11

CONTENTS
I. II. III.

Transportation of Frozen Foods

Silvia Estrada-Flores
Food Science Australia, North Ryde, NSW, Australia

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Quality and Safety Risks During the Transport of Frozen Foods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Design and Operational Factors Affecting Temperature Uniformity During Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. Initial Temperature of Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. Airow Management and Loading Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C. Type of Packaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D. Refrigeration System and Temperature Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E. Door Seals, Insulation, and Aging of Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV. Containerized Sea Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V. Vessel Sea Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VI. Road Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII. Rail Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VIII. Air Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX. Monitoring and Control During the Distribution of Frozen Products . . . . . . . . . . . A. Regulatory Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. Technology for Temperature Monitoring During Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . X. Future Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XI. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

227 229 230 230 230 230 231 231 231 233 234 236 236 237 237 238 239 240 240

I. INTRODUCTION
About 650 million tons of food are shipped every year worldwide [1]. Most of these shipments are via maritime transport, but high-value frozen foods are being increasingly shipped by air. In this scenario, supply chain management has emerged as an integrated approach, which evaluates the effect of variables such as logistics, distribution, technology, quality, safety, costs, and times in the overall efciency of a particular commercial operation. The transportation of goods is now seen as a part of a system, rather than as an isolated event within the commercial operations required to position a product in the market. The analysis of the supply chain components for chilled and frozen foods needs to be particularly meticulous, to minimize negative economic, legal, and moral consequences associated with the loss of quality and integrity of products.
227
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The transport of frozen foods offers a number of formidable challenges to the supply chain manager. McKinnon and Campbell [2] offered some examples:
. .

Frozen distribution systems are capital- and energy-intensive. The industry is often diverse, comprising small and large rms; in the latter case, the size of the shipments makes it difcult to achieve a quick delivery response to the changing demands of the market. The ow of transport of frozen foods is highly affected by seasonality, marketing strategies, demand, and competition. The value of frozen products is relatively low and the demand is price-sensitive.

In contrast, the transport of frozen goods has been traditionally viewed as a less technically demanding task than the transport of respiring, chilled products. No serious quality or safety issues have been associated with subtle losses of temperature control, as long as product temperatures remain below 2 188C. Only product temperatures above 2 128C have been associated with an increase in bacterial counts and loss of quality [3]. The selection of transport modes in the distribution of frozen products signicantly affects the protability of the freezing industry. Figure 11.1 shows the costs of operation for shipping a 40 ft (12.2 m) container traveling from the American East Coast to Rotterdam [4,5]. Transport times and loading and unloading operations represent a large share of transportation costs. The latter two are xed costs. Hence, one of the key areas of focus to decrease the overall cost is to expedite these operations [5] and increase the cost-effectiveness of the transport operation such as increasing the energy efciency of the operation. Emerging regulations on the use of energy in transport and the impact of emissions on the environment have also fueled the investigation of lowenergy, low-polluting refrigeration systems. It has been estimated that the distribution of frozen foods requires 70% more energy than that of products at ambient temperature [4], but transportation of frozen cargo requires less energy than chilled cargo. Andersen [6] analyzed the energy consumption required to transport the aquacultural sh production from Norway to overseas markets during 1994, in the forms of frozen and fresh cargo. In the case of frozen sh, the modes of transport were trucks from Bergen to Oslo and refrigerated vessels from Olso to the importing country. Fresh sh was transported using trucks
6% 2% 2% 6% 2% 2% 10%
Moving container from loading ramp to storage Container waiting for pick up after stuffing Loading container on road trailer

Road transport to port terminal

2% 3%

Waiting for admission to port terminal Transfer from road trailer to stack Waiting in stack Unstacking and transfer to terminal trailer

7%

Transfer/loading onto ship Containership travel time (New York-Rotterdam) Transfer/unloading off ship
Transfer to stack Waiting in stack Transfer from stack to road trailer Clearance and inspection Road transport, port terminal to inland depot Unloading container at inland depot

53%

Storage in inland depot Moving container to consignee

FIGURE 11.1 Cost structure of moving a 40 ft (12.2 m) container between the American East Coast and Western Europe. (Data from W Coyle, W Hall, N Ballenger. Transportation technology and the rising share of US perishable food trade. In: A Regmi, Ed., Changing Structure of Global Food Consumption and Trade. Report WRS 01-1. USDA Agriculture and Trade, 2001, pp. 31 40.)

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from Bergen to Frankfurt and airplanes from Frankfurt to the importing country. Andersen [6] found that the energy used during the transport of frozen cargo was 2.1 kW h/kg, whereas the transport of fresh sh required 21.6 kW h/kg. Although road and air transport may present lower energy efciencies than rail and sea transport, fresh products require fast distribution channels to avoid signicant quality losses and to take care of safety issues. In contrast, the supply chain for frozen products has longer time frames and can benet from more cost and energy-effective transport options.

II. QUALITY AND SAFETY RISKS DURING THE TRANSPORT OF FROZEN FOODS
Unpleasant smells, stained packaging, or large ice crystals around the product after transport are all tell-tale signs of a disrupted cold chain during the transport of frozen products [7]. Several guidelines and codes of practice for refrigerated foods have been published [8 12]. Most of these acknowledge that the following quality changes in frozen products may appear during transport:
.

Partial melting of ice crystals and moisture migration within the product due to temperature uctuations during transport. A growth of larger ice crystals at the expense of smaller ones, a change in shape,1 and changes of crystal orientation may also be present. Formation of ice or frost on the surface of packages and pallets due to: (i) entry of warm, moist air to the cargo space (either during the loading of the transport, during door openings, or through the door seals of the insulated body) and (ii) migration of vapor from the product to the internal surface of the package.

Some physical issues are:

.

Mechanical damage due to acceleration effects, motion of the transport system, vibration and vertical impacts during accidental falls, collapsing of the package or pallet, and rough handling during loading and unloading. Contamination of the frozen cargo due to the use of the same transport to carry substances incompatible with the present cargo, the presence of residues and odors from previous cargoes, the use of cleaning agents or pesticides, unsuitable or contaminated dunnage, and securing materials or materials used in the construction of the transport.

Transient situations leading to loss of temperature control (e.g., defrost, temporary loss of refrigeration power, loading and unloading operations between transport modes and between cold storage, and sudden change of external environmental conditions, among others) are often unavoidable. Nevertheless, the impact of these factors can be minimized by: (a) ensuring that the refrigerated transport is operating optimally; (b) selecting a route that does not compromise the integrity of the product; (c) providing training to staff involved in the logistic operations; (d) selecting adequate packaging; (e) communicating in a continuous manner with the carriers; and (f) designing contingency plans to implement when faced with undesirable scenarios that may compromise the quality of the frozen cargo. Even though frozen products are more resistant to mild temperature abuse than chilled products, the former also requires the continuity of transport operations expected for chilled cargo. Various anecdotes and reported cases exist for frozen cargo that was unloaded and left at ambient temperature for extended periods of time (sometimes overnight), waiting to be loaded into the next transport [13]. Mason and Wallace [14] investigated the performance of vehicles carrying frozen food from manufacturers warehouses to bulk or retail warehouses in Queensland. They reported that insufcient precooling of trucks and lack of air distribution systems
1

Sharp surfaces will have a tendency to become smoother over time.

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(e.g., ceiling ducts and oor channels) resulted in excessive warming of the products, in some cases exceeding the maximum recommended temperature of 2 188C for frozen goods. The most expensive blunders in the cold chain of frozen products seem to arise from human errors and congestion of appropriate facilities in the logistics operations. Thus, a sound knowledge of (a) the issues likely to appear in the logistics of frozen foods, (b) the physical and chemical characteristics of the product to be transported, and (c) the characteristics (e.g., cost, duration, and demand) of the distribution channels available will contribute signicantly toward decreasing quality risks during the transport of frozen products.

III. DESIGN AND OPERATIONAL FACTORS AFFECTING TEMPERATURE UNIFORMITY DURING TRANSPORT
There are some common features that need to be considered during the design and operation of refrigerated transport equipment for frozen products. These are discussed below.

A. INITIAL TEMPERATURE

OF

PRODUCT

The extra heat load generated by product entering at temperatures above the set-point of a refrigerated vehicle can signicantly impair its thermal performance. Temperature differences in boxes of product before loading can persist until the end of the transport period. Moreover, during the transport of mixed loads of products, which may encompass items highly responsive to temperature changes (e.g., prepacked frozen meals with signicant air spaces enclosed in the packaging materials) and products with a slow response to temperature changes (e.g., ice cream transported in bulk containers), the thermal response of the cargo space will be largely determined by the predominant thermal mass (e.g., bulk containers) [15]. A refrigerated loading dock should be used to minimize the rise of product temperature during loading and unloading and to avoid the entrance of warm, moist ambient air.

B. AIRFLOW MANAGEMENT AND LOADING CONDITIONS

The most common air circulation pattern in refrigerated trucks is top-air delivery, lengthwise, frontto-rear [16]. Bottom-air delivery is more common in refrigerated containers [17]. The performance of a refrigerated vehicle can be greatly improved by generating adequate air movement within the cargo space and by avoiding the entry of warm air during product deliveries (in the case of multidelivery logistics). Recommended measures to achieve effective air circulation include: installing solid return air bulkheads, providing uniform, solid block stowage, securing the load away from doors and sidewalls, providing space underneath the load to create effective return paths for the air, and ensuring that cargo has been loaded below the red line marking the space required for unrestricted airow back to the unit (in the case of bottom-air delivery equipments) or from the unit (for top-air delivery units). Plastic or air curtains for doors can greatly decrease the entrance of warm air during transport that requires multiple deliveries [18]. In nondedicated containers that may be used to transport either chilled or frozen products, the fresh air ventilators must always be closed and the humidity indicator should be in the OFF position when frozen products are transported [19].

C. TYPE

OF

PACKAGING

Packaging designs for frozen products do not require the presence of perforations to aid convective heat transfer between the cold air and the product. Aspects such as structural integrity of the packages and pallets and heat transmission between the package and the surrounding air are more important for frozen foods.

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D. REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

AND

TEMPERATURE CONTROL

Mechanical refrigeration systems coupled with thermostats sensing the air return temperatures are the most common means of temperature control in the transport of frozen products. In vehicles designed to transport both chilled and frozen cargo, the control system usually includes a second sensor in the air delivery. The sizing of the refrigeration unit is critical and should account for extra heat loads such as the heat conducted through the insulated walls, heat contributed by defrost systems and fan motors, and door openings. Control systems can vary from simple ON/ OFF strategies, commonly used in long-distance transport of frozen foods, to proportional integral derivative (PID) controls [17]. Temperature differentials lengthwise and along the height of the cargo space may be minimized with adequate control systems, correct placement of temperature sensors, and efcient insulation.

E. DOOR SEALS, INSULATION,

AND

AGING

OF

UNIT

The possibilities of water-damaged insulation and faulty door seals increase in old vehicles for which maintenance has been insufcient. High air leakage rates and high heat inltration will lead to loss of temperature control, unless the refrigeration unit has been sized to take these into account. The deterioration of the insulation materials due to aging is estimated to be about 5% of the insulating quality per year [16]. Regarding the refrigeration plant and control components, Jiang and Wang [20] suggested an average lifetime of 7 years for marine reefers before the refrigeration plant is in need of major repairs. Figure 11.2 summarizes some important characteristics of refrigerated road, rail, sea, and air transport modes. Detailed technical descriptions of refrigerated trucks, containers, rail boxcars, and air shipping containers commonly used to transport chilled and frozen products can be found elsewhere [16,17,21]. Some particular characteristics and operating conditions for frozen products transported in these vehicles will be examined in the following sections.

IV. CONTAINERIZED SEA TRANSPORT

The development and expansion of containerization has been recognized as a signicant factor that has contributed to the steady reduction of transportation costs worldwide since 1950 [22]. Containers can be used in maritime, road, and railway transports. The main types of marine containers are porthole containers and integral (reefer) containers. Porthole (or Con-Air) containers were developed in the late 1960s to facilitate the transport of chilled and frozen products on xed routes between terminals with similar refrigeration systems [23]. These same design features are now hindering their exibility in modern shipping ports, and porthole units are likely to be totally replaced by integral containers in the near future. Porthole containers do not have an in-built source of refrigeration, but receive ducted air through two sealable portholes on the front bulkhead [16,17]. The cold air produced is distributed by a central refrigeration system in the ship, which serves several porthole units at the same time. When the containers are being used off the ship, the units are cooled by electrically driven or autonomous clip-on refrigeration units [17,24]. Integral containers accounted for 82% of the world production of 20 ft (6.1 m) equivalent units (TEUs) during 1998 [25]; during 2003, the production of integral containers increased to 99%. The rise in the global production of integral reefers can be attributed to the phasing out of obsolete 20 ft (6.1 m) porthole units, the aging of existing Con-Air vessels (most of these over 30 years old) and the recent increase in containerized reefer trafc [26]. Over 90% of all current reefer production encompasses 40 ft (12.2 m) high-cube units. Integral containers have their own in-built refrigeration unit that usually runs from a threephase electrical power supply, generated onboard the ship or by an independent diesel generator

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232 Transportation of Frozen Foods FIGURE 11.2 Important characteristics of the most common modes of transport of frozen products. (Sources: Anonymous. Guide to Refrigerated Transport. IIR TFFTFA. Paris: International Institute of Refrigeration, 1995, pp. 70 130; J. Frith. The Transport of Perishable Foodstuffs. Cambridge: Ship Owners Refrigerated Cargo Research Association, 1991, pp. 7 29; Anonymous. ASHRAE Handbook, Refrigeration, Systems and Applications. Atlanta, GA: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, 1994, pp. 1 30.4; Y. Wild. Refrigerated containers and CA technology. In: Container Handbook. Cargo Loss Prevention Information for German Marine Insurers, 2003. Berlin: Transport and Loss prevention Department.)
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[16,17,25]. These containers are generally carried on deck or in a particular area below deck that can be cooled sufciently to dissipate the heat rejected by the containers condensers. In most containers, air ows from the bottom of the unit and is delivered to the cargo area through a T-section oor. The depth of the oor channels must allow the ow of air under the cargo and toward the doors. Finally, the air returns to the refrigeration unit via the space between the top of the cargo and the ceiling. The frozen cargo is stacked solidly in the center of the container, with no gap between the boxes and ensuring that a space is left between the pallet and the walls of the container. This space provides some protection to the frozen cargo against heat inltrated through the insulated walls into the container [17]. Temperature control in refrigerated containers carrying frozen products is based on the measurement of the temperature of air returning to the evaporator. The cargo temperature is often different to the air temperature, due to the thermal inertia of the frozen product. Hence, a +38C tolerance band around the set-point temperature (usually 2 188C) is generally used to account for those deviations, unless specic regulations for a particular product apply. Some particular recommendations to ensure a successful transit of containerized frozen products are given as follows:
.

. .

Whenever possible, the use of containers older than 7 years should be avoided, to decrease the impact of aging defects (e.g., quality of insulation and reliability of mechanical parts). Door and portholes seals are particularly sensitive to wearing and tearing effects and should be inspected before loading. Containers should be clean and free of odors. A pretrip inspection should be carried out by the carrier. The container should be precooled at the required set-point temperature (equal or below 2 188C) before loading. It is important to keep temperature records of the container at all times (i.e., during transport to the port, while on the port of departure, during the voyage, and while on the port of arrival). Standard procedures are required to recover and store temperature information logged in the temperature recorder of the container. Temperature records (e.g., circular charts, often referred to as Partlow charts) are maintained by the staff onboard the ship. However, these records are often kept condential by the shipping company and they are not readily available in the case of a legal dispute that involves temperature management practices. Precise instructions about the location of the refrigerated container (e.g., under the deck or on deck stowage) need to be discussed with the carrier, to avoid delays in switching of refrigeration (in the case of porthole containers) and unnecessary exposition of the containers to direct sunlight.

V. VESSEL SEA TRANSPORT

Conventional refrigerated ships are designed to hold frozen product at 2 208C. Ships intended for transporting break-bulk or palletized cargo have holds divided by decks 2 3 m high, providing spaces with perforated deck grating [27]. Refrigeration can be achieved by direct expansion or brine systems. In both cases, the coils transporting the coolant may form part of a normal evaporator with fans to mobilize the air or they may be distributed within the walls and ceiling of the hold [28]. Cold air is blown into the ducts at the end of the hold or through side ducts. The air ascends through the cargo and through the duct at the opposite end of the hold, and then returns to the refrigeration unit via spaces above the cargo. Two between-deck spaces can be combined to form a common air space, although such combination risks incomplete refrigeration at the higher levels of the hold. The holds are usually insulated with polyurethane, although polystyrene and expanded polyvinyl chloride are also used [16].

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The loading of frozen cartons has proved particularly challenging in the shipping industry. At loading, pallets are removed from the truck trailer and placed on the dock, where they are subsequently lifted into the hold using the ships gear such as slings, lifting platforms, or ying forks. In the hold, lift trucks engage the pallets and transport them to locations near where the cartons will be stowed. Stevedores then manually remove the cartons from the pallets and stack them for shipping. The pallets are then returned to the square of the hatch and are stacked to be hoisted out of the hold and back onto the dock by the ships gear. Delays in bringing a sufcient quantity of product to the dock and in unloading the cartons from the truck can increase the time needed to load the vessel [29]. Space restrictions in the vessel also limit the number of workers stowing the cartons. Excessive delays in loading result in cartons being left on the dock or in the truck, allowing the product to warm up. It may also result in increased condensation of moisture on the cartons, which can complicate the handling process. As the frozen food industry is seeking to use less wax on the cartons and to utilize paper-coated boxes, the damaging effect of condensation and internal thawing on the boxes increases. Overall, high costs, signicant expenditure of manual labor and bottlenecks that slow the loading process may result in product degradation or spoilage are still frequent in loading and unloading operations of ships. Technical solutions have been offered [29] but these have not been widely implemented. Thus, transhipment should be avoided whenever possible. Even though freight cost may decrease by using this option, the risk of losing cold chain integrity may offset this advantage.

VI. ROAD TRANSPORT

Numero and Jones [30] are credited with the invention of the rst practical refrigeration unit used in trucks and railcars. Since its introduction, refrigerated trucks have become a necessary link in the supply chain for frozen products. The growth of online (the Internet) shopping has changed the panorama of urban distribution of foods. It is expected that by 2007, the value of online grocery shopping will reach US$ 85 billion in the United States alone, with 25% of U.S. households making use of the Internet to obtain their food supplies [31]. This trend has led to an increase in the use of small, multitemperature, multicompartment vans, to deliver a mixture of frozen and unfrozen goods. Vans typically have a working schedule of 8 12 h, including multiple loading and unloading of small parcels with several door openings and evaporator defrosts occurring during that time. Panel vans have been successfully adapted to work as either single-temperature or multitemperature delivery units. As an example, normal Sprinter vans converted to refrigerated vans have achieved a heat leakage value (also known as K-value) below 0.4 W m22 K21 thus complying with the European statutory regulations for the transport of chilled produce [32]. The refrigeration plant in panel vans is usually driven by the vehicles engine, but an electric motor that draws energy from the vehicles alternator and an auxiliary battery can also be used. In larger multitemperature vans carrying chilled and frozen cargo, refrigeration systems comprising two or more evaporators that share both compressor and condenser are common. When the chiller compartment requires cooling, the supply of refrigerant to the frozen compartment is suspended and the demand of the chiller is attended [33]. The size of the compartments can be varied by means of removable partitions. Diesel, electricity, or a combination of both are commonly used to run multitemperature refrigeration units, but eutectic plates for cooling are also commonly used. Eutectic systems can only hold product for a period of less than 10 h [16], depending on the heat load entering the cargo space. The holding temperatures for frozen products range from 2 208C to 2 308C. The performance of eutectic compartments greatly depends on the sound design of the system (e.g., amount of solution, size and position of plates within the insulated compartment) and, once installed, in the complete freezing of the solution during recharging periods, usually occurring overnight in a normal urban distribution chain.

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Long-distance road transport relies on the use of highway and intermodal trailers and trucks [21]. Long-distance vehicles withstand continuous operation periods of about 1000 h, while downtime due to maintenance needs to be kept to a minimum; thus, the following aspects are more signicant for vehicles that are used a few hours per day:
.

. . . .

Efciency of the insulated body. This parameter is often referred to as a K-value (W m22 K21), or the transfer of heat through the structure of the insulated body, measured under certain test conditions, divided by the product of the mean surface area of the body and the difference between the external and internal air temperatures. Airtightness of the unit, measured as air leakage under a pressurized condition (m3 h21). Time to pull temperatures down to the required set-point temperature. Steadiness of the cargo space temperature during normal operating conditions. Steadiness of the cargo space temperature when an extra heat load is applied in excess of the normal heat load (either simulating the effect of door openings or additional heat inltration through the walls). Temperature variations within the cargo space with respect to voyage time, also related to airow distribution. Effect of defrost systems.

Some examples of international regulations covering the aspects mentioned earlier are given below. 1. The Agreement on the International Carriage of Perishable Foodstuffs and on the Special Equipment To Be Used for Such Carriage (ATP Agreement) [8]. This agreement provides a number of classication temperatures that need to be assessed under an ambient temperature of 308C, among other experimental conditions. The relevant classications for the transport of frozen products are:
.

Class C: mechanically refrigerated equipment tted with a refrigerating appliance operating at a temperature between 12 and 2 208C, inclusive. Class F: mechanically refrigerated equipment tted with a refrigerating appliance operating at a temperature below 2 208C.

The vehicles are tested in terms of their insulation capacity and the efciency of the refrigeration unit under steady conditions. The K-value is required to be less than or equal to 0.4 W m22 K21. To account for door openings and other sporadic cooling demands, the refrigeration system is required to have an extra capacity of 35% over the expected cooling requirements at normal conditions, when operating at its minimum classication temperature. 2. The Australian Standard 4982-2003 [34]. This standard follows closely the requirements of the ATP agreement. However, the external ambient temperature used to test the vehicles is more stringent ( 388C). The classications pertaining to frozen products are:
. .

Class C: the mean inside temperature needs to be assessed at 2 188C. Class D: the mean inside temperature needs to be assessed at 2 288C.

The standard does not specify a maximum K-value, but the unit needs to operate at the stated classication temperature for at least 8 h. Furthermore, the vehicle must keep the classication temperature for 4 h, with an extra heat load equivalent to 35% of the heat inltrating the envelope. Thermal imaging and full mapping of temperature variation in the cargo space may be useful to test vehicles used for the transport of frozen products [35]. Shortages of storage space for holding frozen products may encourage more efcient inventory management, but often have a negative impact on the handling of frozen products. Transport eets

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are being increasingly used as a exible resource to compensate for the lack of storage space. In a recent survey in the U.K., McKinnon and Campbell [2] found that trucks spent nearly 10 h out of 48 h fully loaded and stationary. Holding frozen products in trucks is less energy-efcient than using a cold store; however, standard distribution practices frequently demand preloading of trucks and synchronization of the loading of inbound and outbound cargoes to achieve a more efcient distribution of workload and staff.

VII. RAIL TRANSPORT

Rail transport costs for frozen products have been compared with road transport [36]. Even though rail maintenance and construction costs are high and these impact on the rates offered to the users, costs can be offset if transhipments (e.g., loading and unloading) are minimized, transit occurs between distant geographical points, and the size of the cargo is signicant. Railcars used for the transport of frozen goods may be grouped into three categories [16,21]: 1. Refrigerated wagons are insulated bodies using a nonmechanical source of cold (e.g., ice with or without the addition of salt; eutectic plates; dry ice, with or without sublimation control; liqueed gases, with or without evaporation control). According to the ATP agreement, a wagon class C carrying frozen products should be able to maintain a temperature of 2 208C with a mean outside temperature of 308C. 2. Mechanically refrigerated wagons are insulated wagons either tted with their own refrigeration plant, or served jointly with other wagons by a central mechanical refrigeration unit. According to the ATP Agreement, a wagon class C carrying frozen products should be able to maintain a temperature between 128C and 2 208C, inclusive, with a mean outside temperature of 308C. 3. Multi-modal (road rail) units are particularly suited to carrying large volumes of product over long distances. These units can be integral containers (as discussed in Section IV), semi-trailers (either carried in at cars or bogies), refrigerated swap bodies, or largecapacity containers. The use of the frozen product thermal mass as a means to maintain temperatures below the recommended 2 188C temperature guideline has been attempted [37], but isolated warm spots (usually in the top corners of the stow) will appear in these scenarios [38]; conductive heat transfer within the cargo is too slow to even out temperature differentials.

VIII. AIR TRANSPORT

Airfreight is often perceived as a safe, reliable, and fast transport mode for frozen products. However, products may have waiting times of several hours before being loaded into the aircraft, with no additional cooling but any autonomous, in-built source (e.g., phase change materials) provided in the packaging or container. Temperature-controlled cargo spaces are frequently limited and few airlines have adequately trained personnel in good transport practices for temperaturesensitive products [39]. Delays in air transport are also more common due to the recent implementation of tight security measures. Having said this, some factors have led to an increase in the use of airfreight for the delivery of temperature-sensitive goods, such as the separation of freight from passenger services [40] and the delivery of specialized services for chilled and frozen products [41]. Frozen products may be air freighted by means of:
.

Passive insulating shipping systems, also known as thermal packages. These mainly consist of cardboard or plastic boxes insulated with polystyrene, polyurethane, or vacuum panels.

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Dry ice or eutectic plates lled with phase change materials (such as salt solutions) are used to provide low, noncontrolled temperatures during the voyage. Active shipping systems, such as insulated containers with in-built refrigeration systems and means for temperature control. Most of these systems are battery-powered and use dry ice as a refrigerant.

Some recommendations apply to the transport of frozen products by air:

.

Air cargo containers usually benet from thermal blankets, which are multilayered covers that protect the pallet from radiant and convective heat. Airfreight should be booked in advance, with specic departure and arrival times negotiated beforehand. Air forwarders specialist in perishable products and with worldwide representations and connections are recommended over more generic rms with more limited resources. The perishable nature of the products carried should be clearly stated on the Bill of Landing, air waybill, or consignment note, along with instructions for keeping the product in a temperature-controlled facility at the correct temperature. Documentation should be expedient and the product should be transported immediately to appropriate coldstorage facilities.

IX. MONITORING AND CONTROL DURING THE DISTRIBUTION OF FROZEN PRODUCTS A. REGULATORY APPROACHES
Although most current regulations on food product safety during refrigerated transport are selfregulatory measures developed by the food industry, the implementation of public temperature performance standards to improve food safety has been suggested before [42]. Two examples of current private and public regulations related to safe temperatures for the transport of frozen products are described below.
.

In Australia, the Australian Cold Chain Guidelines [10], a self-regulatory guideline, provides recommendations for the safe transport of perishable products. These specify that frozen products should be handled never warmer than 2 188C. In Europe, the Quick Frozen Foodstuffs (Amendment) Regulations [9], the British interpretation of EEC directive 92/1/EEC, establishes the use of recording instruments to monitor the air temperatures to which quick frozen foods are subjected. Quick frozen foods are required to be stored and transported at 2 188C.

It is worthwhile noting that a Transportation Technical Analysis Group (TAG) was established in 1995 in the U.S.A. The group identied a number of issues during the road transport of perishable products and drafted a proposed temperature regulation for the transport of perishables, including frozen foods [43]. The proposed regulation has not yet been implemented. Thermal performance and safe temperature regulations have the common mission of ensuring optimum temperature management during the transport of perishable products. Even though there also seems to be mutual exclusivity of parties developing public thermal performance standards and those undertaking food safety regulations [15], temperature monitoring is the most important step to enforce both types of regulations.

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FOR

B. TECHNOLOGY

TEMPERATURE MONITORING DURING TRANSPORT

A variety of temperature and time temperature indicators/integrators (TTIs) as well as temperature data loggers, with and without display, are available from various suppliers. Some characteristics required from these systems for the transport industry are: sensitivity, satisfactory accuracy for the intended purpose, robustness to withstand harsh conditions (including vibration), traceability, ease of use, small space requirements and low unit, and total cost per monitored shipment [44]. Temperature-measuring devices may be based on physicochemical properties (e.g., melting point, thermal expansion, emissivity, diffusion, solidication temperature, and viscoelastic properties) or chemical reactions (e.g., electrochemical corrosion, enzymatic reactions, and polymerization). Two popular temperature-measuring systems are described below.
.

Graphic recorders are used for monitoring air temperatures in containers, airplane holds, railcars, and trucks. The device has a bimetal coil as a sensing element; the coil expands or contracts depending on the surrounding temperature. A stylus attached to the coil creates a temperature line in the paper, which correlates with a range of temperatures, typically from 2 28.9 to 37.88C. Electronic data loggers are now replacing graphic recorders. One reason is that an electronic format of temperature data is more suitable for quality assurance analyses and records. Flexibility of electronic data loggers is a second reason, as these can accompany the product itself and are not necessarily part of the transport system. Electronic loggers have a sensing element, which changes its electric resistance in response to the temperatures sensed. The resistance is translated into temperatures by internally built software or by an external computer. The results are stored in an internal memory and data can be transferred afterward to a computer for analysis.

Some temperature-monitoring devices do not present a display of temperatures, but undergo physical changes as a consequence of temperature changes. The British Standard 4908 [45] classies these temperature indicators in the following groups:
.

Temperature indicators with ascending function, thaw, or threshold indicators. These typically measure temperatures in the range 2 20 to 308C. Temperature indicators with descending function. These typically measure temperatures in the range 0 to 2 68C. Partial TTIs. These need to hit a temperature threshold to change their properties and signal temperature abuse. Full TTIs. These indicate temperature changes over the full temperature range.

Some examples of TTIs are shown in Table 11.1. Currently, the value of full-history TTIs range from US$ 1.00 to 4.00. More sophisticated approaches, such as radio frequency identication devices (RFIDs), have a value of US$ 2.50 to US$ 5.00 [44]. An RFID-based temperature-measuring system generally encompasses a sensor, a tag, and a reader that communicate with one another by means of radio transmission. Active RFID systems are battery-powered, which allow them to be independent of a common energy source and can, thus, be used for transport applications. The information collected by the tag, such as temperature, identication code, or others, can be obtained at real-time, and sudden situations that endanger the integrity of the frozen goods can be addressed promptly. New developments in the eld of TTIs include the combination of RFID technology and enzyme-based technologies, opening the possibility of tracking shelf-life of frozen products remotely [46].

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TABLE 11.1 Summary of Specications of some Commerical TTIs

Name and Type Change in TTI Noticed by User Principle Temperature or Time Limits Upper Lower Limit Limit 2 158C 2 208C 95 mm 19 mm; thickness 2 mm Dimensions

3M Monitor Markw 9860A

Diffusing blue front along the length of a porous wick

VITSAB CheckPointTM labels

WarmMarkTM 51034

Color change of label, caused by a decrease in acidity of active substance Color change of label, caused by a decrease in acidity of active substance

Diffusion of colored substance if temperature measured is higher than melting point of octyl octanoate Enzymatic hydrolysis of a lipid substrate (occurs at 2 188C) Enzymatic hydrolysis of a lipid substrate (occurs at 2 188C)

4 days

Variablea 22 mm 36 mm; thickness 0.8 mm

12 hr

Variablea 19 mm 46 mm; thickness 1.5 mm

Depends on the severity of warming during temperature abuse.

Sources: PS Taoukis, TP Labuza. In: CM Bourgeois, TA Roberts, Eds., Predictive Microbiology Applied to Chilled Food Preservation. Proceedings of the International Symposium, Quimper, France, June 1618, 1997. Refrigeration Science and Technology Proceedings Series. Paris, France: International Institute of Refrigeration, 1997; 3M MonitorMarkTM Time Temperature Indicators brochure, 2004; VITSABTM Time Temperature Indicators brochure, 2004; Delta Track Thermolabels brochure, 2004.

X. FUTURE TECHNOLOGIES
McKinnon and Campbell [2] found that some transport users were dissatised with the outdated materials-handling systems during distribution of frozen foods and the scarcity of technical innovations in the logistics of frozen foods. Competitive pressures in the refrigerated industry are also encouraging manufacturers to include criteria such as environmental issues, food safety regulations, and costs in the development of new transport technologies. Some of these new technologies, as detected by various authors [47 50], include: 1. Sanitation aspects. 2. Multicompartment, multitemperature vehicles with features that increase the exibility to change the vehicles capacity and its use (e.g., switching from a frozen application to a chilled application) according to the product demand. 3. New technologies for traceability, control, and prediction of shelf-life during transport. 4. Labeling and other means of information to the consumer. 5. Management of interfaces during the cold chain (e.g., from cold store to transport, from transport to retail cold store, and others).

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6. Improvement of the airow distribution in refrigerated transport by means of air ducting. 7. Alternative refrigeration cycles and systems. Recent patents [49,51] refer to cryogenic technologies in the transport of frozen goods. Some cryogenic systems have been tested with mixed success in railcars and containers, indicating the need for netuning these systems to achieve full commercialization. In terms of energy efciency, Van Gerwen et al. [52] estimated that, in refrigerated road vehicles, between 10 and 40% of the total energy consumption is related to the refrigeration system. There is a considerable room for improvement in this area. Current regulations aimed to ensure a certain level of thermal performance for refrigerated vehicles will need to encompass energy efciency standards in the future. Systematic risk assessments of temperature abuse during transport and the relative signicance of this operation on the nal quality of frozen products have not been undertaken. The frozen food industry relies on enforcing temperatures deemed to be safe for storage conditions, rather than specic transport guidelines for frozen products. It is important to keep in mind that new developments in the transport of frozen products are motivated by (a) compliance with current and future regulations in terms of energy efciency and environmental impact, (b) product quality and safety, and (c) cost reduction. Novel designs for refrigerated vehicles need to address all these areas to be successfully marketed.

XI. CONCLUSIONS
The transport of frozen foods has been traditionally viewed as a less technically demanding task than the transport of chilled products. However, the industry still faces challenges related to the high use of energy during transport, the capital investment required to establish distribution channels for frozen foods, the diversity of the industry, the introduction of e-commerce worldwide, and the price-sensitive demand of frozen products, among others. A sound knowledge of the issues likely to appear in the logistics of frozen foods, the physicochemical characteristics of the products transported, and the characteristics of the distribution channels (e.g., cost, duration, and demand) is required to overcome the aforementioned challenges. International thermal performance and safe temperature regulations have been traditionally developed and implemented using separate regulatory structures, even though both types of policies have the common goal of ensuring optimum temperature management during the transport of frozen products. Given that traceability, safety, and shelf-life have been detected as key areas for the development of new technologies in the perishables transport industry, there is a need to homogenize the regulatory efforts for the transport of frozen products and perishables in general.

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