Discrete and Combinatorial Mathematics, 5th ed., Ralph P.

Grimaldi

Chapter 1 Fundamental Principles of Counting

z What is enumeration or counting? It just starts from counting your fingers. z Enumeration does not end with arithmetic.

1.1

The Rules of Sum and Product

z Two basic principles of counting: the rules of sum and product. z The Rule of Sum: If a first task can be performed in m ways, while a second task can be performed in n ways, and the two tasks cannot be performed simultaneously, then performing either task can be accomplished in any one of m+n ways. z Example 1.1: page 4. z Example 1.2: page 4. z The Rule of Product (=principle of choice): If a procedure can be broken down into first and second stages, and if there are m possible outcomes for the first stage and if, for each of these outcomes, there are n possible outcomes for the second stage, then the total procedure can be carried out, in the designated order, in mn ways. z Example 1.5: page 4. z Example 1.6: pages 4~5.

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Discrete and Combinatorial Mathematics, 5th ed., Ralph P. Grimaldi

1.2

Permutations

z Linear arrangements of objects called permutations; how do we count the number of these arrangements? z Example 1.9: page 6. z Definition 1.1: For an integer n0, n factorial (denoted n!) is defined by 0!=1, n! = (n)(n-1)(n-2)(3)(2)(1), for n1. z Example: 1!=1, 2!=2, 3!=6, 4!=24, etc. To see how fast n! grows, consider 10! = 3,628,800, exactly the number of seconds in 6 weeks. Consequently, 11! exceeds the number of seconds in one year, 12! exceeds the number 12 years, and 13! surpasses the number of seconds in a century. z Definition 1.2: Given a collection of n distinct objects, any (linear) arrangement of these objects is call a permutation of the collection. z Formula 1: If there are n distinct objects, denoted a1, a2,, an, and r is an integer, with 1rn, then by the rule of product, the number of permutations of size r for the n objects is P(n,r) = n(n-1)(n-2)(n-r+1) = (n)(n-1)(n-2)(n-r+1) z Example 1.10: page 7. z Example 1.11: page 7. z Example 1.12: page 8.
(n-r)(n-r-1)(3)(2)(1) (n-r)(n-r-1)(3)(2)(1) n! (n-r)!

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Discrete and Combinatorial Mathematics, 5th ed., Ralph P. Grimaldi

z Formula 2: If there are n objects with n1 of a first type, n2 of a second type, , and nr of an rth type, where n! n1+n2++nr=n, then there are (linear) arrangements of the given n objects. (Objects of the same type are indistinguishable.) z Example 1.14: page 9. z Example 1.15: page 10.
n1! n2! n3! nr!

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Discrete and Combinatorial Mathematics, 5th ed., Ralph P. Grimaldi

1.3

Combinations: The Binomial Theorem

z Example: Suppose we draw three cards from a standard deck of playing cards (52 cards) in succession and without replacement, then by the rule of product there are 525150=52!/49!=P(52,3). If instead we simply select 3 cards at one time from the deck so that the order of selection of the cards is no longer important, then the six permutations correspond to just one (unordered) selection. Therefore, (3!)(Number of selections of size 3 from a deck of 52) = Number of permutations of size 3 for the 52 cards = P(52,3) = 52!/49! . Consequently, three cards can be drawn, without replacement, from a standard deck in 52!/(3!49!) = 22100 ways. z Formula 3: If we start with n distinct objects, each selection, or combination, of r of these objects, with no reference to order, corresponds to r! permutations of size r from the n objects. Thus, the number of combinations of size r from a collection of size n, denoted C(n,r), where 0 r n, satisfies (r!)C(n,r)=P(n,r) and C(n,r) =
P(n,r) n! = , 0rn. r! r !(n-r)!

Note that C(n,0)=1, for all n0. z Example 1.20: pages 15~16.

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Discrete and Combinatorial Mathematics, 5th ed., Ralph P. Grimaldi

z Note: When dealing with any counting problem, we should ask ourselves about the importance of order in the problem. When order is relevant, we think in terms of permutations and arrangements and the rule of product. When order is not relevant, combinations could play a key role in solving the problem. z Example 1.21: page 16. z Example 1.22: pages 16~17. z See the examples of notation in pages 17~18. z Example 1.24(a)(b): page 19. z Note: For integers n, r, with nr0, ( r ) = ( n-r ). z Theorem 1.1: The Binomial Theorem. If x and y are variables and n is a positive integer, then (x+y)n = ( 0 )x0yn + ( 1 )x1yn-1 + ( 2 )x2yn-2 +
n n n n + ( n-1 )xn-1y1 + ( n )xny0 = ( k ) xkyn-k . k =0 n n n n n

Proof: see pages 21~22. z Example 1.26: page 22. z Corollary 1.1: For each integer n > 0, a) b)
n n n n ( 0 ) + ( 1 ) + ( 2 ) + + ( n ) = 2n, and n n n n ( ) - ( ) + ( ) - + (-1)n( ) = 0. 0 1 2 n

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Discrete and Combinatorial Mathematics, 5th ed., Ralph P. Grimaldi

z Theorem 1.2: For positive integers n, t, the coefficient of x1n1x2n2xtnt in the expansion of (x1+x2+x3++xt)n is
n! n , (or = ( )) n1, n2, n3, , nt n1! n2! n3! nt!

where each ni is an integer with 0nin, for all 1it, and n1+n2+n3++nt=n. Proof: see page 23. z Example 1.27: page 23.

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Discrete and Combinatorial Mathematics, 5th ed., Ralph P. Grimaldi

1.4

Combinations with Repetition

z Example 1.28: page 26. z Formula 4: When we wish to select, with repetition, r of n distinct objects, we find (as in Table 1.6, page 26) that we are considering all arrangements of r xs and n1 |s and that their number is Consequently, the number of combinations of n objects taken r at a time, with repetition, is C(n+r-1,r). z Example 1.29: page 27. z Example 1.30: pages 27~28. z Example 1.33: page 29. (This example introduces an idea that appears to have more to do with number theory than with combinations) z Note: It is crucial that we recognize the equivalence of the following: a) The number of integer solutions of the equation x1+x2++xn=r, xi0, 1in. b) The number of selections, with repetition, of size r from a collection of size n. c) The number of ways r identical objects can be distributed among n distinct containers. z Example 1.35: page 30. z Example 1.36: page 30. z Example 1.39: Page 32.
(n+r-1)! n+r-1 =( ). r!(n-1)! r

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