corrals, barns, etc.) year round, though most cows are held in confinement or semi-confinement (i.e. small paddocks near the home) for the winter months to facilitate feeding and management, particularly at calving. The profitability of a cow/calf operation depends primarily on: 1) High percentage of calf crop at weaning and heavy weaning weights of calves. 2) Maximum utilization of pasture and cheap roughage. 3) Low capital investment/cow in land, buildings and equipment. 4) A high pregnancy rate in the replacement heifers 5) Low labor requirements. 6) Low expenditure on supplementary feeds. 7) Effective management. ANNUAL CYCLE OF A COW-CALF OPERATION: The average gestation length of a beef cow is 283 days and post-partum anestrus is about 40 days. This allows just 42 days for the cow to conceive if she is going to produce a calf within a 365 day period (i.e. one calf /year). The annual cycle of a beef cow is shown in Figure 1. A high level of reproductive performance is essential to an efficient cow/calf operation. The percentage calf crop is a measure of fertility, mothering ability and calf survival and has a direct bearing on production costs and profitability. Although disease and genetics will influence reproductive performance, the greatest benefits will be achieved from careful consideration of herd nutrition. The cow must remain as a productive unit in the herd for as long as possible. This means she must breed at 1215 months of age and produce her first calf by the time she is 2 years old. The heifer only becomes an economically productive unit when her first calf is sold. The nutritional management of the replacement heifer herd has a major influence on her reproductive performance. The beef cow reaches her maximum productive potential when she is 4-5 years old and should maintain that level until at least 10 years of age. Failure to conceive at any time before 10 years of age represents a major loss of productive potential. Heavy weaning weights of calves are directly associated with the nutrition of the calf and nursing cow. However, calf weaning-weight is also influenced by age at puberty in the dam and by the length of the post-partum anestrus period. For example, calves which are conceived in the first and second estrus cycles of the breeding season (that is within the first 21 and 42 days respectively of exposure of heifers to bulls) grow significantly faster from birth to weaning and weigh more at weaning than calves which are conceived later in the season. Furthermore, heifers that calve early at the first calving have higher average annual lifetime calf production than heifers that calve late at the first calving.

Cow Cycle

Post-partum 40 days Pregnant & dry160 days Pregnant & lactating 123 days

Breeding 42 days

Figure 1. The annual cycle of a cow/calf operation.

FEEDING THE BEEF COW There are 3 phases of primary importance: 1) Weaning to calving (fall & winter) 2) Calving to re-breeding (spring & early summer) 3) Breeding to weaning (summer & early fall) 1. Weaning to calving When calves are weaned in the fall, all cows should be pregnancy tested and only pregnant cows should be fed during the winter period. Generally, it is not economical to feed older cows for slaughter so these cows should be shipped immediately following pregnancy testing. However, in some cases, cows in poor condition will gain weight very and it may be economical to feed these cows good quality roughage and grain for a short period (60-90 days) to take advantage of this rapid weight gain and high feed conversion efficiency. Most often, it will be economical to feed young cows and heifers (i.e. cows less than 3 years.) for 30-90 days if they are open but in good condition as it may still be possible to receive Canada A grades for these carcasses. After weaning, the female herd should be split into 5 groups because different groups of animals in the herd will have different requirements. These groups are: 1) Mature cows in good condition - fed low to medium quality forage to maintain weight or, if fed high 5

quality forage, intake should be limited to maintain weight until about 6 weeks before calving. 2) Mature cows in poor condition should be fed medium quality forage to gain 0.1 - 0.5 kg/day otherwise these cows will be in poor condition for calving and likely not conceive the following breeding season. 3) Two-year-old cows (i.e., those that have just weaned their first calf) should be fed medium to high quality forage as these cows are still growing themselves and have undergone the severe stress of a first lactation. These cows should be fed to gain 0.3 - 0.6 kg/day. 4) Bred replacement heifers - these are still growing and should reach a frame size that will allow easy calving but should not be over-fat as this will cause dystocia. They require a medium to good quality forage perhaps with some gain and should grow at about 0.5 kg/day. 5) Replacement heifer calves. These should be fed high quality forage and some grain (e.g. 8 kg brome-alfalfa hay + 3 kg oats or 2 kg barley/day) to gain 0.6 - 0.8 kg/day in order to reach a target breeding weight of 320-350 kg at 14-15 months of age by spring. Groups 3 and 4 or 2,3 and 4 can be fed as a single group if cattle numbers or facilities do not warrant 5 groups. Cows should be on a rising plane of nutrition 3-4 weeks before calving and on high quality forage after calving. This will mean increasing the quality of forage and/or providing some additional grain. The condition of cows going into winter has a major effect on the amount and quality of feed that they will need. Cows in thin condition in the fall must gain weight throughout winter or they may have problems calving and may have weak or moribund calves. The cow may produce little milk and so wean a light calf and she may not conceive when re-bred in spring. Cows in good condition in fall need only enough feed to maintain their weight until calving. The wintering period can be divided into the second and third trimesters of pregnancy. Second Trimester During the second trimester, nutrient requirements are the lowest for the whole reproductive cycle of the cow. Thus, depending upon their condition, they can be fed low quality forage or up to 75% straw and 25% grain and protein supplement, or other combinations of straw and good quality forage. If a medium-good quality forage is fed it may be necessary to limit feed to achieve the desired weight change as defined earlier. It is during this period that the poorest quality stored feed should be fed. Third Trimester If cows are being fed to achieve their prescribed rate of gain for the second trimester it should not be necessary to alter the feeding program until 4-8 weeks before calving. However, if they are not achieving expected weight gains during the second trimester it may be necessary to increase the quality or quantity of feed given during the first half of the third trimester because the nutrient requirements are increased to meet the needs of the fetus, which is growing rapidly during the 6-9 month gestation period. It is during this period that cold weather will increase the energy requirement of the beef herd. During the last 4-8 weeks of gestation, the amount of nutrients supplied should be increased by about 15% either by increasing the amount or quality of the ration or both. 2. Calving to re-breeding This is a particularly important time for the cow. Her requirements are high due to lactation and she 6

must be on a high plane of nutrition to ensure: a) Adequate milk for the calf b) Quick return to estrus c) Good conception rate Inadequate nutrition at this time will result in: a) a greater number of days between calving and estrus b) a longer calving period next year c) less likelihood of breeding every year d) large differences in age between oldest and youngest calves e) large differences in weaning weight between oldest and youngest calves f) less even calf crop and reduced income g) lighter replacement heifers resulting in reduced heifer conception rates. The cow will be on pasture range for much of this period. 3. Breeding to Weaning Cow nutrient requirements will begin to decline following breeding as she will have reached her lactation peak and the calf will be getting increasingly more nutrients from dry feed (eg. pasture) and less from milk. The decline in cow nutrient requirements is gradual to weaning. The cow will usually be on range or pasture for all of this period. Feed Intake Beef cattle will consume feed on a dry matter basis at the rate of 1-3% of their body weight. Feed consumption will vary depending on the type of ration, the age and condition of the animal and the stage of its production cycle (i.e. eating to meet energy demands eg. for lactation). However 3% is the upper limit, in most cases cattle have difficulty eating more than 2.5% of body weight. Table 1. Approximate Consumption Estimates of Some Feeds on a 90% DM basis for a 550kg beef cow. __________________________________________________________________ Feedstuff Approximate Maximum Consumption DMD % kg/d % of BW ___________________________________________________________________ Excellent quality hay 65 16.5 Very good quality hay 60 13.75 Medium Quality hay 55 11.0 Poor hay, Barley straw 45 7.5 Wheat straw 35 - 40 5.5 Silage 60 - 65 13.75-16.5 __________________________________________________________________ 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 2.5 - 3

Minerals and Vitamins Most winter feeding programs for cows require supplemented minerals. Cobalt iodized (blue) salt or trace mineralized salt should be available on a free-choice basis. Rations based on hay should have 1:1 Ca:P supplement available while rations based on cereal silage or straw and grain should have 2:1 Ca:P supplement available. Other minerals to consider which are frequently deficient in prairie feeds are Cu, Zn, Mn and Se. Cows should consume 20-30 gm/head/day and it may be necessary to feed minerals with salt to ensure adequate intake. It is not usually economically feasible to process forage for cows so minerals are best fed free choice rather than mixed with the feed or they can be fed in a grain supplement. A beef cow requires 40,000 IU of Vitamin A/day before calving and 70,000 IU Vitamin A/day after calving until she has access to green grass. Vitamin A is stored in the liver so it can be injected every 1-2 months or fed daily. Table 2. Mineral Requirements and Maximum Tolerable Levels for Beef Cattle _____________________________________________________________________ Maximum Suggested Tolerable a Mineral Value Range Levelb _____________________________________________________________________ Calcium, % See below 2 Cobalt, ppm 0.10 0.07 to 0.11 5 Copper, ppm 8 4 to 10 115 Iodine, ppm 0.5 0.20 to 2.0 50 Iron, ppm 50 50 to 100 1000 Magnesium, % 0.10 0.05 to 0.25 0.40 Manganese, ppm 40 20 to 50 1000 Molybdenum, ppm 6 Phosphorus, % See below 1 Potassium, % 0.65 0.5 to 0.7 3 Selenium, ppm 0.20 0.05 to 0.30 2 Sodium, % 0.08 0.06 to 0.10 10c Chlorine, % Sulfur, % 0.10 0.08 to 0.15 0.40 Zinc, ppm 30 20 to 40 500 ____________________________________________________________________
aThe listing of a range in which requirements are likely to be met recognizes that requirements for most minerals are affected by a variety of dietary and animal (body weight, sex, rate of gain) factors. Thus, it may be better to evaluate rations based on a range of mineral requirements and for content of interfering substances than to meet a specific dietary value. For most places in Saskatchewan, where cattle are watered from deep wells during the winter and the water has a high sulphate content (>500 ppm), the requirements for Cu, Zn and Mn can be increased to 25, 70 and 90 ppm respectively. bFrom NRC (1980). c10% sodium chloride. P req. = 8-30 g/d depending on weight, age, sex, physiological condition, etc. OR 0.2 - 0.4%. Ca req. = 10-45 g/d depending on above factors OR 0.2-0.6%.

Table 3. Maximum Tolerance Levels of Certain Toxic Elementsa _____________________________________________________________________ Element Maximum Tolerable Level, ppm _____________________________________________________________________ Aluminum 1,000 Arsenic 50 (100 for organic forms) Bromine 200 Cadmium 00.5 Fluorine 20 to 100 Lead 30 Mercury 2 Strontium 2,000 _____________________________________________________________________ aNRC (1980). Table 4, Mineral Requirements and Maximum Tolerable Levels for Beef Cattle.

Energy and Protein Nutrition of the Beef Cow The energy and protein requirements of a beef cow increase as she moves through the second and third trimesters of her pregnancy and they increase further during lactation (Table 4; Figure 1). Daily dry matter intake also increases through these times (Table 4) however this increased intake alone may not be sufficient to meet requirements without an accompanying increase in feed quality. Table 5 presents approximate energy and protein values of some feedstuffs commonly fed to beef cows and Table 4 indicates the ability of three of these feeds (medium quality brome/alfalfa hay; barley straw; barley silage) to meet these requirements for a 550 kg cow at thermoneutrality. Table 4. Nutrient Requirements of a 550 kg cow at Thermoneutral Conditions _____________________________________________________________________ Production Daily Daily Requirements % in Diet Cycle Gain ME TDN CP ME TDN CP (Mcals) (kg) (g) (Mcal/kg) (%) (%) _____________________________________________________________________ 2nd trimr 3rd trimr 0 0.4 16.7 19.5 4.6 5.4 657 790 1.76 1.91 48.6 52.8 6.9 7.8

DMI (kg/d) 9.5 10.2

Lactating 1st 3-4 months 5 kg milk/d 0 21.5 5.9 1001 2.03 56.1 9.5 10 kg milk/d 0 25.8 7.1 1299 2.38 65.8 12.0 _____________________________________________________________________

10.6 10.9

Figure 2. Theoretical energy requirements of a mature 550 kg (1200 lb) beef cow.

Table 5. Energy and Protein Contents of Some Feeds (Hay Equiv. Basis) _____________________________________________________________________ Feed DMD ME TDN CP (%) (Mcals/kg) (%) (%) _____________________________________________________________________ Excellent alfalfa hay 65 2.20 59 18.3 Good alfalfa hay 60 2.18 57 15.9 Med. Brome alfalfa hay 55 1.76 54 10.9 Barley straw 45 1.45 40 3.9 Barley silage 65 2.30 60 10.8 Barley 90 3.30 75 12.0 _____________________________________________________________________

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Table 6. Ability of Some Forages to Meet the Requirements of a 550 kg Cow at Thermoneutrality (Hay Equiv. Basis) ____________________________________________________________________ 2nd Trimester 3rd Trimester Lactating Intake (kg/d) Intake(kg/d) (5 kg/d) Forage to meet reqt. To meet reqt. Intake to meet for for reqt. for Energy Prot. Energy Prot. Energy Prot. _____________________________________________________________________ Med. Brome/ Alfalfa Hay Barley Straw 11 8 9.5 11.5 6 16.8 11 13.4 7.3 20.3 12.3 14.8 9.2 25.7 Estimated Intake (kg/d)

Barley Silage 14 7.3 6.1 8.5 7.3 9.3 9.3 _____________________________________________________________________ It can be seen from Table 6 that barley silage will probably provide sufficient energy and protein throughout the cycle for a cow producing 5 kg milk/day but additional energy (grain) would be required for higher milk production. Brome/alfalfa hay would supply sufficient protein but insufficient energy for a lactating cow producing 5 kg milk/day whereas barley straw would not provide sufficient energy or protein for a 550 kg cow at any stage of its production cycle. Tables 5 and 6 apply to temperatures within the thermoneutral zone (Figure 3). Although temperatures below the lower critical temperature (cold stress) may stimulate intake (Figure 4), they will also increase the requirements for dietary energy required for the maintenance of normal body temperature. These increased requirements may not always be able to be met by increased feed intake (Table 6). Lower Critical Temperature Upper Critical Temperature

Thermoneutral Zone

Optimum for performance and growth

Cool Low EFFECTIVE AMBIENT TEMPERATURE Figure 3. Relationship of temperature to thermal zones.

Warm High

11

-20

20

40

Figure 4. Effect of environmental temperature on feed intake in cattle.

Effect of Environment on Energy Nutrition 1) Effect of cold on digestibility Resting metabolic rate is a measure of the maintenance energy expenditure of animals. As the temperature falls below thermoneutrality (~20 o C) resting metabolic rate increases in order to maintain normal body temperature (Figure 5). In addition, there is a depression in the digestibility of feed as temperature falls below thermoneutrality (Figure 6). As a general rule there is a 1.8% depression in DMD/10oC below 20oC. This reduces the effective metabolizable energy content of the feed (Table 7).

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Figure 5. The effect of temperature on energy expenditure of beef cows.

Figure 6. Effect of physical form and temperature on the digestibility of two forages. (Long and pelleted brome grass represented by open and filled triangles and chopped and pelleted timothy by open and filled circles respectively). Table 7. Effect of temperature on feed ME content (Mcal/kg) ___________________________________________________________________ Digestibility (% DM) at 20oC 50 55 60 _____________________________________________________________________ Temperature 20oC 1.65 1.83 2.01 o 0 C 1.59 1.76 1.94 o -30 C 1.50 1.67 1.83 _____________________________________________________________________

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Using the information from figures 4, 5 and 6 and table 7, the ability of high and low energy rations to meet the requirements of a beef cow during winter is illustrated in Figure 7.

Figure 7. The relationship between intake energy (IE), energy requirement (ER) and temperature in beef cattle. The feed intake requirements of a 550 kg cow in the third trimester of pregnancy (kg DM/d) are shown in Table 8 for feeds of 50, 55 and 60% DM digestibility at different temperatures. Table 8. Feed requirements for a 550 kg cow in the 3rd trimester of pregnancy. ____________________________________________________________________ Digestibility (% DM) at 20oC 50 55 60 ____________________________________________________________________ Temperature 20oC 11.8 10.7 9.7 o 0 C 12.3 11.1 10.1 o -30 C 13.0 11.7 10.7 % increase from 20oC to -30oC 10.2 9.3 10.3 _____________________________________________________________________ 2) Wind and coat type and weight of cow Cold stress is dependent on many factors. For example, Cold stress = f (temperature, wind, solar radiation, precipitation, coat type, cow weight .....) There are tables indicating wind chill factors for cattle and Table 9 is an extract from such tables.

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Table 9. Wind Chill Factors for Cattle with Winter Coats ____________________________________________________________________ Wind Speed Temperature (oC) (km/hr) -1 -12 -23 ____________________________________________________________________ Calm - 1 -12 -23 16 - 7.7 -18.3 -29.4 32 -12.8 -23.3 -34.4 64 -38.9 -50 -61.1 ____________________________________________________________________ Thus if ambient temperature is -23oC and a wind is blowing at 32 km/hr, a cow experiences an effective temperature of -34.4oC. This emphasizes the importance of wind breaks since if the wind speed can be reduced to 16 km/hr she experiences a reduction of 6 degrees to -29.4oC. The term "Degrees of Coldness" is always positive and equivalent to a wind adjusted temperature. Maintenance energy costs are increased depending on the degree of coldness, coat type and weight or condition of cow (Table 10). Table 10. Percentage increase in ME costs/oC of coldness for cows in poor condition (360 kg) or good condition (550 kg) with different coat types. _____________________________________________________________________ Coat Type Cow weight (kg) 360 550 _____________________________________________________________________ Heavy winter coat 1.25 1.1 Light winter coat 2.0 1.8 Wet winter coat 3.6 3.4 _____________________________________________________________________ Thus, assuming a cow weighs 550 kg in the third trimester with a thermoneutral ME requirement of 19.5 Mcals, the ME requirements can now be re-calculated. If the cow has a heavy winter coat (requiring an increase of 1.1%/oC of coldness) and the temperature is -23oC with a 16 km/hr wind and no shelter (29.4oC of coldness or -29.4 oC temperature equivalent). The re-calculation is as follows: At 20oC ME Requirement = 19.5 Mcal at 29.4oC of coldness = 19.5 + [(29.4 x 1.1 x 19.5)/100] = 19.5 + 6.3 = 25.8 Mcals Similarly, if it is calm but other factors remain unchanged ME Requirement = 19.5 + 4.9 = 24.4 Mcals

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Therefore: A cow eating hay at 45% DMD containing 1.45 Mcals/kg ME at -30oC (Table 5) would require 25.8/1.45 kg DM = 17.8 kg DM at 16 km/hr wind and 24.4/1.45 = 16.8 kg DM if calm compared with 13.4 kg DM at thermoneutrality (20oC). Alternatively, a 60% DMD hay containing 2.18 Mcals/kg ME would require 11.8 kg DM at -23oC and a 16 km/hr wind OR 11.2 kg DM if calm. A third trimester cow will not be able to eat more than about 2 - 2.5% of its body weight so for a 550 kg cow maximum feed intake is about 11 - 13.75 kg DM. Thus under these extreme cold conditions it would be necessary to feed high quality hay of about 55 - 60% DMD or some grain. Table 11 provides an example of the benefits that can be obtained from adjusting feed levels for cows during winter. The data come from Nebraska where the winters are a bit milder than on the Canadian Prairies but there are no data of this sort from Canada. Table 11. Effect of Adjusting Feed Levels for Cows during Cold _____________________________________________________________________ Ration adjusted Ration not adjusted for coldness for coldness _____________________________________________________________________ Wt. change last 135 days of gestation (kg) 52 12 Wt. change at weaning (kg) -48 -54 Net Wt. change (kg) 4 -42 Daily milk prod. (kg) 9.2 7.9 % cycling in 60 days from mean calving date 82 65 _____________________________________________________________________

Heifers and Calves The principles used for feeding the cow herd can be applied in the same way for feeding the other major groups in the breeding herd i.e. bred heifers, replacement heifers and bulls. Over-feeding bulls can be worse than underfeeding as it may reduce libido and semen quality and hence calf crop. Rule of thumb indicates that: mature bulls require about 50% more feed than a mature dry cow and growing bulls (2 years old) require slightly more than that.

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HOUSING Beef cows do not require elaborate housing. Protection from the wind is the most important requirement (Figure 8). Cows should be bedded on straw on high, wind-protected mounds or in a shed with the open side facing south. Shelter can be provided by groves of trees or slatted fences 2.5 m high and 20% porosity (i.e. 20cm boards vertically placed with 5cm spaces between them). A porous fence is more effective than a solid fence as the latter creates a vacuum, which increases turbulence and allows snow build up.

Figure 8. Example of shed and porosity fencing for wintering beef cows.

CALVING A high level of reproductive performance, or fertility is essential to an efficient cow/calf operation. Percent calf crop is a measure of fertility, mothering ability and calf survival. Percent calf crop weaned and the weaning weight of the calves both have direct effects on production costs and returns (Tables 12 and 13). These tables assume: a) Cow costs = $365/year b) Herd size = 100 cows c) Calf weaning weight = 215 kg d) Calf price = $2.20/kg ($1.00/lb) NOTE: These assumptions are not necessarily correct as costs etc. will vary from farm to farm and represent only a simplified example. Table 12. Economic implications of calving % on cost.
_____________________________________________________________________

Total kg of Gross Cost Net Income calf weaned Income per calf weaned ______________________________________________________________________ ($) ($) ($) 100 21,500 47,300 365 108 90 19,350 42,570 406 67 80 17,200 37,840 456 17 70 15,050 33,110 521 -48 60 12,900 28,380 608 -135 _______________________________________________________________________

Calf crop (%)

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Table 13. Effect of % calf crop on average weight (kg) of calf weaned and gross economic return / cow bred. Calf Crop (%) 100 90 80 70 Difference / cow bred Between 100 and 70% @ $2.65/kg Gross return / cow bred for heavy, medium and light calves @ 90% weaning and $2.65/kg Heavy 250 225 200 175 198.75 596.25 Medium 204 184 163 143 161.65 487.60 Light 182 163 145 127 145.75 431.95

The most critical times when % calf crop is reduced are: 1) peri-partum (around calving) 2) at breeding. FACTORS AFFECTING LOSSES AT CALVING 1. Dystocia: Dystocia is a greater problem in heifers than cows and can be caused by the following: a) Calf is too large and/or cow is too small. Causes may be: (i) Poor breeding management. For example use of a large framed bull on a small framed cow (i.e. Simmental x Angus) or use of a large framed bull on heifers (i.e. Simmental x heifers of any breed). Small framed cows should be bred to small-medium framed bulls (i.e. British Breeds) and heifers should always be bred to small-medium framed bulls (i.e. Angus, Hereford, Shorthorn). The bull should also have had a low weight at birth. (ii) Poor nutritional management. For example, cows which are overfed during pregnancy often have difficulty calving because they become over-fat, muscular contractions are weak and ineffective since fetal growth rate has been too high and the fetus has become too big and hence difficult to expel. Proper management can reduce the incidence of dystocia and calf loss due to the above factors. The overriding factor causing dystocia is too great a birth weight of the calf. The effect of the pelvic area of the dam is overemphasized. b) Mal-presentation of the fetus. Pre-partum management will have little effect on this cause of dystocia although, over-fatness of cows may contribute to this problem because there may be an increased incidence of calves failing to turn in-utero for a normal presentation. However, proper calving management can greatly reduce losses to mal-presentations. An understanding of the birth process is essential.

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There are three stages to parturition: (1) the preparatory stage (2) expulsion of the fetus and (3) expulsion of the placenta (afterbirth). Heifers usually take longer to calve than cows. On the average, a cow will spend 2 to 4 hours preparing for calving but heifers may spend up to 8 or 10 hours. However, once calving has begun, it generally does not take more than an hour for the calf to be expelled. Prior to birth, the uterus begins contracting, the cow becomes restless and the fetus is slowly pushed against the cervix causing it to dilate even further. Contractions occur about every 15 minutes and last from 15 to 30 seconds. During the later stages of birth the contractions become more frequent, about every 3 minutes, and much stronger. At this time voluntary muscle contractions of the stomach also occur. The calf is expelled into the birth canal. The normal delivery position is head and front feet forward. However, as shown in the following illustrations there are a number of abnormal presentations, which may have to be confronted. The best advice is, if a cow has not calved 2-3 hours after preparation has begun, call a veterinarian. Where this is not practical because of distance or time, the only solution is to reposition the calf for either a front or rear delivery. Following birth, uterine contractions continue and the placenta, or afterbirth, is expelled. This usually happens within 12 hours. If the placenta is not expelled within this time it is referred to as retained afterbirth and may require that the cow be cleaned. There is no real rule of thumb as to when a cow should be cleaned. If the cow is active, alert and eating well she can be left to clean herself, even if it takes two or three days. On the other hand, a cow that is listless and has a poor appetite should receive the immediate attention of a veterinarian or, at the least proper antibiotic medication. The forced removal of the placenta can cause internal tears, which, in turn, can cause sterility. It is preferable to let the cow clean by herself if there is no threat of abnormal secondary infection. Assistance should be given before a cow or heifer has been in the preparatory stage for 4-6 hours. After 6 hours the calf is probably dead. Assistance can be given using calf chains or a mechanical calf-puller. Care should be taken to properly position the calf first. Normal calf presentation and 5 common malpresentations are shown in Figure 9.

Figure 9. Examples of some common calf presentations.

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The following suggestions are made for dealing with these presentations: 9A If the calf is positioned correctly and dystocia is due to the large size of calf, the calf can be gently pulled with the hands grasping both front legs, or using chains or a mechanical calf puller. Always be sure to pull the calf at a 60o angle to the rear legs. 9B Push the calf back, carefully bend the legs at the joints and pull as for 9A. 9C This is a very difficult presentation to correct and probably will require caesarian section. Contact veterinarian. If this is not possible, try to push both rear legs well back and clear of the birth canal. Be careful not to tear the uterus wall then proceed as in 9A. 9D This is even more difficult to correct than 9C but if hind feet are not in the birth canal it may be possible to push calf back and reposition the head between the front feet. 9E This is a comparatively easy delivery. The calf must be pulled backwards and in one single motion. As the calf passes through the pelvis, the diaphragm is constricted and this stimulates the calf to inhale its first breath. It is therefore critical that this first inhalation occurs when the nose is clear of uterine fluids, otherwise the calf will drown. 9F This is a full breech birth and will require a caesarian section. There are several variations to these positions. For example, 1 leg presenting, calf upside down, etc. If calf is upside down it should be turned into a normal anterior or posterior presentation and pulled. Failure to turn the calf before pulling will almost certainly cause spinal injury and the calf may be unable to walk, or at best walk with difficulty. General DO'S and DON'TS at calving Do be gentle. Do be scrupulously clean. Wash your hands and arms and the cows genitalia before starting to work and every time the cow defecates. The calf head and the birth passage are made of fragile living tissue. Do recognize your own limitations. If you cannot manage the problem stop before the cow is exhausted and the genital passage swollen and inflamed. Call your vet. Do use uterine boluses if you have had your hand in the cow. Do make sure the calf gets sufficient colostrum in the first 2 hours after birth. Don't be in a hurry to interfere. Don't attempt the job without plenty of water and soap. Don't use trucks, tractors or horses for pulling the calf. Don't pull on the calf unless there are three things in the birth canal: two front feet and a head, or two hind feet and a tail. Don't put off calling your veterinarian in the difficult cases. 2) Post-partum losses a) Inclement weather - losses can be reduced by providing properly bedded open sheds (see Figure 8) or closed calf creeps (see Figure 10).

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Figure 10. Sheltered calf creeps can be mounted on skids and transported to spring pastures to prevent calf loss due to inclement weather. b) Maternal behavior - particular attention should be paid to the cow and calf during the first two hours post-partum to ensure that a strong bond has developed. The cows should have cleaned the calf and the calf should have suckled within this time frame. If the calf has not suckled it should be force fed colostrum, and if the cow has poor maternal behavior the cow and calf should be confined in a small pen, indoors if necessary, until the bond has been firmly established. Heifers with dystocia or poor maternal behavior at their first parturition can be given a second chance but if this problem persists they should be culled after weaning their second calf. c) Neonatal calf diarrhea. Calf scours caused by infectious agents such as bacteria (E. coli), viruses (Rota and Corona), and protozoa (Eimeria), and environmental factors (overcrowding, environmental stress, etc.), are the most common cause of post-partum death of calves. Emphasis should be on prevention rather than cure. Cows should be vaccinated with a vaccine containing E. coli strains and Rota and Corona viruses (so that antibodies will be passed on to the newborn calf in the colostrum) six and three weeks before calving. Cows should be moved to clean pens just prior to calving and cows and calves should not be crowded together after calving. Cows and calves can be treated with a coccidiostat such as Deccox if coccidiosis is a problem. Cows with calves should be moved to a larger corral or preferably to an adjacent pasture. Length of the Calving Season The length of the calving season is directly related to the length of the breeding season, which should be no longer than 42 days if the bulls are turned out 40 days after the first cow calves. Age at weaning has a direct effect on the weaning weight of the calf. Calves born early in the calving season are heavier than calves born late in the calving season because they are older and gain weight faster (Table 14). They gain weight faster because they are better able to use the additional milk that cows will produce during the flush of spring/early summer pasture growth and because the calves themselves are grazing this high quality pasture in significant amounts. By the time late born calves are able to consume large amounts of milk and pasture the quality of the pasture has declined and their weight gains are therefore less.

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Table 14. Effect of calf age on weaning weight and average daily gain (ADG) to weaning of 8,744 calves. ___________________________________________________________________________ Weaning Weaning Born in the No. of Weight Age A.D.G. 1st 2nd 3rd Weaning Wt. Calves (kg) (days) (kg) 20 days 20 days 20 days ___________________________________________________________________________ Top 1/3 2910 189 207 0.76 70% 24% 6% Middle 1/3 2916 173 195 0.64 42% 39% 19% Lower 1/3 2918 137 181 0.58 19% 33% 48% ___________________________________________________________________________ Seventy percent of the calves in the heaviest weight group were born within the first 20 days of the calving period compared to 19% of the calves in the lightest weight group. Calves weaned at 207 days of age were on average 53 kg heavier than those weaned at 181 days of age. Early calving allows cows and calves to make better use of high quality spring/early summer pasture and range. The breeding and calving seasons should therefore be confined to six weeks. In Saskatchewan, the calving season typically runs from March to the first half of April though many producers have moved to calving as early as mid-January in order to maximize the benefit of putting older calves on the spring/early summer pasture flush. However, these early calving herds require good calving facilities, frequently involving some indoor facilities in case of poor weather during calving. In addition, the cost of feeding a lactating cow during winter will increase in comparison to a cow calving in spring. A concentrated calving season also shortens the period of supervision and does not interfere with spring preparations for crop and forage production. Heifers should be bred to calve 3-4 weeks before the cow herd. This is because heifers have a longer post-partum anestrus period than cows and this allows them a longer period to come into estrus for the next breeding season when they will be bred with the rest of the cow herd. It also allows a more even calf weight at weaning because heifers do not produce as much milk as cows and therefore usually wean smaller calves. The extra time between calving and weaning for calves born to heifers which are bred before the cows allows these calves more time on pasture to compensate for the lower milk production of heifers. Greater calving supervision is necessary for heifers and an earlier calving season allows for special supervision of calving heifers. Finally, early calving allows both cows and calves to make maximum use of the high quality spring-early summer forage on range and pasture. BREEDING THE FEMALE HERD Cows and heifers should be on a rising plane of nutrition at the start of the breeding season. This is usually accomplished by placing cows on fresh spring pasture or range. Table 15 shows the difference in pregnancy rate for cows gaining or losing weight between calving and breeding. Table 15. Effect of weight changes after calving on pregnancy rate. ___________________________________________________________________________ Period Calving to Breeding After 1st Service Percent Cows Pregnant After Breeding 20 days 90 days Cows not showing heat (%)

Losing weight 43 29 72 14 Gaining weight 60 57 82 0 ___________________________________________________________________________ 23

The age of the female beef animal will also affect the length of the post-partum anestrus period. Fewer 2-3 year-old animals will return to estrus within 70 days of calving compared with those which are 5 years or older. Thus it is important to breed the heifers 2-3 weeks before the cows if they are to be bred with the cows following the birth of their first calf. Breeding the Cows Breeding most commonly commences in mid-June and finishes at the end of July. The length of the calving interval is a direct reflection of the length of the breeding interval. Cow herds which are allowed long breeding periods will calve over a long period of time while those with a restricted breeding period will calve in a more concentrated time period. A cow has a gestation period of about 283 days which leaves her a maximum of 82 days after calving to return to estrus before being re-bred. During this time she is also nursing a newborn calf. Attempting to breed a cow within 40 days of calving will meet with limited success because at this time she will be in anestrus. Therefore the breeding period should be restricted to 42-45 days with the bulls being introduced to the herd 4o days after the first cow has calved. This allows for a short calving period, in which labor can be concentrated and more attention paid to calving management. It also allows calving to be completed before spring breaking and seeding commences. Table 16 shows a comparison of data taken from cows bred for 45 days or 90 days. Table 16. Comparison between 45- and 90- day breeding periods in two 50-cow herds ___________________________________________________________________________ Breeding Period 45 Days 90 Days ___________________________________________________________________________ Number of Cows Calving 50 42 Calving Interval (days) 46 94 Average Calf Age at Weaning (days) 265 223 Average Calf Weight at Weaning (kg) 185 154 ___________________________________________________________________________ The body condition of the cow will also influence her ability to conceive (Table 17). Table 17. Effect of body condition of cows on percentage showing estrus at different intervals postcalving. ___________________________________________________________________________ Days After Calving 40 60 80 90 ___________________________________________________________________________ Thin 19 46 62 66 Moderate 21 61 88 92 Good 31 91 98 100 ___________________________________________________________________________

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There are only 82 days between calving day and conception day if the cow is to calve every 365 days so it is essential that the cow is in good body condition after calving in order to produce a calf each year (365 days). Body condition scoring of cows is an important management procedure to ensure maximum reproductive performance in the cow herd. The following notes are taken from the Alberta Beef Herd Management Guide and are reproduced in their entirety.

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Breeding the Heifers Continuous reproductive performance in the beef herd largely depends on the individual reproductive capabilities of the replacement heifer. Replacement heifers must: 1) reach puberty early and cycle normally, 2) conceive early in the breeding season, 3) give birth to healthy calves without difficulty and 4) demonstrate mothering ability by weaning a calf. Puberty The onset of puberty in the heifer is influenced by age, weight and breed. Figure 11 shows the effect of liveweight on estrus in Hereford heifers. Note that estrus incidence increased from about 20 to 80% as liveweight increased from 220 to 250 kg. It should be noted that these data come from Australia because there are no comparable data from North America. Because most cattle in Australia are finished at pasture they have a smaller frame size than cattle of the same breed in Canada where feedlot finishing predominates. Therefore, heifers in Australia are lighter at puberty than their counterparts in Canada.

Figure 11. The relationship between liveweight and incidence of estrus in Hereford heifers. Most well managed heifers will reach puberty at 14 to 15 months of age, but there are breed differences. For example, Angus and Angus-Hereford cross heifers may reach puberty by 10-12 months of age, Herefords may take a little longer (12-13 months) and the larger European breeds such as Charolais, Simmental etc. may take 12-14 months. However all breeds should be cycling and ready to breed by 15 months. Puberty is also affected by weight-breed interactions (Table 18).

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Table 18. Weight at which 14 to 15 month old heifers show first heat ___________________________________________________________________________ Liveweight at first heat(kg) Proportion in heat Angus Hereford Charolais A x H S x B LxB ___________________________________________________________________________ 50% 250 270 320 250 295 295 65-70% 270 295 330 270 320 320 85-90% 295 320 340 295 340 340 ___________________________________________________________________________ B = Different British Breeds A = Angus H = Hereford S = Simmental L = Limousin To be of any value in the cow herd, heifers must conceive early in the breeding season. Because heifers take longer than cows to clean and return to a normal physiological state after calving, they should be bred 3 to 4 weeks earlier than the cow herd. This will allow them time to cycle with the cow herd during their second breeding (Table 19). Table 19. Percentage of beef females cycling within a given time after calving ___________________________________________________________ Average Number of Days between Calving and Breeding __ Cows in Heat during the First 20 Days of Breeding 5years&older__ ________ 2-3 years________

70 95% 79% 50 88% 64% 30 70% 32% 10 29% 10% ____________________________________________________________ Concentrating the breeding interval is a simple and effective method of increasing weaning weights and reproductive performance. Reproduction is a repeatable characteristic. Heifers that breed and calve early in their first year will continue to calve and breed early as mature cows. Conversely, heifers that calve late will continue to be late calvers. Because of the short time interval between calving and breeding it is almost impossible to advance the breeding period of an individual cow unless she is allowed to skip a year and this is not an economical proposition. Data from research in this department indicate that prostaglandin-PGF2 (Lutalyse) can be used to significantly reduce the breeding interval in heifers. In that experiment, 116 heifers were exposed to bulls for 30 days. Half of them were treated with PGF2 and half were not treated. 84% of the treated heifers conceived within the first 14 days of the breeding season compared with only 56% of the nontreated heifers. Of the heifers that became pregnant in the 30 day breeding period, 94% of the treated heifers conceived in the first 14 days compared with only 66% of the non-treated heifers. This means it 30

is possible to breed heifers before going on to summer pasture and, if chin-ball markers or heat mount detectors are used on the bulls, all non-bred heifers can be culled before going to pasture. This means that valuable pasture is used only for pregnant animals and non-pregnant animals can be fed in a feedlot and finished before the end of summer. It also means that the same bulls could be used for both the heifer and cow herds (provided that the bull is suitable for breeding the heifers) since the heifers will be finished breeding before the cow start breeding. This reduces the total number of bulls required for the herd. Not all heifers that are exposed to bulls will conceive so that more heifers than are required for replacements should be exposed to breeding. If replacement heifers are selected at weaning on an age of calf and dam adjusted basis and fed to gain 0.7 kg/day, they should reach their target weight for breeding (Table 18) at 15 months. The number of extra heifers can then be kept to a minimum. The formula for calculating the adjusted weaning weight of calves is as follows: Adjusted weaning weight = {[(ww bw) / aoc] * acf * csf} + bw Where ww = weaning weight of calf bw = birth weight of calf aoc = age of calf at weaning acf = age of cow factor (Table 20) csf = calf sex factor (1.0 for males and 1.05 for female calves)

Table 20. Adjustment factors designed to equate performance of all calves to a level equal to that expected from a mature dam. Age of Dam (years) Age of Cow Factor 2 1.18 3 1.09 4 1.04 5 1.02 6 1.01 7 1.00

Heifers should be bred to young performance tested bulls which had a relatively low birth weight because this trait is highly heritable. This practice tends to reduce calving difficulties and increases the rate of genetic improvement in a herd. Young bulls are lighter than mature bulls and the chances of injury at the time of breeding are reduced. If heifers are being bred by means of artificial insemination the sire should be proven for ease of calving. Whatever the breeding scheme, the reproductive tract of heifers should always be examined to ensure that it is functioning normally prior to breeding. Bull to Cow Ratios The number of cows that a bull can successfully service during the breeding season depends on the nature of the breeding pasture, the physical condition of the bull and the amount of time allowed for breeding.A bull may be able to successfully impregnate up to 50 cows or more where the breeding is confined to small pastures. However, under open range conditions, where the terrain is rough and the cows distributed over a relatively large area, the same bull may breed only half this number of cows. As a general rule of thumb, the bull-cow ratio should be 1:25 on relatively open range and 1:20 on rough or heavily forested ranges. Yearling bulls should be allotted around 20 cows per bull on good open range and 10 to 15 cows on rough range. On ranges where accessibility is not a problem, bulls can be rotated through the breeding herd. Bulls

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that dominate the breeding, or bulls which spend all their time intimidating and fighting other bulls can be removed for short periods. This practice also accommodates efficient use of yearling bulls by allowing for rest periods. Confinement Breeding This refers to the breeding of cow and/or heifers in corrals or small breeding pastures at home before going on range. The advantages are: 1) Can use a restricted breeding period more effectively (e.g. synchronization of estrus). 2) Require fewer bulls. 3) Can use Artificial Insemination. 4) Reduces problems of bulls on range, i.e. broken fences, death from poisonous plants, etc. 5) Reduces the possibility of cows being bred by a neighbor's bull. 6) Can identify non-breeders using chin-ball markers or heat mount detectors. The disadvantages include: 1) Higher cost of feeding. 2) Requires an early calving (mid to late winter) if cows are to be bred before going on to summer pasture. This may increase calving mortality as the risk of inclement weather during calving is high. Fall Calving This refers to breeding in the winter to calve in the fall. Advantages of fall calving 1) Calf can be weaned in the spring and placed on lush spring pasture. Good gains on pasture can put the animal in the feedlot as a short keep animal the following fall. 2) Fall weather may be more reliable than spring weather. 3) More convenient timing in terms of labor commitments (i.e. harvest is over so 100% of time can be devoted to calving). 4) Can use AI more readily because cows are usually in confined areas at breeding time. 5) May alleviate a calf scours problem. Scours are more prevalent in the winter/spring than fall. Disadvantages of fall calving 1) Feeding of conserved feeds occurs when the cow has its peak requirements for quality and quantity of feed due to lactation so feed must be abundant and high quality, hence expensive. 2) Breeding occurs during the winter when bulls are the least active reproductively. 3) Confined calves generally don't grow as well as free ranging calves probably due to additional stress of clinical and sub-clinical disease and a reduced milk production of cows during winter as compared with spring/summer. Thus ADG and weaning weight of fall calves are normally less than in spring calves. 4) Calves must be creep-fed during the winter to avoid competing with the cows for feed.

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Artificial Insemination (AI): Advantages of AI 1) Semen can be purchased from bulls have been performance and progeny tested. 2) Venereal disease can be controlled. 3) Cows can be synchronized (prostaglandin-PGF2) and bred in a short time period. 4) Herd management is often improved through increased herd observation and a good set of records. 5) The number of bulls kept on the ranch is reduced. However, some bulls are required to breed those cows that do not conceive to AI Disadvantages of AI 1) More labor is necessary to detect cows in heat and have them inseminated. 2) It may be difficult to locate AI technicians and experienced people are required to detect cows in heat. 3) Holding and breeding facilities, including appropriate breeding pastures, must be available. 4) The breeding season tends to coincide with range turnout time, unless cows are bred for fall calving, and breeding prior to this may result in a January/February calving period that may require some indoor calving facilities. The success of AI breeding programs depends on good herd management. Cows must show heat and be bred at the correct time. Extra feed, prior to and during breeding, will improve heat cycles, increase conception rates and aid in herd observation. This requires extra feed when the cows are on their winter feeding program and therefore increases the winter feeding costs. Cows should be checked for heat in the early morning and early evening, as heat symptoms are most noticeable during these periods when the animals are active. Symptoms of Estrus (Heat) in Cows 1) Cows in heat usually allow other cattle to ride them. They tend to stand while under the riding animal. This is probably the most important and reliable symptom of heat. 2) Ruffled and worn hair on the back over the tail-head, as well as dirt on the ribs and/or tail-head indicates a cow that has been ridden. 3) Cows may stand head to head. 4) Active, restless, walking or bawling cows that show interest in other cattle. Cows in heat may follow other cows, nose them or try to ride them; walk the fence line; or urinate frequently. 5) A clear mucus discharge may be visible adhering to the tail and hips, coinciding with a swollen, moist vulva. 6) Bloody mucus on the tail indicates a cow has just been in heat. 7) Bawling calves indicate that they are hungry. This is because cows in heat often hold up their milk. 8) Older bull calves are frequently good heat detectors and will often identify a cow coming into estrus up to 24 hours before she will stand to be ridden. 9) Vasectomized bulls (gomer bulls), heat mount detectors and chin-ball markers also assist in heat detection.

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Standing heat lasts for about 18 hours. With heifers, this may be a few hours less. The best time to breed a cow is four to six hours prior to ovulation. This occurs about ten to twelve hours after standing heat. Sperm must mature in the reproductive tract of a cow for four to six hours before they are capable of fertilizing an egg. The egg will remain viable for six to eight hours. Cows should therefore be bred at the end of standing heat and not later than twelve hours after standing heat. Pregnancy Testing All female cattle should be pregnancy tested in the fall by a veterinarian. Some producers also become very proficient in the technique of pregnancy testing by rectal palpation. It is usually not an economic proposition to carry open cows for 18 months before they produce another calf. The economic benefits of selling an open cow in fall compared with feeding her through winter and selling her in spring when she fails to calve are shown in Table 21. The benefits, which are net of costs, increase with increasing herd size and decreasing pregnancy rates. The data in Table 10 are the results of a 10-year study in Saskatchewan. Table 21. Economic Benefit of Pregnancy Testing ($) __________________________________________________________________ 40 Head Herd Pregnancy Rate (%) 93 Per open cow ($) Per cow ($) Per herd ($) 21.36 1.50 59.82 80 46.93 9.39 375.42 93 41.74 2.92 292.15 80 54.06 10.81 1018.15 100 Head Herd

MANAGEMENT OF BULLS A bull has two functions in a breeding herd: (i) to impregnate cows and heifers and (ii) to pass on his genes to his progeny. Therefore he must be fertile, have high libido, be free from any physical defects which might prevent him from breeding and have whatever genetic traits are seen as desirable in the particular herd. Puberty in bulls is influenced by the same three factors that influence puberty in heifers, i.e. age, weight and breed. Sperm Production The production of large volumes of high quality sperm is dependent on normal scrotal and testicular development. For best sperm production the testicles need to be maintained at a temperature slightly lower than body temperature. The scrotum must be shaped to allow the testicles to move closer to the body during cold environmental temperatures and further away from the body during hot temperatures. The following diagrams Figure 12) illustrate the three more common scrotal shapes found in bulls.

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Figure 12. Different shapes of the scrotum in bulls. The middle bull has a full, well suspended scrotum with a well developed neck which will accommodate easy movement of the testicles. The shape of the scrotum of the bull on the left is much straighter and does not allow for the same degree of testicular temperature regulation as the necked scrotum. The bull on the right has a very tight scrotum. Generally, bulls with this type of scrotum, are not good semen producers. The testicles cannot descend low enough to offset increasing temperatures and sperm production is suppressed. The volume of semen produced is related to the growth and development of the testes. Every bull should be examined for testicular development. The testicles should be large, firm and even in size. Testicles which are soft and mushy or small and hard indicate that the animal may have had an infection or injury. The cord suspending the testicles should be firm and the epididymis should be soft and pliable. The sheath area should be firm but pliable and free from infection and hair rings. Scrotal circumference is a good indication of testicle size and volume of sperm production but average scrotal circumference (measured by drawing both testicles into the scrotum and measuring with a metal tape) varies with breed (Table 22). However, the greater the scrotal circumference, the greater the number of sertoli cells and hence spermatozoa. Table 22. The effect of breed on scrotal circumference (cm) in bulls. __________________________________________________________________________ Age Age Breed 1 year 2 years ___________________________________________________________________________ Simmental 35.9 38.7 Aberdeen Angus 33.8 37.1 Maine Anjou 33.6 36 Charolais 32.9 36.3 Horned Hereford 32.8 36.1 Shorthorns 32.4 34.9 Polled Hereford 32.2 35.6 Blonde 30.6 35.6 Limousin 30.3 32.1 ___________________________________________________________________________ Studies have shown that scrotal circumference (SC) in 2 year old bulls can vary from 19 to 47 cm. Of 444 bulls tested in one experiment, all bulls with SC < 30 cm had poor quality semen compared with only 4% of bulls with SC > 30 cm. Scrotal circumference and sperm production are highly correlated and bulls with large testicles can be successfully bred to more cows than bulls with small testicles (Table 23). 35

Table 23. Heifers which conceived at first service when bred at two bull:heifer ratios to bulls with various scrotal circumferences. ___________________________________________________________________________ Bull Scrotal Bull:Heifer Ratio Circumference 1:60 1:75 (cm) % Pregnant ___________________________________________________________________________ 27 22 10 30 44 43 31 55 32 68 46 33 71 58 34 72 35 83 61 36 62 52 37 74 53 38 63 _________________________________________________________________________________ Scrotal circumference is highly heritable and is positively correlated with growth rate and live weight. Feeding between 6-13 months is also very important. Testicular growth is very rapid around puberty and poorly fed bulls achieve slow testicular growth and have smaller testicles at maturity than bulls which are well fed around puberty. The following diagram (Figure 13) illustrates the correct method of measuring scrotal circumference.

Figure 13. Correct measurement of scrotal circumference in a bull. The breeding soundness evaluation involves the measurement of scrotal circumference (40% of evaluation), and the drawing of a semen sample for evaluation of sperm morphology (40%) and motility (20%). The evaluation system is shown in Table 24.

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Table 24. Breeding Soundness Evaluation (scrotal size and spermatozoal scoring system) ___________________________________________________________________________ Classifications Criteria Very Good Good Fair Poor ___________________________________________________________________________ Spermatozoal morphology (40%) Primary abnormalities Total abnormalities Score 40 <10 <25 24 >34 >36 >38 >39 10-19 26-40 10 30-34 31-36 32-38 34-39 20-29 41-59 3 <30 <31 <32 <34 <30 <31 <32 <34 >29 59

Scrotal circumference (cm2)a (40%) 12-14 months of age 15-20 months of age 21-30 months of age 30 + months of age

Score 40 24 10 10 ___________________________________________________________________________ Slow Very Rapid Moderate Linear to Slow & Linear Linear Erratic Erratic ___________________________________________________________________________ Spermatozoal motility (20%) Score 20 12 10 3 ___________________________________________________________________________ aThese values do not apply to Brahman bulls. This system of evaluation, though widely used, has problems with respect to the classification of abnormalities. Sperm abnormalities are classified as primary (defects of the sperm head), secondary (defects of the midpiece) or tertiary (defects of the tail). The importance given to the score for primary defects suggests that these may be more serious impediments to bull fertility than secondary or tertiary defects but this is not always true. For example, The Dag defect is a secondary defect but results in complete sterility while the knobbed acrosome defect is a primary defect yet its effect on fertility is directly correlated to the number of affected sperm cells. Similarly, defects of the proximal midpiece usually cause infertility while defects of the distal midpiece frequently cause only temporary infertility; yet both are regarded as secondary defects. Libido The number of services a bull achieves during a breeding period influences the proportion of cows it impregnates. There are two methods recommended for the evaluation of libido in bulls. Neither method is free of controversy. 1) The Libido Scoring Test This test requires two female animals to be restrained 16 to 25 ft apart in a small pen. Two bulls to be

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tested are introduced to the pen for 10 minutes on each of two days and the best score is recorded. The scoring system is as follows: Score 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 if the bull shows no interest if interest (e.g. sniff) is shown once if interest shown on more than one occasion if there is sexual interest throughout the test but no mounting if there is 1 mount but no penetration if there are 2 mounts but no penetration if there are more than 2 mounts but no penetration if there is 1 mount with penetration but no further interest if there is 1 mount with penetration and continued interest but no further penetration if there are 2 mounts with penetration but no further interest if there are 2 mounts with penetration and continued interest involving further mounting with or without penetration

2) The serving capacity test (SCT). This consists of: a) restraining females in service crates, heifers for yearling and 2 year old bulls, cows for mature bulls b) sexually stimulating bulls by allowing them to watch other bulls mounting the restrained females c) counting the number of services performed in a 40-min period. This varies from 0 to 20 services. For a bull to be an economic proposition in a herd it should be capable of servicing 40 females and impregnating at least 90% of them. The minimum SCT a bull must have to achieve that task is 3 in 40 minutes. In one experiment, bulls with SCT 0, 1 or 2 when bred to 40 females achieved first estrus conception rates of 4 to 40% and pregnancy rates after a 10 weeks breeding season of 4 to 67% while bulls of SCT 3 or more impregnated 55 to 78% of heifers on their first estrus and 89 to 100% of heifers after a 10 weeks breeding season. An examination of 1355, 18-to 24-month-old bulls in one sale revealed that 10% of them had an SCT of 0, 1 or 2. Such bulls should be withdrawn from sale. In another experiment, as the SCT of bulls bred to 40 heifers increased from 3 to 7, the first estrus conception rate increased from 55 to 73% while increases in SCT from 7 to 11 were not accompanied by an increase in conception rate. In a further experiment, three bulls of SCT 6, 11 or 17 were each bred to 100 heifers for 20 days. They achieved conception rates of 57, 65 and 70% respectively. Two points emerge from these data. First, bulls of SCT 7 or more when bred to 40 cows will achieve not only higher pregnancy rates but an earlier calving with concomitant increases in weaning weight and subsequent pregnancy rate of cows compared with bulls of SCT 3 to 6. Thus bulls of SCT 7 or more make a more profitable purchase than bulls of SCT 3 to 6 if the intention is to breed them to 40 females. Second, it is wasteful to breed bulls of SCT more than 7 to only 40 females. These high SCT bulls should be bred to a large number of females. Each bull with a SCT >7 could eliminate 2 or 3 bulls from the herd resulting in significant cost savings. Herd bulls 3 years and older should undergo an annual examination that includes the SCT test. Penile deviation and hematoma can only be positively detected in the SCT test and 38% of 101 arthritic bulls could only be detected in the SCT test. In all 70% of herd bulls with an abnormality likely to decrease their fertility had the abnormality detected in the SCT test (Blockey 1979). The annual test should also include SC measurement and semen collection and testing for abnormal sperm and motility. Evidence that the annual culling of unsound bulls influences herd fertility comes from a 4000 cow herd in which culling unsound bulls each year increased the calving percentage from 70 to 85 and maintained it at the latter level.

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Structural soundness The structural soundness of a bull is most important. The bull carries a lot of weight on its legs and if they are not sound he will be less active in seeking and mounting cows in heat. When he mounts, his weight is carried on his rear legs. The following diagrams (Figure 14) show desirable and undesirable characteristics of front and rear legs.

Figure 14. Desirable and undesirable characteristics of the feet and legs of bulls. Bull Selection Criteria The selection of a herd bull is very important because a good bull will be expensive but he will pass his genes to his progeny. There will always be preferences based on breed and other characteristics such as horned or polled, color and markings. However, the following criteria are applicable to all bulls: i) ii) iii) iv) v) vi) vii) Low birth weight relative to the breed average High average daily gain relative to the breed average Good breeding Soundness Evaluation Sound feet and legs Good libido Good behavior (sexual and non sexual Good conformation

Feeding Young Bulls The factors that influence puberty in bulls are the same as those for heifers. It is important that young growing bulls be well fed but not overfed. Too much concentrate (grain) in the ration can permanently damage the fertility of a bull. In an experiment at the Agriculture Research Station, Lethbridge, bulls were fed a high or a medium energy ration. The high energy ration (HE) consisted of 80% concentrate 39

and 20% forage while the medium energy ration contained 20% concentrate and 80% forage. Bulls were fed their respective rations to 12, 15 or24 months of age when a semen sample was drawn and the bulls slaughtered. At slaughter, the testes of all bulls were collected and examined. In all cases, the weight of the testes, number of sperm cells and reserves of sperm cells in the epidydimus were greater from the ME bulls than HE bulls by 6, 19 and 52% respectively. The HE ration also decreased semen quality and libido. At 24 months, HE bulls had 50% of the motility of ME bulls, 33% of the number of normal sperm cells of HE bulls and fewer services at a serving capacity test before slaughter.

MANAGING THE CALVES Creep Feeding The cow/calf operator relies on the sale of calves for income so the management of calves from birth to weaning is critically important. Creep feeding is one management practice that can be used to increase weaning weight and hence calf value during this period. Table 25 gives examples of creep feed supplements that can be used for calves. Table 25. Creep rations using either a commercial 32% protein supplement or canola meal Crude Protein Content 13% Oats Barley 32% supplement Canola meal 2:1 mineral Limestone Trace mineral salt Vitamin ADE premix 27.0 63.0 10.0 27.0 61.6 9.1 0.6 1.2 0.4 0.1 100 23.0 53.0 24.0 16% 23.0 53.2 22.0 1.3 0.4 0.1 100

100

100

The practice of providing supplementary feed to nursing calves may or may not be profitable depending on circumstances. The advantages of creep feeding include heavier calves and greater uniformity at weaning and more rapid adjustment of calves to the post-weaning stage, the gains to be expected from creep feeding vary widely depending on pasture growth, age and milk-producing capacity of the cows, climatic conditions, kind of creep feed, etc. The range of additional weight at weaning is 10-23 kg at a cost of 6 to 8 kg of creep feed per kg of weight gain. Disadvantages of creep feeding include added costs for feed, equipment, and labor. Furthermore, creep-fed calves are usually slightly less efficient in feed conversion during the post-weaning stage,

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although research data does not indicate this to be true. On the other hand, creep feeding will mask the milking ability of the cow and it is difficult to detect poor milking cows in a creep-fed herd. Creep feeding can be recommended in the following situations. 1) Where pasture conditions (i.e. drought) limit milk production of the cow and especially where these are such that the cow herd must receive supplemental feeding. 2) Where the price paid for the heavier weanling calf will cover the costs of creep feeding. 3) Where the operator wishes to finish quickly his own older male calves to light weights ("baby beef"). It is not usually profitable if the owner intends to carry his calves over long feeding periods to regular or heavier slaughter weights. Calves should be fed about 0.25 kg/head/day up to 2 months of age increasing to a maximum of 1.5 kg/head/day at 6 months. Any additional creep feeding will reduce forage intake. Where forage is limiting, up to 3 kg/day will be required. Dehorning Horned cattle cause considerable bruising during shipment for slaughter. Bruising cost the Canadian beef industry $3.92/head in 1996 or a total loss of $10.5 million and for this reason a levy of $2/head is placed on all cattle with horns at slaughter. The levy should be reviewed as it is inadequate incentive to producers to dehorn and would not cover the losses from bruising. Dehorning should be performed at a young age before the hot weather arrives and before flies become a problem. There are several methods: 2) Breeding using polled animals, especially bulls. b) Caustic sticks (KOH or NaOH) can be used shortly after birth. The caustic is rubbed on the horn bud. Care should be taken not to cover the surrounding skin to prevent skin burns. For best results calves should be < 10 days old. Calves should be kept away from their mother until the caustic is dry to prevent udder burns. Caustic preparations should not be used in wet weather otherwise the rain may wash the caustic into the eyes and cause blindness. c) Electric dehorning - The iron heats to about 500o C and the horn is burnt out. This method is very effective and clean on young calves but requires some experience and skill and a source of electricity (power or portable generator). d) Mechanical dehorners - The horn is mechanically gouged and this is the most popular method used. This can be done at any age but older animals bleed more profusely. This should not be done in hot weather or when flies are bad. It may be necessary to dust the wound with disinfectant and/or antibiotic powder. Castration Bull calves grow more efficiently through their lifetime than steers but they are more difficult to handle in the feedlot and are more excitable at slaughter causing dark coloring of the meat (dark cutters). The shipper of a dark cutting carcass pays a heavy penalty reducing the profit margin and frequently turning a profit into a loss. For these reasons feedlot operators and meat buyers discriminate against bulls, although there is no rail-grade discrimination unless the carcass is a dark-cutter. Dark cutters cost the Canadian beef industry $1.90/head or a total of $4.1 million. Dark cutting is caused by stress and bulls are more excitable and hence suffer more stress at shipping 41

than steers. Stress causes the animal to deplete is reserves of muscle glycogen and this decreases the amount of lactic acid formed in the muscle post-mortem. Bright red meat has a pH <5.9 as a result of the post-mortem build up of lactic acid. Dark red/brown meat has a pH >5.9 because of the lack of glycogen at slaughter and hence post-mortem lactic acid. The younger the animal at castration, the less stress it experiences. However, if the calf is 6-9 months at castration the stress is short term and rarely affects weight gains. On the other hand animals castrated at an early age do not benefit from the higher growth rate of entire animals. This can be corrected with the use of anabolic implants (see section on Implanting). There are several methods of castration. a) Surgical castration - Requires a sharp knife and preferably an emasculator which will crush and cut the cord with little bleeding. The scrotum should be cleaned with disinfectant and the instruments washed with disinfectant between each castration. The incision should be large and allow adequate drainage. The use of an antibiotic powder or spray and insecticide spray will reduce the risk of infection. Healing should be complete in 3-4 days. Calves should not be castrated on hot days when bleeding will be increased, on dry, dusty days or when there are a lot of flies when the risk of infections will increase. b) Bloodless castration - The advantages of bloodless castration are a reduction in the risk of infection from flies, dust, etc. and it can therefore be performed at any time. There are several methods. (i) Burdizzo - this is a large emasculator which crushes the cord by external application requiring no incision. One testicle is crushed at a time and the testes degenerate and atrophy due to lack of blood supply. Improper application will lead to stags. (ii) Elastrator rings - these are tight rubber rings placed over the scrotum above the testicles which cuts off the blood supply and the scrotum degenerates and sloughs off. It is important to trap both testicles and if the blood supply is not completely cut off, the scrotum will swell and become painful. This method can only be used in young calves. Other methods of bloodless castration have been tried but with limited success. These include (iii) Chemical castration - In 1984 a product, CHEMCAST, was released on the Canadian market. The product has been withdrawn by the manufacturers although research in this department during 1984 and 1985 indicated that the product was 90% efficacious if used properly. The chemical was lactic acid and was injected into each testicle. The testicles swell to about twice normal size and then degenerate and atrophy. Care had to be taken to inject directly into the testicle. Widespread misuse prompted the withdrawal of the product from the Canadian market. Chemcast is still registered in Canada and USA for use in calves up to 70 kg liveweight but research in this department indicated that good efficacy was possible in calves up to 200 kg provided the dose rate was increased in proportion to the weight of the calf. (iv) Immuno-castration involving immunization of an animal against producing its own gonadtrophic releasing hormone (GnRH) has receiving considerable research attention but the efficacy of this method has been disappointing. Branding The brand identifies ownership of the cattle and must be registered with Provincial Government Branch Inspectors. It is still the only legal identification of ownership. There are several methods of branding: a) Fire branding - The iron is heated in a fire or electrically and placed on the skin. Care must be taken not to burn too deep but to scar the skin with a burn welt that prevents hair re-growth. Moderate pressure is required for successful branding. Fire branding damages the hide and this cost the 42

Canadian beef industry $3.56/head or a total of $9.6 million in 1996. Other forms of branding have therefore been tried in an attempt to reduce this loss. b) Cryogenic branding - The branding iron is cooled in liquid nitrogen and the brand causes the melanocytes to produce colourless hair. This method therefore cannot be used on white cattle (i.e. Charolais). The advantage is that it does not damage the hide but needs skill and a source of liquid nitrogen which is expensive. For these reasons it is not widely used in the industry. c) Electronic branding - Implantation of a small electronic CHIP in the ear (or brisket) containing ID information is being investigated as a means of ownership identification but current problems include rejection of the implant and risk of removal of the implant. Vaccinations The prevention of production losses through death or reduced weight gains in the calf as a result of disease is critical to the profitability of a cow/calf operation. There are a number of diseases that can be prevented through the appropriate use of vaccines. 1) Clostridial diseases (Blackleg, tetanus, malignant edema, enterotoxemia, septicemia, gangrene). All calves should be vaccinated at 6-8 weeks of age and again 6-8 weeks later. Various combination vaccines are available which provide protection against up to 8 Clostridia spp. 2) Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis (IBR) and Parainfluenza (PI3). These are viral diseases related to the herpes virus that become life threatening in association with Pasterella spp. Causing respiratory distress, pneumonia and death, particularly in cattle shipped to a feedlot (shipping fever). There is a combined vaccine for this disease complex which can be administered intra-nasally and should be given 2-4 weeks before weaning because stress caused by weaning is a contributing factor in the outbreak of respiratory disease. 3) ITEME (infectious thromboembolic meningoencephalitis) is a disease caused by Hemophilus somnus which can be prevented with the use of a vaccine. The disease is more common in feedlot cattle, particularly in association with shipping fever and is characterized by Fever, depression, ataxia(muscular incoordination), blindness and coma. Death can occur quickly, with 1 hour to several days. Preconditioning Preconditioning is a program designed to reduce the stress inflicted on an animal that is weaned and shipped directly to a feedlot. In this situation severe stress is caused by weaning, crowding of animals together, transport to sale, exposure to infective agents at auction sales, transport to the feedlot and adjustment to new feeds, feeders, waterers, confinement and so on. Preconditioning requires that animals be identified, dehorned, castrated, immunized for clostridia, IBR, PI3 and ITEME, weaned and on feed and treated for warbles. A veterinary certificate accompanies preconditioned cattle. For its success, the program depends upon a) the issuing of a certificate as formal documentation b) the holding of special pre-conditioned calf sales c) the willingness of buyers to pay about $0.10/kg premium to cover costs The advantages are:

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i) The cow/calf operator sells a better calf and builds a reputation which attracts premium prices. ii) The feedlot operator loses fewer calves from shipping fever. Survey results from Alberta indicated that the average premium paid was $0.11/kg for steers and $0.09 for heifers. The average cost of preconditioning was $49.49/calf, ADG during the preconditioning period was 0.89 kg/d and the average return NET of costs was $54.23/calf. However the program was never very popular in Saskatchewan and preconditioned calf sales were abandoned some years ago but the program still exists in Alberta. 7. Backgrounding In the cow/calf sector, this usually refers to the holding over of calves after weaning and feeding them during their first winter to gain 0.2-0.3 kg/day. These calves are then placed on pasture in spring where they make rapid compensatory growth and are usually removed from pasture in mid-summer and finished on a high grain diet as short keep animals (60-80 days). In the feedlot sector, backgrounding usually refers to the feeding of calves for the first few months after entering the feedlot on a high forage ration to gain 1-1.5 kg/d. 8. Implanting At present, Ralgro and Synovex C are registered for use in suckling steers and heifers. Compudose is registered for use in steers only. Calves can be implanted at birth and, in experiments in this department heifer calves implanted at birth and 100 days later weighed 23 kg heavier than unimplanted calves at weaning, but there was no advantage to implanting bull calves. The advantages of implanting male calves increase with early castration. Ralgro is not registered for use in calves being kept for breeding. The effects on bulls are clear. For example research in this department indicated that testicles from bull calves castrated at 5 months of age weighed 9l g for unimplanted calves compared with only 29 g for implanted calves. The effects of implantating heifers at birth are also clear. Resarch also in this department has consistently shown that conception rates in heifers implanted at birth is only 40-45%. However, implanting at 60 days has shown no detrimental effects but a `safe' age between birth and 60 days has not been demonstrated. Meanwhile, however, it is recommended that heifers not be implanted if they are to be kept as replacements after weaning. Parasites (i) Warble grubs - these are the larvae of the gad fly which cause economic loss by damage to the hide and decrease weight gains during migration. Migrating larvae bore through the hide on the animal's back causing abscesses and secondary infections. They can be controlled by annual applications of systemic insecticides (Ivomec, Spotton, Neguvon, Cyclectim) which kill the migrating larvae. Control should not be attempted after the end of November as at this time larvae may be migrating in the spinal canal and their death there can cause inflammation of the spinal cord resulting in inco-ordination of the hind quarters. (ii) Lice - These are readily controlled by the same systemic insecticides that control warbles. These occur through the winter. (iii) Flies - Flies can be a major problem for cattle on pasture and can result in considerable weight loss due to irritation and loss of grazing time. They can also cause blood loss in the order of 300 ml/day. Weight loss can also lead to reproductive loss. There are three main fly problems: 1) Face flies - these may be associated with the transmission of pink-eye. 2) Horn files - these feed by sucking blood from cattle and there-by causing irritation and loss of 44

grazing time. They are the most prevalent fly in Southern Saskatchewan. 3) Black flies - these are also a biting fly and reduce productivity by reducing grazing time, weight gains and reproductive rates. They are most prevalent in Northern Saskatchewan. One estimate has suggested that the above flies are responsible for 6.5 x 106 kg of weight loss in cattle in Canada (Haufe 1981). In Saskatchewan in 1979, black flies were estimated to be responsible for a $2.9 million loss to the beef industry. Control can be achieved by spraying cattle with an insecticide (e.g. Malathion), using oilers impregnated with with insecticide in diesel fuel or spraying water with larvicide for black fly control or by applying insecticide impregnated ear tags (Bovaid, Debantic, Permectrin, etc.) to cattle. The latter method has received most support and attention since 1981 but some recent reports suggest that some immunity may be building up in the fly population. Younger cattle are most seriously affected by fly irritation so earlier breeding and calving will help reduce losses as bigger calves cope better. Weaning Proper weaning procedures can reduce the stress of weaning resulting in less disease and the prevention of weight loss at weaning. The following is a recommended check list for weaning: 1. Keep pre-weaning handling stress to a minimum 2. Get medical supplies in advance 3. Give all vaccinations and boosters prior to weaning if possible or time first vaccination so that booster is given at weaning 4. Treat for grubs and lice before weaning 5. Castrate and dehorn at least 3 weeks before weaning 6. Provide creep feed at least 2 weeks before weaning 7. Wean according to weather not date - wean at least 3 weeks before cold weather to reduce post weaning respiratory problems 8. Put all cows and calves in weaning pen 2-3 days before weaning then remove cows not calves 9. Move cows far enough from calves to minimize disturbance 10.Provide high quality feed (hay, minerals & vitamins in a grain carrier) and good water 11. Allow adequate bunker space for all calves to feed together (18-22 ins/calf) 12.Observe calves twice daily for signs of sickness 13.Separate sick calves 14.Make feed changes gradually 15. Remove stale feed from bunkers An alternative to 8 and 9 is to wean with fence-line contact between the cows and calves. In an experiment comparing fence-line weaning with remote weaning, calves that were fence-line weaned had an ADG of 1.66 kg/d compared to 0.74 kg/d for remote weaned calves but only for the first 3 days. This effect diminished gradually and there was no difference in the overall ADG of the of the 2 groups in the 28 day post-weaning period. It should also be noted that in that experiment, item 8 above was not practiced and the remote group was separated when the calves were placed in the weaning pen.

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MANAGEMENT RECORDS Keeping good records is essential to good management. All cows and calves should be indentified and ear tagged and, if possible, weighed and condition scored at birth and weaning. There are a number of record-keeping software programs available through the various breed societies, government agencies and agricultural software developers. Advanced computer users can develop their own record keeping systems using database software packages such as FileMaker, FoxBase etc.

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