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CHAPTER 1 Fundamentals of Measurement
1.0 MEASUREMENT Science and Engineering Technology depends on the technique of measurement for a significant achievement in research and production. The human senses cannot provide exact quantitative information about the events occuring in our environment and thus scienctific instruments are employed to enable human to observe and measure aspects of ph ysical universe beyond the range and precision of an unaided human senses.
Instruments are the essential extensions of human

sensing and perception without which scientific
exploration of nature would be impossible. Basic to all engineering is design and basic to all design is the measurements. Whatever exists, exists in some amounts and thus needs to be quantified. If an engineer or scientist were to be deprived of his measuring devices, his discorveries or intellectual works would be reduced to guessing and speculation. Measurement: can be defined as a means for describing the various physical and chemical parameters of
materials in quantitative terms. It is the process by which one can convert physical parameters to meaningful number. The result of measurement is expressed as:
unknown Quantity Adopted S tan dard
Measurement and Instrumentation
Measurement Units
For example; 10cm lenght implies that the object is 10 times as large as 1cm (standard) . For consistence and quantitative comparison of physical parameters, certain standards of mass, length, time, temperature and
electrical quantities have been established. 1.1 Measurement Units
The standard measure of each kind of physical quantity is the Unit; the number of times the unit oc curs in any given amount of the same quantity is the number of measure. Without the unit, the number of measure has no physical meaning. The very first measurement units were those used in barter trade to quantify the amounts being exchanged and to establish clear rules about the relative values of different commodities. The early establishment of
standards for the measurement of physical quantities proceeded in several countries at broadly parallel times, and in consequence, several sets of units emerged for measuring the same physical variable. For instance, length can be measured in yards, meters, or several other units. Apart from the major units of length, subdivisions of standard units exist such as feet, inches, centimeters and millimeters, with a fixed relationship between each fundamental unit and its subdivisions. Yards, feet and inches belong to the Imperial System of units, which is characterized by having varying and cumbersome multiplication factors relating fundamental units to subdivisions suc h as 1760 (miles to yards), 3
Fundamental and derived units
(yards to feet) and 12 (feet to inches). The metric system is an alternative set of units, which includes for instance the unit of the meter and its centimeter and millimeter subdivisions for measuring length. All multiples and subdivisions of basic metric units are related to the base by factors of ten and such units are therefore much easier to use than Imperial units.
However, in the case of derived units such as velocity, the number of alternative ways in which these can be
expressed in the metric system can lead to confusion. As a result of this, an internationally agreed set of standard units (SI units or Syst`emes Internationals dUnites) has been defined, and strong efforts are being made to encourage the adoption of this system throughout the world. In support of this effort, the SI system of units will be used exclusively in this book. However, it should be noted that the Imperial system is still widely used, particularly in America and Britain. The European Union has just deferred planned legislation to ban the use of Imperial units in Europe in the near future, and the latest proposal is to introduce such legislation to take effect from the year 2010 1.2 Fundamental and Derived Units
To measure an unknonwn we must have acceptable unit standard for the property that is to be assessed. Since there are virtually hundreds of different quantities that man is called upon to measure, it would seem that hundreds of different standard units would be required.
Measureent and Instruentation
undaental and derived units
Fortunately, this is not the case. By choosing a small number of basic quantities as standards, we can define all the other in terms of these few. The basic units are called fundamentals, while all the others which can be expressed in terms of fundamental units are called derived units, and formed by multiplying or dividing fundamental units. The primary fundamental units which most commonly used are lenght, mass, and time, while measurement of certain physical quantities in thermal, electrical, and illumination discip line are also represented by fundamental units. These units are used only when these particular classes are involved, and they may therefore be defined as auxiliary fundamental units. Every derived unit originates from some physical law defining that unit. For example, the voltage [volt]:
Netonxeter orce xdis tan ce ! ch arg e currentxtie perex sec ond velocity dis tan ce assxaccelerationxeter assx xeter assx 2 xeter ti e ti e volt ! ! ! currentxtie currentxtie currentxtie 2 assx eter 2 2 tie 2 ! assx eter ! Kg . volt ! 3 ! Kg. 2 . 1 .Sec 3 3 currentxti e currentxti e .Sec volt !
!
orkdone
Joule J ! ! coulo b C
This is the basic S.I units of volt.
Fundamental and derived units
Table 1.1 below shows the six basic S.I quantity and units of measurement, with their unit symbol:
Table 1.1 Fundamental and Derived Units

Quantity Length Mass Time Electric Current Temperature Luminous intensity Matter Standard Unit Metre Kilogram Second Ampere kelvin Candela mole Symbol M Kg s A K cd mol
(b) Supplementary fundamental units

Quantity Plane angle Solid angle Standard unit radian steradian Symbol rad Sr
(c) Derived units

Quantity Area Volume Velocity Acceleration Angular velocity Angular acceleration Density Specific volume Mass flow rate Volume flow rate Force Pressure Torque Momentum Standard unit Square metre cubic metre metre per second metre per second squared radian per second radian per second squared kilogram per cubic meter cubic metre per kilogram Kilogram per second cubic metre per second newton newton per square metre newton meter kilogram meter per second Symbol m2 m3 m/s m/s2 rad/s rad/s2 kg/m3 m3/kg kg/s m3/s N N/m2 Nm kgm/s Kgm/s2 Derivation formula
Measurement and Instrumentation Moment of inertia Kinematic viscosity Dynamic viscosity Work, energy, heat Specific energy Power Thermal conductivity Electric charge Voltage, emf, p.d Electric field strength Electric resistance Electric capacitance Electric inductance Electric conductance Resistivity Permitivity Permeability Current density Magnetic flux Magnetic flux density Magnetic field strenght Frequency Luminous flux Luminance Illumination Molar volume Molarity Molar energy
Fundamental and derived units kgm2 m2/s Ns/m2 J J/m3 W W/mK C V V/m ; F H S ;m F/m H/m A/m2 Wb T A/m Hz lm cd/m lx m3/mol mol/kg J/mol
2
kilogram meter squared Square meter per second newton second per square meter Joule Joule per cubic meter Watt Watt per meter kelvin Coulombs Volt volt per meter Ohms Farad Henry Siemen Ohm meter farad per meter Henry per meter Ampere per square metre Webber Tesla Ampere per metre Hertz Lumen candela per square metre Lux Cubic metre per mole Mole per kilogram joule per mole
Nm
J/s
As W/A
V/A As/V Vs/A A/V
Vs Wb/m2
s-1 cdsr
lm/m2
A derived unit is recongnized by its dimensions, which can be defined as the complete algebraic formula for the derived unit. The dimentsional symbols for the
fundamental units of lenght, mass and time are L, M, and
Multiples and Submultiples of Units
T, respectively. So the dimensional symbol for the derived unit of voltage as analysed is: V !
M .L2 ! M .L2 .I 1 .T 3 . I .T 3
1.3 Multiples and Submultiples of units The units in actual use are divided into submultiples for the purpose of measuring quantities smaller than the unit itself. Futhermore, multiples of units are designated and named so that measurement of quantities much larger than the unit is facilitated. Table 1.1 lists the decimal multiples and submultiples of units.
Table 1.1
Name Tetra Giga Mega Kilo Milli Micro Nano Pico Symbol T G M K m Q n p Equivalent 1012 109 106 103 10-3 10-6 10-9 10-12
1.4 Standards of Measurement A standard of measurement is a physical representation of a unit of measurement. A unit is realized by reference to an arbitrary material standard or to natural
phenonmena including physical and atomic con stants.
Standards for Measurement
Standard of measurement classified by their function and application in the following categories: 1. International standards 2. Primary Standards 3. Secondary standards 4. working standards
The
international
standards
are
defined
by
international agreement. They represent certain units of measurements to the closest pos sible accuracy that production and measurement technology allow. These standards are maintained at the International Bureau of weights and measures in America and not available to the ordinary user of measuring instruments.
The primary (basic) standards are maintained by

national standards laboratories in different parts of the world. The National Bureau of standards (NBS) in America, National Physical Laboratory (NPL) in Britain, and Physikalisch Technische in Germany. The primary standards represent the fundamental units and some of the derived mechanical and electrical units. Primary standards are not available for use outside the national laboratories. One of the main functions of primary standards is the verification and calibration of secondary standards.
Secondary standards are the basic reference standards

used in industrial measurement laboratories. These
standards are maintained by the particularly involved industry and are generally sent to the national standards
Measurement Scale
laboratories (primary) on a periodic basis for caliberation and comparison. Working standards are the principal tools of a
measurement laboratory. They are used to check and caliberate general laboratory instrument for accuracy and performance or to perform comparison measurements in industrial applications. A manufacturer of precision resistances, for example, may use a standard resistor (a working standard) in the quality control department of his plant to check his testing equipment. 1.5 Scale
Every measuring instruments has a scale w hich has been appropriately graduated to indicate the magnitude of the variable or quantity under measurement. For digital instrument the numerical value is indicated or displayed straight away at the indicating unit of the instrument but for analogue instruments we have basically two types of scale Linear scale and non-linear scale. Linear scale: Shown in figure 1.1 bellow, where the
divisions or graduation are evenly space d. The voltmeter shown has a range 0-100V, i.e. a full-scale deflection (f.s.d) of 100V.
Figure 1.1
Applications of Measurement
A non-linear scale is shown below in figure 1.2 below. The scale is cramped at the begining and the graduation are uneven throughout the range. The ammeter shown has a f.s.d. of 15A.
Figure 1.2 1.6 APPLICATIONS OF MEASUREMENT Today, the techniques of measurement are of immense importance in most facets of human civilization. Present day applications of measuring instruments can be
classified into three major areas. The first of these is their use in regulating trade, applying instruments that measure physical quantities such as length, volume and mass in terms of standard units. The second application area of measuring instruments is in monitoring functions. These provide information that enables human beings to take some p rescribed action accordingly. For example, regular study of a barometer allows us to decide whether we should take our umbrellas if we are planning to go out for a few hours. Whilst there are thus many uses of instrumentation in our normal domestic lives. The majority of monitoring functions of instrumentation exist to provide the information
necessary to allow a human being to control some industrial operation or process. In a chemical process for instance, the progress of chemical reactions is indicated
10
Applications of Measurement
by the measurement of temperatures and pressures at various points, and such measurements allow the
operator to take correct decisions regarding the electrical supply to heaters, cooling water flows, valve positions etc. The third application of measurement instrumentation is in its use as part of automatic feedback control systems. Figure 1.1 shows a functional block diagram of a simple temperature control system in which the temperature Ta of a room is maintained at a reference value T d. The value of the controlled variable T a, as determined by a with the
temperature-measuring device, is compared
reference value T d, and the difference e is applied as an error signal to the heater. The heater then modifies the room temperature until T a = Td.
Figure 1.1: Element of a simple controled loop system.
11
hapter One
Excersice 1 1. Define Measurement and discuss its importance in engineering and scientific works. 2. 3. Explain the term Unit of measurement. Analyse the unit of the following Physica l quantities and write their basic S.I Units and dimension; i. Pressure ii. Torque, iii. Density. 4. What do you understand by Standard of
measurement? Explain four types of Standards that you know. 5. Discuss the application of measurement
techniqes in; i. ii. iii. iv. Trade regulation Our day to day activities. Industrial process. Automatic feedback control system.
12
CHAP
2 Instr ent and Their Per r ance Characteristics
2.0
Introduction
There are certain characteristics of instruments that influences the choice we make for our measurement. Depending of the quantity or variable we want to measur e certain attribute like accuracy, cost, range, sensitivity e.t.c of measuring instruments affects our choice of choice of them. These influencial factors are described in the following section. 2.1 Performance Characterisitcs of Measuring
Instrument. 2.2.1 Accuracy It represent how the closely value an of instrument the reading being
approaches
true
variable
measured. The deviation of the measured value from the true value is the indication of how accurate the reading is. In practice, it is more usual to quote the inaccuracy figure rather than the accuracy figure for an instrument. Inaccuracy is the extent to which a reading might be wrong, and is often quoted as a percentage of the full scale (f.s.) reading of an instrument. If, for example, a pressure gauge of range 010 bar has a quoted
inaccuracy of 1.0% f.s. (1% of fullscale reading), then the maximum error to be expected in any reading is 0.1 bar. This means that when the instrument is reading 1.0 bar,
13
Performance haracteristics of Instrument
the possible error is 10% of this value. The knowledge of the accuracy figure of an instrument will provide us the estimate of the expected error of measurement using such instrument. For example:
A 0 to 150V voltmeter has accuracy of 1% of full scale reading. The theoretical (true) expected value we want to measure is 83V. Determine the practical (measured) value and the percentage of error. Solution: Tolerance= accuracy x VFSD Tolerance= 1% x 150 = 0.01 x 150 = 1.5V Measured value= true tolerance Measured value= 83 1.5 Measured value= 84.5V or 81.5V The percentage error is:
x100% true | 83 81.5 | | 83 84.5 | error ! x100% ! 1.81%, or error ! x100 % ! 1.81 % 83 83 | sTolerance | | s1.5 | x100 % ! x100 % ! 1.81% or error ! 83 True 2.2.2 Range error ! It is defined as that region enclosed by the limits within which a particular quantity is measured. Choice of range is very important in measurement, if you choose a range too small for the signal being measured, it may damage the instrument and if the range chosen is too large the percentage expected error is increased. Thus the range true
easured
14
that will be chosen for a particular measurement should be such that the indication is close to the full scale deflection specification of the instrument.
For 60V the error is:
%error !
| sTolerance | | s1.5 | x100% ! x100% ! 2.5% True 60
And for 30V
%error !
sTolerance s1.5 v 100% ! v 100% ! 5% True 30
The range 0-150V is too large for the true value of the measured voltage and thus the percentage error increases as the measure value decreases. The the choice of range should be such that the measured value will be close to the full scale deflection of the range. 2.1.4 Span It is algebraic difference of the upper and lower limits of the range. For example The span of a (0 to10) voltmeter is Span= 10-0=10 state. But the span for (-10 to +10) voltmeter is Span= 10-(-10) =20 state 2.1.5 Loading effect Its the change of circuit parameter, characteristic, or behaviour due to instrument operation without
maintainance. 2.1.6 Sensitivity It represents the ratio of output signal to a change in input, or it represent the response output of the
15
instrument to a change of its input. It is a measure of the change in instrument output that occurs when the quantity being measured changes by a given amount. Thus if the value of the measured quantity is plotted against the output value of an instrument, the sensitivity of the instrument is given by the slope of the straight line graph.
Output Reading
Gradient = Sensitivity of the instrument
Measure Quantity
Figure 2.1: Graphical representation of

sensitivity. 2.1.7 Resolution
instrument
The smallest change in input that the instrument can respond to, or the ratio of output to smallest change in input. 2.1.8 Error The deviation of the measured value from the true value.
2.2 Measurement Error. The complete statement of any measurement result has three elements: the unit in terms of which the result is stated; a numeric which states the magnitude of the result in terms of the chosen unit; and its uncertainity, the
16
Measurement Error
experimenters estimate of the range wit hin which the result may differ from the actual value of the quantity. Any physical measurement is uncertain to some extent, and errors are present in all phases of the measurement process. No measurement can be made with perfect accuracy, but its important to find out what the accuracy actually is , and how different errors have entered to the
measurement. So study of error is a first steps in finding ways to reduce them. Errors may come from different sources and are usually classified under two main heading: 2.2.1 Systematic Errors These are types of errors that have known reasons, and can be avoided, reduced or eliminated, and estimated. These errors are subdivided into: a) Gross (Human) Errors i) Misreading of instruments and observation errors. ii) Improper choice of instrument, or the range of instrument. iii) Incorrect adjustment or forgetting to zero. iv) Erroneous calculations, computation mistakes, and estimation errors. v) Neglect of loading effects. vi) Wrong positioning of the user. b) Instrumentation (Equipment) Errors i) Damaged equipment such as defective due to loading effect or worn-out parts.
17
Systematic Error
ii) Calibration errors. iii) Bearing friction or loose gears. iv) Component nonlinearities. v) Loss during transmission. vi) inproper position of equipment (vertical or horizontal). vii) error due to static charge. c) Environmental Errors i) Change in temperature, pressure and Humidity. ii) Stray electric and magnetic fields. iii) Mechanical vibration. iv) Weather variations (day, night, and four s easons). 2.2.2 Calibration Errors Calibration is an act or process of making adjustments or marking on an index scale so that the readings of a measuring device conform to an accepted and certified standard. Errors that can generate from these process are classified as calibration error, types of which are discussed as follows: i. Zero Error: This occur when the pointer or indication of the instrument does not read zero when no input signal is applied to it. If the indicated reading from instrument with Zero error is plotted compared with the correct reading from a standard guage the graph will be as shown in figure 2.2a. ii. Range Error: In the effect of Range error, the
instrument may be correct at the minimum (i.e zero reading, when there is no input signal), but it deviates from the actual value in the range of the instrument. The
18
Systematic Error
graph of the indicated reading compared with the correct reading from a standard guage is shown in figure 2.2b.
(a)
(b)
Figure 2.2
iii. Hysteresis: Hysteresis is produced when the
displayed values are too small for increasing signals and too large for decreasing signals. This is commonly caused in mechanical instruments by loose gears and friction. iv. Non-linear error: The calibration may be correct at
the maximum and minimum values of the range but the graph joining them may not be a straight line (when it ought to be). The graph of readings from an instrument with Hysteresis and Non-linear error compared with readings from a standard guage is shown in figure 2.3a and 2.3b respectively.
(a)
(b)
Figure 2.3 Hysteresis and Non-linear error.
19
Random Error
2.2.3 Random Errors

These are errors due to causes that can not be directly established because of unknown events that cause small variation in measurement. They are quite random and cannot be explained. We can reduce this type of errors after addressing the systematic errors by taking many readings and applying statistical methods to determine the best true estimate of measuremen t readings.
2.3 Statistical Estimations of error in measurement These errors are due to unknown causes and occur even when all systematic errors have been accounted for. In well designed experiments few random errors usually occur, but they become important in high accuracy work. The only way to offset these errors is by increasing the number of readings and using statistical means to obtain the best approximation of the true value of the quantity under measurement.
2.3.1 Statistical Analysis of Data

To make statistical methods useful, the systematic errors should be small compared with random errors because statistical treatment can not improve the accuracy of measurement. 1 Arithmetic Mean(X`): Its the value that lies in the medial number of measured variable and represents the most accurate measured value for the true value. Arithmetic mean is given by:
20
Statistical Analysis of Data
X !
F .X F
i. i
, where Xi is the reading values taken, and F i
is the number of times that each reading occur in the measurements, or the frequency number of each reading. 2. Deviation from the Mean(di): Deviation is the departure of a given reading from the mean value. Its given by: di ! X i X The deviation from the mean may have a positive or a negative value and the algebraic su m of all the deviation must be zero in symmetrical curve. 3 Average Deviation (D): The average deviation is the sum of the absolute values of deviations divided by the number of readings. D! | 7Fi .d i | where 7 i ! n and n=number of all readings. 7Fi
4. Standard Deviation(): It is the root mean square deviation and the standard deviation represents the variation of the reading from the mean value, for a finite number of reading. H ! 7Fi .( d i ) 2 n 1
5. Variance (v): It is defined as mean square stand ard deviation R !H2
21
6. Probable Error (r): It is the maximum chance (50%) that any given
measurement will have a random error not greater than sr. Probable error r is given by
r ! s0.06745H Example 1.1:

The following readings were recorded for voltage
measurement: 10.1, 9.7, 10.2, 9.6, 9.7, 10.1, 9.6, 9.7, 10.1 Calculate: 1. Arithmetic mean (X) 2. Deviation from the mean (d) 3. Average deviation (D) 4. standard deviation () 5. Variance (V) 6. probable error (r)
Solution: Rearrange the reading in two colums with its frequency or (number of reading), thus Reading values
10.1 9.7 9.6 10.2
No. Of reading 3
3 2 1
Di(xi-x) 0.3 -0.1

-0.2 0.4
1. X !
7Fi . X i 3(10.1) 3(9.7) 2(9.6) (10.1) ! ! 9.8volt 9 7Fi
22
d 1 ! 10.1 9.8 ! 0.3volt 2. d i ! X X d 4 ! 9.7 9.8 ! 0.1volt d 7 ! 9.6 9.8 ! 0.2volt d 9 ! 10.2 9.8 ! 0.4volt 3. D ! 7 | Fi .d i | 3(0.3) 3(0.1) 2(0.2) (0.4) ! ! 0.22volt 9 7Fi
4. H !
7Fi .( d i ) 2 ! n 1 0.26volt
3(0.09) (3(0.01) 2(0.04) (0.16) ! 8
5. R ! H 2 ! (0.26) 2 ! 0.067 volt 2 6. r ! s0.6745H ! s0.6745(0.26) ! s0.175volt
23
hapter two
Excersice 2 1. Briefly describe eight (8) factors that affects the choice of instrument to be used for a measurment. 2. A thermometer has a range from -20 to 1500C. The accuracy is guaranteed to 3% f.s.d. If the true value under measurement is 90 0C, determine the possible values that can be indicated by th e thermometer. 3. Defferentiate between the range and the span of an instrument. Explain how the choice of range in a measurement measurment. 4. A digital thermometer reads from -120 to + 300 0C. The accuracy is guaranteed to plus or minus 2% f.s.d. Determine the possible true values of the measured temperature if the thermometer reads 800C. 5. In an experiment involving temperature affects the readings from such
mesurement, the following readings were recorded in 0C: 20.1, 19.8, 20.3, 20.1, 19.7. 20.1,19.8, 19.6, 19.7, 20.1. Calculate: i. Arithmetic mean (X) ii. Deviation from the mean (d) iii. Average deviation (D) iv. standard deviation () v. Variance (V) vi. probable error (r)
24
hapter two
of a platinum resistance
6. The table below shows the correponding change in the resistance
thermometer to temperature. Plot the graph of Temperature determine the against resistance and hence, of the
measurement
sensitivity
instrument in ohms/C. If the temperature changes by 3000C, what is the change in resistance of the thermometer? Also determine the temperature
when the instruments reading is 295 ;.
Resistance (;) Temperature (C) 307 200 314 230 321 260 328 290
25
CHAPTER 3 Electrical Indicating and Test Instruments

3.1 Classification of Instruments Electrical indicating and test instruments can be
classified under the following headings; 1 Electrical and Electronic Instruments The measuring instrument that use mechanical
movement of electromagnetic meter to measure voltage, current, power, etc. is called
electrical measuring
instrument, so the heart of these instruments was the dArsonval meter, while any measurement system that uses dArsonval meter with amplifiers to increase the sensitivity of measurements is called electronic instrument. 2 Analogue and Digital Instruments An analogue instrument are the instrument that use analogue signal (signal varying in continuous fashion and take on an infinite number of values in any given range) to display the magnitude of quantity under measurement. The digital instrument use digital sign al (signal which vary in discrete steps and take up only finite different values in a given range, (like binary signal which take only two levels zero and one) to indicate the results of measurement in digital form. 3 Absolute and Secondary Instruments
26
lassification of Instruments
In absolute instrument the measured value is given in term of instrument constants and the deflection of one part of the instrument e.g. tangent galvanometer, and Rayliegh current balance. In these instruments no
calibrated scale is necessary. While in secondary instruments, the quantity of the measured values is obtained by observing the output indicated by these instruments. These classes of instruments are interweaven as a digital instrument can be classified as an electronic instrument, an analogue instrument can be classified under electrical instrument both can be futher classified as an absolute or secondary instrument. In the next section we will discribe Measuring instrument in terms of digital and analogue instrument and in the discussion further classifications will be identified and discussed. 3.2 Digital Meters
All types of digital meter are basically modified forms of the digital voltmeter (DVM), irrespective of the quantity that they are designed to measure. Digital meters designed to measure quantities other than voltage are in fact digital voltmeters that contain appropriate electrical circuits to convert the measured quantities into voltage signals. Digital multimeters are also essentially digital voltmeters that contain several conversion c ircuits, thus allowing the measurement of voltage, current and
resistance within one instrument.
27
Digital Meter
Digital meters have been developed to satisfy a need for higher measurement accuracies and a faster speed of response to voltage changes than can be achieve d with analogue instruments. The binary nature of its output reading can be readily applied to a display that is in the form of discrete numerals. It also has a very high input impedance (10M compared with 1 20 k for analogue meters). The ability to measure signals of frequency up to 1MHz and the common inclusion of features such as automatic ranging, which prevents overload and reverse polarity connection etc. are the advantages of Digital meters over analogue. Moreover, the greater cost of digital meters due to the higher manufacturing costs compared with analogue meters makes the analogue meter preferable in a
situation where cost is of importance . The block diagram of a simple digital meter is shown in figure 3.1 below:
Input vo ltage
Pulse generator
AND gate
NOT gate
Counter
Digital readout
R eset
Figure 3.1 A block diagram of digital meter As shown in Figure 2.14, a pulse generator generates a pulse whose width is directly proportional to the input
28
signal. The output of the pulse generator is one of the inputs of an AND gate circuit. The output of the pulse generator is a train of pulses. The output of the AND gate is, thus, a positive trigger train of duration T second and the NOT circuit changes it into a negative trigger train. The counter, then, starts counting the number of triggers in T seconds which is proportio nal to the magnitude of signal to be measured. The counter can be calibrated according to the type of signal been measured say voltage or current. Thus, it can be observed from the above description that the digital meter described above, is basically, an analogto digital converter (ADC) which converts an analog signal into a train of pulses, the number of which is proportional to the magnitude of the input signal. With appropriate signal conditioning of the input signal, digital meter can be used to measure many electrical and physical
quantities such as a.c. voltages, d.c. and a.c. current, resistance, temperature, pressure, etc.
3.3
ANALOGUE METERS
Analogue meters are relatively simple and inexpensive and are often used instead of digital instruments, especially when cost is of particular concern. Whilst digital instruments have the advantage of greater accuracy and much higher input impedance, analogue instruments suffer less from noise and isolation
problems. Because analogue instruments are usually passive instruments that do not need a power supply,
29
Analogue Meters
this is often very useful in measurement applications where a suitable mains power supply is not readily available. Analogue meters are electromechanical devices that drive a pointer against a scale. They are prone to measurement errors from a number of sources that include inaccurate scale marking during manufacture, bearing friction, bent pointers and ambient temperature variations. Inaccuracy figures are between (0.1% and 3%.) All analogue electrical indicating instruments require three essential devices: (a) A deflecting or operating device. A mechanical force is produced by the current or voltage which causes the pointer to deflect from its zero position. (b) A controlling device. The controlling force acts in opposition to the deflecting force and ensures that the deflection shown on the meter is always the same for a given measured quantity. It also prevents the pointer always going to the maximu m deflection. There are two main types of controlling devicespring control and gravity control. (c) A damping device . The damping force ensures that the pointer comes to rest in its final position quickly and without undue oscillation. There are three main types of damping usededdy-current damping, air-friction damping and fluid-friction damping. Analogue meter can be designed using two basic types of instruments namely, Moving-coil instruments and
30
Moving-coil Instruments
Moving-iron instruments. The principle of operation of

these instrument are discussed in detail in the following section. 3.4 MOVING-COIL INSTRUMENTS
A moving-coil meter is a very commonly used form of analogue voltmeter because of its sensitivity, accuracy and linear scale, although it only responds to d.c. signals. Moving-coil instruments also called Parmanent Magnet
Moving coil (PMMC) meter or (DArsonval) meter or

galvanometer all are the same instrument, a coil of fine wire is suspended in a magnetic field produced by permanet magnet. According to the fundamental law of electromagnetic force, the coil will rotate in the magnetic field when it carries an electric current by electromagnetic (EM) torque effect. A pointer which is attached to the movable coil will deflect according to the amount of current to be measured which is applied to the coil. The (EM) torque is counter balanced by the mechanical torque of control springs attached to the movable coil also. When the torques are balanced the moving coil will stop and its angular deflection represent the amount of electrical current to be measured against a fixed reference, called scale. If the permanent magnet field is uniform and the spring linear, then the pointer deflection is also linear. If a current I is being carried by the coil, the force F applied to the conductor by the magnetic field of flux B is given by: F = BIL.
31
Moving-coil Instruments
If the flux density B is made constant (by using parmanent magnets) and the conductor is a fixed lenght (say, a coil) then the force will depend only on the current flowing in the conductor. In the design of a moving-coil instrument a coil is placed centrally in the gap between shaped pole pieces. The coil is supported by steel pivots, resting in jewel bearings, on a cylindrical iron core. Current is led into and out of the coil by two phosphor broze spiral hairsprings which are wound in opposite directions to minimize the effect of temperature change and to limit the coil swing (i.e to control the movement) and return the movement to zero position when no current flows. Current flowing in the coil produces forces, the direction being obtained by Flemings left-hand-rule. The two forces, FA and FB, produce a torque which will move the coil in a clockwise direction, i.e move the pointer from the left to right. Since the force produced is proportional to the input current, then the scale is linear (see figure 2.0).
Pointer
FA
Fixed iron core Moving coil
N
Torque
FB
Current input
(a) Figure 3.2 Moving-coil Instrument
(b)
32
Moving-iron Instruments
3.5
MOVING-IRON INSTRUMENT
As well as measuring d.c. signals, the moving-iron meter can also measure a.c. signals at frequencies up to 125Hz. It is the cheapest form of meter available and,
consequently, this type of meter is also commonly used for measuring voltage signals. The signal to be measured is applied to a stationary coil, and the associated field produced is often amplified by the presence of an iron structure associated with the fixed coil. The moving element in the instrument consists of an iron vane that is suspended within the field of the fixed coil. When the fixed coil is excited, the iron vane turns in a direction that increases the flux through it. The majority of moving-iron instruments are either of the attraction type or of the repulsion type. An attraction type of moving-iron instrument is shown in Figure 3.9a below. When current flows in the solenoid, it becomes magnetic and a pivoted soft-iron disc is attracted towards the solenoid and the movement cause a pointer to move across a scale. In the repulsion type moving-iron instrument as shown in Figure 3.9b, two pieces of iron are placed inside the solenoid, one being fixed, and the other attached to the spindle through carrying the the pointer. the When current passes of iron are
solenoid,
two
pieces
magnetized in the same direction and therefore repel each other. The pointer thus move across the scale.
33
For an excitation current I, the torque produced that causes the vane to turn is given by:
T!
I 2 dM 2dU
where M is the mutual inductance and U is the angular deflection. Rotation is opposed by the controlling spring as shown in figure 3.9, that produces a backwards torque given by:
Ts ! KU
At equilibrium, T = Ts, and U is therefore given by: U!
I 2 dM 2 KdU
The instrument thus has a square -law response where the deflection is proportional to the square of the signal being measured, i.e. the output reading is a root-mean squared (r.m.s.) quantity. The instrument can typically measure voltages in the range of 0 to 30 volts. However, it can be modified to measure higher voltages by placing a resistance in series with it, as in the case of moving-coil meters. The scale, however, is non linear.
Scale Pointer
input current
Pivot and controlling spring Air-piston damping Solen oid
(a)
Soft iron disc
Attraction type
34
Scale Solenoid Pointer Pivot and Controlling Spring Fixed piece of iron Moveable piece of iron
(b) Repulsion Type Figure 3.9 Moving-iron instrument 3.6 ELECTRODYNAMIC METERS This instrument is suitable for the measurement of direct and alternating current up to frequency 2kHz, it can also measure voltage and power. The instrument has a moving circular coil that is mounted in the magnetic field produced by two separately wound, series-connected, circular stator coils. The torque is dependent upon the mutual inductance between the coils and is given by: T ! I1I 2 dM dU
where I1 and I2 are the currents flowing in the fixed and moving coils, M is the mutual inductance and U
represents the angular displacement between the coils. When used as an ammeter, the measured current is applied to both coils. The torque is thus proportional to I2. By suitable drawing of the scale, the position of the
35
Electrodynamic Instruments
pointer shows the squared root of this value, i.e. the r.m.s. current. Electrodynamic meters are typically expensive but have the advantage of being more accurate than moving -coil and moving-iron instruments. Voltage, current and power can all be measured if the fixed and moving -coils are connected appropriately.
Figure 3.10: Electrodynamic Meter
3.7
Moving-coil Rectifier instruments
One major limitation in using analogue meters for a.c. voltage measurement is that the maximum frequency measurable directly is low, 2kHz for the dynamometer voltmeter and only 100 Hz in the case of the moving-iron instrument. A partial solution to this limitation is to rectify the voltage signal and then apply it to a moving coil meter, as shown in Figure 3.12. This extends the upper measurable frequency limit to 20 kHz.
36
omparing Analogue Instruments
Figure 3.12: Moving-coil rectifier instrument
3.8
Comparing Moving- Coil, Moving-iron and
Moving-coil rectifier instruments. Types of instrument Frequency limits Advantages Moving-coil 1. Linear scale. 2. High sensitivity 3. Well shielded from stray magnetic fields. 4. Lower power consumption. Moving-iron 20-200Hz 1. Robust construction. 2. Relatively cheap 3. Measures dc and ac 4. In frequency range 20100Hz reads rms correctly regardless of supply waveform. 1. Non-linear scale 2. Affected by stray magnetic fields 3. Hysteresis errors in dc circuits 4 Liable to Moving-coil rectifier 20-100kHz 1. Linear scale 2. High sensitivity 3. Well shielded from stray magnetic fields 4. Low power consumption 5. Good frequency range.
Disadvantages
1. Only suitable for dc 2. More expensive then moving iron type 3 Easily damaged
1. More expensive that moving iron type 2. Errors caused when supply is nonsinusoidal
37
Applications of Analogue Instruments
temperature errors 5. Due to the inductance of the solenoid, readings can be affected by variation of frequency. 3.8 Applications of analogue instruments Due to its non linear scale, moving-iron instrument and applied in more specialised measurement and its scale graduation and caliberation involves more complex
calculation than moving -coil instrument, thus the latter is often employed as an ammeter, voltmeter, ohmeter, multirange meters and multimeters. The application of moving-coil meters as mentioned are discussed in the following sections. However, moving-iron instrument can also be used in all the applications discussed below. 3.8.1 Applications of Moving-coil instruments. Moving coil instrument operates at low current levels of one milliamp or so, it is only suitable for measuring low current arround 1-2mA. If there is a requirement to
measure higher currents, the measuring range of the instrument can be increased by placing a resistance in parallel with the coil, so that only a fraction of the total current will pass through the meter. In this situation the added resistance is known as a shunt resistor. Also, a moving coil instrument can be designed to measure voltage signal, in this case a resistance is connected in series with the instrument. This series
38
Multiplier and Shunt
resistance should be much larger than the impedance of the circuit being measured and also usually much larger than the internal resistance of the moving coil
instrument. Resistor used in this situation is called a
Multiplier.
3.8.1 Moving-coil instument as an ammeter and Calculation of Shunt Resistor. In figure 3.3 below, a moving coil instrument with an internal resistance r a, designed as an ammeter to
measure a full-Scale-deflection current of Ia. Its range of measurement is increased to measure a higher current of I, by connecting a shunt, Rs. Is is the value of the diverted current by the shunt resistor R s. The value of the resistor
Rs for any desired current I, can be calculated by equation

3.1.
Ia
A ra
Ia
IS RS R Figure 3.3
VPQ = VRS Iara = ISRS

s
I a ra ............................ equation 3.1 Is
ra = Internal resistance of the ammeter. Rs = The shunt resistor.
39
alculating Multiplier and Shunt
Example 3.1: 1. A moving-coil instrument gives a f.s.d when the
current is 40mA and its resistance is 25. Calculate the value of the shunt to be connected in paralled with the meter to enable it to be used as an ammeter for
measuring currents up to 50A.
The circuit is shown below:

Ia = 40mA 50A A
ra Is
V RS
Where ra = resistance of instrument = 25. Rs = resistance of shunt, Ia = maximum permissible current flowing in instrument = 40mA = 0.04A, Is = current flowing in shunt I = total circuit current required to give f.s.d = 50A Since I = Ia + Is then Is = I Ia = 50 0.04 = 49.96A V = Iara = IsRs Hence, Rs ! I a ra (0.04)( 25) ! ! 0.02002 ; ! 20.02 m; Is 49.96
Thus for the moving-coil instrument to be used as an ammeter with a range 0-50A, a resistance of value 20.02m needs to be connected in paralled with the instrument.
40
3.8.2
Moving-coil instrument as a voltmeter and
Calculation Involving Multiplier When using a moving-coil instrument as a voltmeter it is always connected in parallel with the element being measured, and measures the voltage between the points across which it is connected. A moving coil instrument (galvanometer) can be converted into a voltmeter by connecting a high value resitance (ca lled multiplier) in series with it as shown in figure 3.4 below. Rm
A
ra Va V
Figure 3.4
Vm
The Voltage range desired to be measured by the instrument is given as V, Ia is the f.s.d current of the
moving coil instrument, ra is the internal resistance of the instrument, Rm is the required multiplier for the
instrument the measure the desired voltage range, while the Im is the curent that passes through the resistor Rm. In this case the resistor Rm is in series with the moving coil instrument, therefore Ia = Im, the shunt resistor Rm can thus be calculated by equation 3.2 V = Va + Vm = Iara + ImRm Ia = Im (since and r a and Rm are in series) V = Iara + IaRm
41
V = Ia (ra + Rm)
Rm !
Example

Ia
ra .............................. equation 3.2 A moving-coil instrument having a
3.2:
resistance of 10, gives a f.s.d when the current is 8mA. Calculate the value of multiplier to be connected in series with the instrument so that it can be used as a voltmeter for measuring p.d up to 100V.
The circuit diagram is shown below:

I = 8mA A ra
Va V=100V VM
Rm
Where ra = resistance of instrument = 10 RM = resistance of mutiplier. I = toal permissible instrument current = 8mA = 0.008A. V = total p.d required to give f.s.d = 100V V = Va + Vm = Ira + IRM i.e. 100 = (0.008) (10) + (0.008)R M thus RM =
99.92 ! 12490; ! 12.49k; 0.008
Hence for the moving-coil instrument to be used as a voltmeter with a range 0 100 V, a resistance of value 12.49k needs to be connected in series with the instrument.
42
Multirange D Meter
3.8.3
Multirange D.C Meter
A moving coil instrument (or galvanometer) can be designed to measure D.C Signals like current (ammeter), Voltage (voltmeter), Resistance (ohmeter) etc., of different ranges, by connecting different values of shunt or multiplier as the case may be. The sections below describes how these can be achieved. 1. Multirange DC Ammeter The current range of d.c ammeter can be further extended by a number of shunts selected by a range switch; such ammeter is called a multirange ammeter. This can be designed by Direct or Indirect Method. a. Direct method: In direct method, the circuit design is shown in figure 3.5 below, the shunt resistors R s1, Rs2 and Rs3 are connected parallel to the galvanometer an also parallel to one another. When one is connec ted the other two are disconnected, and thus each of the three resistor presents different ranges of current measurements I s1, Is2 and Is3 in the instrument. The value of each of the shunt resistors R s1, Rs2 and Rs3 can be calculated independently using e quation 3.3.
Is 3 Rs3 Is2 Rs2 Is 1 Rs1
Ia ra
Figure 3.5
43
"
si
I ! a a I si
"
Multirange D Meter
...................... equation 3.3
I si ! I range (i ) I a
b. Indirect Method An example of indirect method of multirange ammeter design is shown in figure 3.6 below; the resistors Ra, Rb and Rc are connected in series with one another and they are all connected in parallel with the galvanometer. In this case the shunt value at any given range I 1, I2 and I3 can be a resultant of one, two or the three of the resistors Ra, Rb and Rc, depending on the range va lue on which the range switch is on. For the example in figure 3.6, when the range switch is on the current range I1, the value of the shunt Rs1, is equal to the sum of Ra+Rb+Rc, when the switch is on range I 2, the shunt value R s2, is equal to Rb+Rc, while Ra is disconneted and when the switch is on range I 3, the shunt value R s3, is only equal to R c, while the other two resistors Ra and Rb is disconneted. R s1, Rs2 and Rs3 can be calculated using equation 3.3 above. R a and Rb is calculated using equation 3.4 and 3.5 respectively, while Rc is equal to R s3
I1 I2 Ia I3
ra
Figure 3.6
44
Multirange D% Meter
For Range I 1: Rs1 = Ra + Rb +Rc For Range I 2: Rs2 = Rb +Rc i.e; Ra = Rs1 Rs2
......................................
(3.4)
For Range I 3: Rs3 = Rc Rb = Rs2 Rs3 Example 3.3: Design a multirange ammeter by using direct method to give the following ranges 10mA, 100 mA, 1A, 10A, and 100A. If dArsonval meter have internal resistance of 10 ; and full scale current of 1mA. Solution: The circuit design is shown below.
Ia ra
.......................................
(3.5)
Rshi !
I a ra I si
I si ! I i I a
sh1 !
1x10 3.10 ! 1.11; (10 1) x10 3 1x10 3.10 ! 0.101; (100 10) x10 3
Rsh 2 !
45
Multirange D0 Meter
& ' (
sh3 !
1x10 3.10 ! 0.0101; 1 10 x10 3
1x10 3.10 sh 4 ! ! 0.0011; 10 1x10 3 sh5 ! 1x10 3.10 ! 0.00011; 100 1x10 3
Example 3.4: Design an ammeter by indirect method to provide an ammeter with current ranges 1A, 5A, and 10A, with a PMMC meter of internal resistance 50 ; and full scale current of 1mA. Solution
The circuit is designed as shown above. ra=50 ; Ia=1mA For Range 1A: Shunt resistor Rs1 = Ra + Rb + Rc
s1 !
I a ra 1x10 3.50 ! ! 0.05005 ; I s ! ( I I a ) 1 (1x10 3 )
Rs1 ! 0.05005 ; ! Ra Rb Rc
46
Multirange D1 Meter
For range 5A: Rs 2 ! 1x10 3.50 ! 0.01 5 (1x10 3 )
Rs 2 ! Rb Rc ! 0.01 Rs1 ! Ra Rs 2 Ra ! Rs1 Rs 2 Ra ! 0.05 0.01 Ra ! 0.04;

For Range 10A: Rs3 ! 1x10 3.50 0.05 ! ! 0.005; 3 10 (1x10 ) 9.999
Rs3 ! Rc ! 0.005 Rs 2 ! Rb Rc Rb ! Rs 2 Rs 3 Rb ! 0.01 0.005 ! 0.005;
2. Multirange D.C Voltmeter a. Direct method In this method each series resistance of multirange voltmeter is connected directly with Moving -coil meter to give the desired Voltage range as shown in figure 3.7. The various multipliers can be calculated using equation 3.6.
R m1 R m2 ra Ia Rm3
Figure 3.7
47
Multirange D Meter
R2i !
Vi ra Ia
.............................. equation 3.6
b. Indirect method In this method one or more series resistance of
multirange voltmeter is connected with Moving -coil meter to give the desired range as shown in figure 3.8. The series resistance can be calculated using equation 3.7, 3.8 and 3.9 eliminatively.
Ra Ia ra Rb Rc
Figure 3.8 At range V1: Rm1 !
31 I a ra
Ia
! Ra
....................... (3.7)
At range V2:
Rm 2 !
V 2 I a ra ! R a Rb Ia
........................
(3.8)
At range V3: Rm 3 ! 3.9 V 3 I a ra ! Ra Rb Rc Ia ............... (3.9)
ANALOGUE MULTI METER
The analogue multimeter is a multi -function instrument that can measure current and resistance as well as d.c. and a.c. voltage signals. Basically, the instrument
consists of a moving -coil meter with a switchable bridge
48
Analogue Multimeter
rectifier (as discussed in moving -coil rectifier instrument) to allow it to measure a.c. signals, as shown in Figure 3.11. A set of rotary switches allows the selection of various multiplier and shunt resistors, which make the instrument capable of measuring both voltage and current over a number of ranges. An internal power source is also provided to allow it to measure resistances as well. Whilst this instrument is very useful for giving an indication of voltage levels, the comprom ises in its design that enable it to measure so many different quantities necessarily mean that its accuracy is not as good as instruments that are purposely designed to measure just one quantity over a single measuring range.
Figure 3.11: Analogue Multimeter
3.10 ELECTRONIC ANALOGUE VOLTMETER Electronic voltmeters differ from all other forms of analogue voltmeters in being active rather than passive instruments. They have important advantages compared with other analogue instruments. Firstly, they have a high input impedance that avoids the circuit loading
49
Electronic Analogue 5oltmeter
problems
associated
with
many
applications
of
electromechanical instruments. Secondly, they have an amplification capability that enables them to measure small signal levels accurately. The standard electronic voltmeter for d.c. measurements consists of a simple direct coupled amplifier and a moving-coil meter, as shown in Figure 3.14 (a). For measurement of very low-level voltages of a few microvolts, a more sophisticated circuit, known as a chopper amplifier, is used, as shown in Figure 3.14(b). In this, the d.c. input is chopped at a low frequency of around 250 Hz, passed through a blocking capacitor, amplified, passed through another blocking capacitor to remove drift, demodulated, filtered and applied to a moving-coil meter. Three versions of electronic voltmeter exist for measuring a.c. signals. The average responding type is essentially a direct-coupled d.c. electronic voltmeter with an additional rectifying stage at the input. The output is a measure of the average value of the measured voltage waveform. The second form, known as a peak-responding type, has a half-wave rectifier at the input followed by a capacitor. The final part of the circuit consists of an amplifier and moving-coil meter. The capacitor is charged to the peak value of the input signal, and therefore the amplified signal applied to the moving-coil meter gives a reading of the peak voltage in the input waveform.
50
Electronic Analogue 6oltmeter
Finally, a third type is available, known as an r.m.s.-
responding type , which gives an output reading in terms

of the r.m.s. value of the input waveform. This type is essentially a thermocouple meter in which an
amplification stage has been inserted at the input.
(a)
(b) Figure 3.14: D.C Electronic Voltmeter (a) Simple form; (b) Including chopper amplifier.
3.11 RESISTANCE MEASUREMENT AND OHMMETER The standard device and methods available for measur ing change in resitance, which is measured in units of ohms (;), include the d.c bridge circuit, the voltmeter-ammeter method, the resitance-substitution method, the digital voltmeter and the ohmmeter. Apart from the ohmmeter, these instruments are normally only used to measure medium values of the resistance in the range of 1 ; to 1M;. Special instruments are available for obtaining
51
Resistance Measurement
high-accuracy range. 3.11.1
resistance
measurements
outside
this
Voltmeter-ammeter method
The voltmeterammeter method consists of applying a measured d.c. voltage across the unknown resistance and measuring the current flowing. Two alternatives exist for connecting the two meters, as shown in Figure 3.15. In Figure 3.15(a), the ammeter measures the current flowing in both the voltmeter and the resistance. The error due to this is minimized when the measured resistance is small relative to the voltmeter resistance. In the alternative form of connection, Figure 3.15(b), the voltmeter measures the voltage drop across the unknown resistance and the ammeter. Here, the measurement error is minimized when the unknown resistance is large with respect to the ammeter resistance. Thus, method (a) is best for measurement of small resistances and method (b) for large ones. Having thus measured the voltage and current, the value of the resistance is then calculated very simply by Ohms law. This is a suitable method wherever the measurement inaccuracy of up to s1% that it gives is acceptable.
Figure 3.15: Voltmeter-ammeter method for measuring resistance
52
3.11.2
Resistance-substitution method
In the voltmeterammeter method above, either the voltmeter is measuring the voltage across the ammeter as well as across the resistance, or the ammeter is
measuring the current flow through the voltmeter as well as through the resistance. The measurement error caused by this is avoided in the r esistance-substitution
technique. In this method, note the voltmeter and the ammeter readings with the unknown resistance in the circuit, then temporarily replaced it by a variable until the
resistance.
Adjust the variable
resistance
measured circuit voltage and current are the same as existed with the unknown resistance in place. The variable resistance at this point is equal in value to the unknown resistance.
3.11.3
The Ohmmeter
The ohmmeter is a simple instrument in which a battery applies a known voltage across a combination of the unknown resistance and a known resistance in series, as shown in Figure 3.16. Measurement of the voltage, Vm, across the known resistance, R, allows the unknown resistance, Ru, to be calculated from: Ru ! R (7b 7m )
7m
Where Vb is the battery voltage. Ohmmeters are used to measure resistances over a wide range from a few milliohms up to 50M ;. The
53
measurement
inaccuracy
is
s2%
or
greater,
and
ohmmeters are therefore more suitable for use as test equipment rather than in applications where high
accuracy is required. Most of the available versions contain a switchable set of standard resistances, so that measurements of reasonable accuracy over a number of ranges can be made. Most digital and analogue multimeters contain circuitry of the same form as in an ohmmeter, and hence can be similarly used to obtain approximate measurements of resistance.
Figure 3.16: Ohmmeter
3.12 NULL METHODS OF MEASUREMENT A null method of measurement is a simple, accurate and widely used method which depends on an instrument reading being adjusted to read zero current only. The method assumes:
54
8 ull Methods of Measurement
if there is any deflection at all, then some current is flowing and if there is no deflection, then no current flows (i.e null condition). Examples where the method is used are in the
Wheatstone bridge and in the d.c potentiometer 3.12.1 W heatstone bridge Figure 3.17 shows a Wheatstone bridge circuit which compares an unknown resistance Rx with others of known values, i.e. R 1 and R2, which have fixed values,
A
R1
I3
R3
I1 C I2
R2
G
Im
Rx
I4
B
Vi
Figure 3.17 and R3, which is variable. A d.c voltage V i is applied across the points BD and the Resistance R3 is varied until zero deflection is obtained on the galvanometer G. No curent then flows through the meter. To analyse the Wheatstone bridge, define the current flowing in each arm to be I1...I4 as shown in figure 3.17. Normally, if a high
impedance voltage -measuring instrument is used, the
55
D ull Methods of Measurement
current Im drawn by the measuring instrument will be very small and can be approximated to zero. If this assumption is made, then, for I m=0: I1 = I3 and I2 = I4 Looking at path CAD, we have a voltage Vi applied across a resistance R 1 + R3 and by Ohms law:
I1 !
9i
R1 R3
Similarly for path CBD: Vi R2 R x
I2 !
Now we can calculate the voltage drop across CB and BD:
AR BR A@B ! I 2 R2 ! i 2 ; BCA ! I1 R1 ! i 1 .
R2 R x R1 R3 In the figure 3.17, the potential at point C is Vi and the potential at point A is V i-VCA. Likewise the potential at point B is Vi-VCB. Thus, the voltage drop across the galvanometer V AB is given by:
56
H ull Methods of Measurement
VFE ! Vi VCF (Vi VCE ) ! VCF VCE
Thus, VAB can be calculated as;
GAB !
Gi R1
R1 R3
Gi R 2
R2 R x
At null point VAB = 0, So; R1 R2 ! R1 R3 R 2 R x Inverting both sides, we have: R1 R3 R 2 R x R R ! i.e 3 ! x R1 R2 R1 R2 3.12.2 D.C potentiometer The d.c potentiometer is a null-balance instrument used for determining values of e.m.fs and p.ds by comaprison with a known e.m.f or p.d. In Figure 1.13, using a standard cell of known e.m.f, E 1, the slider S is moved along the slide wire until balance is obtained (as R3 R 2 R1
or R x !
explained in the earlier in the wheatstone bridge), shown as length l 1. The standard cell is now replaced by a cell of unknown e.m.f. E2 (see figure 2.13b) and again balance is obtained (shown as l 2).
57
I ull Methods of Measurement
Since E1El1 and E2El2, Then E1 l1 ! E 2 l2 l and E 2 ! E1 ( 2 ) volts l1

V
Supply source V l2 l1 S Slide wire of uniform cross-section E1 Standard cell G E2 G S
(a)
(b)
Figure 3.18
58
Phapter Three
Excersice 3 1. Define digital and analogue instrument. Hence
explain with an appropriate block diagram, the principle of operation of a Digital meter. 2. A moving-coil instrument gives a f.s.d when the
current is 40mA and its resistance is 25. Calculate the value of the shunt to be connected in paralled with the meter to enable it to be used as an ammeter for
measuring currents up to 50A.
The circuit is shown below:

50A
IS = 40mA A
ra Is
RS 3. A moving-coil instrument has a coil resistance of 100

and gives a full-scale deflection (FSD) for a current of 500A. Determine the value of shunt resistance required if the instrument is to be employed as an ammeter with a FSD of 5A. 4. A moving-coil meter with a coil resistance 100 and a full scale deflection current of 100 A is to be used in the voltmeter circuit as shown in figure below. The voltmeter ranges are to be 50. Determine the required value of resistances for each range.
R m1 Ra = 100 R m2 R m3
59
Qhapter Three
5. With a diagram illustration, describe the principle of operation of a moving-coil instrument and a Moving coil rectifier instrument. Also explain briefly the advantage of the latter over the former. 6. With the help of a suitable diagram, differentiate between the Attraction and the Repulsion type of a Moving- Iron Instrument. 7. Define the following; i. A voltmeter ii. An ammeter
iii. An Ohmmeter iv. A multirange meter v. A multimeter. Discribe the principle of resistance measurement using i. voltmeter-ammeter methods and ii. Ohmmeter. 8. Design d.c voltmeter by using direct method with
dArsonval meter of 100 and full scale def lection of 100A to give the following ranges: 10mV, 1V, and 100V. 9. In a wheatstone bridge ABCD, a galvanometer is
connected between A and C, and a battery between B and D, A resistor of unknown value is connected between A and B. When the bridge is balanced, the resistance between B and C is 100, that between C and D is 10 and that between D and A is 400 . Calculate the value of the unknown resistance. 10. In a d.c potentiometer, balance is obtained at a
length of 400mm when using a standard cell o f 1.0186 volts. Determine the e.m.f of a dry cell if balance is obtained with a length of 650mm
60
CH P
4 Cathod Ray Os llos ope and Si n al Generator
4.1 CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE The cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a device that allows the amplitude of electrical signals, weather they are voltage, current; power, etc., to be displayed primarily as a function of time. The oscilloscope depends on the movement of an electron beam, which is then made visible by allowing the beam to impinge on a phosphor surface, which produces a visible spot. The cathode ray oscilloscope is probably the most versatile and useful instrument available for signal measurement. In its basic form, it is an analogue instrument and is often called an analogue oscilloscope to distinguish it from digital storage oscilloscopes which have emerged more recently. The analogue oscilloscope is widely used for voltage measurement, especially as an item of test equipment for circuit fault-finding, and it is able to measure a very wide range of both a.c. and d.c. voltage signals. Besides measuring voltage levels, it can also measure other quantities such as the frequency and phase of a signal. It can also indicate the nature and magnitude of noise that may be corrupting the measurement signal. The more expensive models can measure signals at frequencies up to 500MHz and even the cheapest models can measure signals up to 20 MHz. One particularly strong merit of the oscilloscope is its high input impedance, typically 1M ;,
61
Rathode Ray Oscilloscope

situations. As a test
which means that the instrument has a negligible loading effect in most measurement
instrument, it is often required to measure voltages whose frequency and magnitude are totally unknown. The set of rotary switches that alter its timebase so easily, and the circuitry that protects it from damage when high voltages are applied to it on the wrong range, make it ideally suited for such applications. However, it is not a particularly accurate instrument and is best used where only an approximate measurement is required. In the best instruments, inaccuracy can be limited to s1% of the reading but inaccuracy can approach cheapest instruments. Further s10% in the of
disadvantages
oscilloscopes include their fragility (being built around a cathode ray tube) and their moderately high cos t.
4.2
Oscilloscope Block Diagram:
General oscilloscope consists of the following parts: 1. Cathode ray tube (CRT) 2. Vertical deflection stage 3. Horizontal deflection stage 4. Power supply
62
Sathode Ray Oscilloscope
Figure 4.1: General purpose oscilloscope
4.2.1 The Cathode Ray Tube (CRT): The cathode ray tube, shown in Figure 4.2, is the fundamental part of an oscilloscope. The cathode consists of a barium and strontium oxide coated, thin, heated filament from which a stream of electrons are emitted. The stream of electrons is focused onto a well defined spot on a fluorescent screen by an electrostatic focusing system that consists of a series of metal discs and cylinders charged at various potentials. Adjustment of this focusing mechanism is provided by controls on the front panel of an oscilloscope. An intensity control varies the cathode heater current and therefore the rate of emission of electrons, and thus adjusts the intensity of the display on the screen. These and other typical controls are shown in the illustration of the front panel of a simple oscilloscope given in Figure 4.3.
63
Tathode Ray Tube
Figure 4.2: Cathode ray tube
Figure 4.3: Controls of a simple Oscilloscope Application of potentials to two sets of deflector plates mounted at right angles to one a nother within the tube provide for deflection of the stream of electrons, such that the spot where the electrons are focused on the screen is moved. The two sets of deflector plates are normally
64
Oscilloscope Uontrols
known as the horizontal and vertical deflection plates, according to the respective motion caused to the spot on the screen. The magnitude of any signal applied to the deflector plates can be calculated by measuring the deflection of the spot against a crossed -wire graticule etched on the screen. In the oscilloscopes most common mode of usage measuring time-varying signals, the unknown signal is applied, via an amplifier, to the y-axis (vertical) deflector plates and a timebase to the x-axis (horizontal) deflector plates. In this mode of operation, the display on t he oscilloscope screen is in the form of a graph with the magnitude of the unknown signal on the vertical axis and time on the horizontal axis.
4.2.2
Channel
One channel describes the basic subsystem of an electron source, focusing system and deflector plates. This
subsystem is often duplicated one or more times within the cathode ray tube to provide a capability of displaying two or more signals at the same time on the screen. The common oscilloscope configuration with two channels can therefore display two separate signals simultaneously. 4.2.3 Single-ended input
This type of input only has one input terminal plus a ground terminal per oscilloscope channel and,
consequently, only allows signal voltages to be measured relative to ground. It is normally only used in simple oscilloscopes.
65
Oscilloscope ontrols
4.2.4
Differential input
This type of input is provided on more expensive oscilloscopes. Two input terminals plus a ground terminal are provided for each channel, which allows the potentials at two non-grounded points in a circuit to be compared. This type of input can also be used in single -ended mode to measure a signal relative to ground by using just one of the input terminals plus ground. 4.2.5 Time-base circuit The purpose of a timebase is to apply a volta ge to the horizontal deflector plates such that the horizontal position of the spot is proportional to time. This voltage, in the form of a ramp known as a sweep waveform, must be applied repetitively, such that the motion of the spot across the screen appears as a straight line when a d.c. level is applied to the input channel. Furthermore, this timebase voltage must be synchronized with the input signal in the general case of a time-varying signal, such that a steady picture is obtained on the oscilloscop e screen. The length of time taken for the spot to traverse the screen is controlled by a time/div switch, which sets the length of time taken by the spot to travel between two marked divisions on the screen, thereby allowing signals at a wide range of frequencies to be measured. Each cycle of the sweep waveform is initiated by a pulse from a pulse generator. The input to the pulse generator is a sinusoidal signal known as a triggering signal, with a pulse being generated every time the triggering signal
66
Oscillocope Wontrols
crosses a preselected slope and voltage level condition. This condition is defined by the trigger level and trigger
slope switches. The former selects the voltage level on the

trigger signal, commonly zero, at which a pulse is generated, whilst the latter selects whether pulsing occurs on a positive - or negative-going part of the triggering waveform. Synchronization of the sweep waveform with the
measured signal is most easily achieved by deriving the trigger signal from the measured signal, a procedure that is known as internal triggering . Alternatively, external
triggering can be applied if the frequencies of the

triggering signal and measured signals are related by an integer constant such that the display is stationary. External triggering is necessary wh en the amplitude of the measured signal is too small to drive the pulse generator, and it is also used in applications where there is a requirement to measure the phase difference between two sinusoidal signals of the same frequency. It is very convenient to use the 50 Hz line voltage for external triggering when measuring signals at mains frequency, and this is often given the name line triggering . 4.2.6 Vertical Sensitivity Control
This consists of a series of attenuators and pre -amplifiers at the input to the oscilloscope. These condition the measured signal to the optimum magnitude for input to the mainamplifier and vertical deflection plates, thus enabling the instrument to
measure a very wide range of different signal magnitudes.
67
Oscillocope Xontrols
Selection of the appropriate input amplifier/attenuator is made by setting a volts/div control associated with each oscilloscope channel. This defines the magnitude of the input signal that will cause a deflection of one division on the screen. 4.2.7 Display Position Control
This allows the position at which a signal is displayed on the screen to be controlled in two ways. The horizontal position is adjusted by a horizontal position knob on the oscilloscope front panel and similarly a vertical position knob controls the vertical position. These controls adjust the position of the display by biasing the measured signal with d.c. voltage levels. 4.3 DIGITAL STORAGE OSCILLOSCOPE Digital storage oscilloscopes consist of a conventional analogue cathode ray oscilloscope with t he added facility that the measured analogue signal can be converted to digital format and stored in computer memory within the instrument. This stored data can then be reconverted to analogue form at the frequency necessary to refresh the analogue display on the screen. This produces a non fading display of the signal on the screen. The signal displayed by a digital oscilloscope consists of a sequence of individual dots rather than a continuous line as displayed by an analogue oscilloscope. However, as the density of dots increases, the display becomes closer and closer to a continuous line, and the best instruments have displays that look very much like continuous traces.
68
Oscillocope Yontrols
The density of the dots is entirely dependent upon the sampling rate at which the analogue signal is digitized and the rate at which the memory contents are read to reconstruct the original signal. Inevitably, the speed of sampling etc. is a function of cost, and the most expensive instruments give the best performance in terms of dot density and the accuracy with which the analogue signal is recorded and represented. Besides their ability to display the magnitude of voltage signals and other parameters such as signal phase and frequency, some digital oscilloscopes can also compute signal parameters such as peak values, mean values and r.m.s. values. They are also ideally suited to capturing transient signals when set to single-sweep mode. This avoids the problem of the very careful synchronization that is necessary to capture such signals on an analogue oscilloscope. In addition, digital oscilloscopes often have facilities to output
analogue signals to devices like chart recorders and output digital signals in a form that is compatible with standard interfaces like IEEE488 and RS232.
4.4
Signal Measurement with C.R.O
For examining periodic waveforms the electron beam is deflected horizontally (i.e. in the X direction) by a sawtooth generator acting as a timebase. The signal to be examined is applied to the vertical deflection system (Y direction) usually after amplification. Oscilloscopes normally have a transparent grid of 10mm by 10mm squares in front of the screen, called a
69
Determining Signal Magnitude with `RO
graticule. Among the timebase controls is a variable switch which gives the sweep speed as time per
centimeter, This may be in s/cm ro Qs/cm, a large number of switch positions being available. Also on the front panel of a c.r.o is a amplifier switch marked in volts per centimeter, with a large number of available switch positions. (i) with direct voltage measurement, only the Y amplifier volts/cm switch on the c.r.o is used. With no voltage applied to the Y plates the position of the spot trace on the screen is noted. When a direct voltage is applied to the Y plates the new position of the spot trace is an indication of the magnitude of the voltage. For example, in Figure 4.1 with no voltgae applied to the Y plates, the spot trace is in the centre of the screen (initial position) and then the spot trace moves 2.5cm to the final position shown on application of a d.c voltage. With the volt/cm switch on 10 volts/cm the magnitude of the direct voltage is 2.5 x 10 volts/cm. i.e. 25volts.
Final position Initial position

5 10 20 30 40 50 V/cm 2 1 0.5 0.2
Figure 4.4
70
Determining Signal Magnitude with aRO
With
alternating
voltage
measurements,
let
sinusoidal waveform be displayed on a c.r.o screen as shown in figure 4.2. If the time/cm switch is on, say, 5 ms/cm then the periodic time T of the sinewave is 5ms/cm x 4cm (4cm is the width of one complete cycle), i.e 20ms or 0.03s Since frequency f = 1/T = 1/0.02 = 50Hz If the volts/cm switch is on, say, 20 volts/cm then the amplitude or peak value of the sinewave is 20 volts/cm x 4cm (Peak-to-peak value is 4cm), i.e. 80V.
Since r.m.s Voltage =
peak
voltage 2
r.m.s voltage =
80 2
! 28.28volts
2 1 0.5 0.2
5 10 20 30
V/cm
Peak-to-peak value
40 50
5 ms
100 s
50ms
time/cm
2s
Figure 4.5
Worked examples:
71
Determining Signal Magnitude with RO
Describe how a simpe c.r.o is adjusted to give (a) a spot trace, (b) a continous horixontal trace on the screen, explaining the function of the various controls. (a) To obtain a spot trace on a typical c.r.o screen: i. Switch on the c.r.o. ii. Switch the time base control to off. This control is calibrated in time per centimeters for example, 6ms/cm or 100Q s/cm. Turning it to zero ensures no signal is applied to the X-plates. The Y-plate input is left open circuited. iii. Set the intensity, X-shift and Y-shift controls to
about the mid-range positions. iv. A spot trace should not be observed on the screen.
If not, adjust either or both of the X and Y-shift controls. The X-shift control varies the position of the spot trace in horizontal direction whilst the Y-shift control varies it vertical position. v. Use the X and Y-shift controls to bring the spot to
the centre of the screen and use the focus control to focus the electron beam into a small circular spot. (b) To obtain a continous horizontal trace on the screen the same procedure as in (a) is initially adopted. Then the timebase control is switched to a suitalbel position, initially the millisecond timebase range, to ensure that
72
the repetition rate of the sawtooth is sufficient for the persistence of the vision time of the sc reen phosphor to hold a given tance. 2. For the c.r.o square voltage waveform shown in the
figure 4.6 below determine (a) the periodic time, (b) the frequency and (c) the peak-to-peak voltage. The time/cm (or timebase control) switch is on 100 Qs/cm and the volts/cm (or amplitude control) switch is on 20V/cm. (Assume that the squares shown in figure 4.6 are 1cm by
1cm)
(a) The width of one complet cycle is 5.3cm Hence the period time, T = 5.2cm x 100 x 10 -6 s/cm = 0.52ms 1 1 ! ! 1.92kHz T 0.52 x110 3
(b) Frequency, f =
(c) The peak-to-peak height of the display is 3.6cm, hence the peak-to-peak voltage = 3.6cm x 20V/cm = 72V.
73
Determining Signal Magnitude with cRO
3.
For the c.r.o display of a pulse waveform shown in
figure 4.4 the time/cm switch is on 50ms/cm and the volts/cm switch is on 0.2V/cm. Determine (a) the periodic time, (b) the frequency, (c) the magnitude of the pulse voltage.
(a) The width of one complete cycle is 4.0cm Hence the period time, T = 4.0cm x 50ms/cm = 200ms 1 1 ! ! 5 Hz T 0.2
(b) Frequence, f =
(c) The height of a pulse is 3.2cm hence the magnitude of the pulse voltage = 3.2 x 0.2V/cm = 0.64V. 4.5 Frequency and Phase Measurement with Cathode Ray Osciloscope using Lissajous Pattern. The cathode ray oscilloscope ca n be used in two ways to measure frequency. Firstly, the internal timebase can be adjusted until the distance between two successive cycles of the measured signal can be read against the calibrated graticule on the screen as described in earlier section .
74
d isajous patterns
The alternative way of using an oscilloscope x to measure frequency is to generate Lisajous patterns . These are produced by applying a known reference -frequency sine wave to the y input (vertical deflection plates) of the oscilloscope and the unknown frequ ency sinusoidal signal to the x input (horizontal deflection plates). A pattern is produced on the screen according to the frequency ratio between the two signals, and if the numerator and denominator in the ratio of the two signals both represent an integral number of cycles, the pattern is stationary. Examples of these patterns are shown in Figure 5.3, which also shows that phase difference between the waveforms has an effect on the shape. Frequency measurement proceeds by adjusting the reference
frequency until a steady pattern is obtained on the screen and then calculating the unknown frequency according to the frequency ratio that the pattern obtained represents.
Figure 4.6: Lsajous Patterns.
75
Signal Generator
4.6 SIGNAL GENERATOR A signal generator is an electronic device that generates repeating or non-repeating electronic signals (in either the analog or digital domains). They are generally used in designing, testing, troubleshooting, and repairing
electronic or electroacoustic devices. There are man y different types of signal generators, with different
purposes and aplications. 4.6.1 Function generators It is a general purpose generator, a device which produce simple repetitive waveforms. Such device contain an electronic oscillator, a circuit that is capable of creating a repetitive waveform. The most common waveform is a sine wave, but sawtooth, step (pulse), square, and triangular waveform oscillators are commonly available. Function generators are typically used in simple electronics repair and design; where they are used to stimulate a circuit under test. A device such as an oscilloscope is then used to measure the circuits output. 4.6.2 Pitch and audio generators
A pitch generator is a type of signal generator optimized for use in audio and acoustics applications. Pitch
generators typically include sine waves over the audio frequency range (20Hz-20kHz). Pitch generator are
typically used in conjunction with sound level meters, when measuring the acoustics of a room or a sound reproduction system, and/or with oscilloscope or
specialized audio analyzers.
76
eideo Signal Generator
4.6.3 Video signal generators A video signal generator is a device which outputs predetermined video and/or television waveforms, and other signals used to stimulate faults in, or aid in parametric measurements of, television and video
systems. There are several different types of video signal generators in widespread use. Regardless of the specific type, the output of a video generator will generally contain synchronization signals appropria te for television,
including horizontal and vertical synchronized pulses (in digital).
77
fhapter Four
Excersice 4 1. In general electronics use, when measuring AC voltage signals, what do the two axis (horizontal and vertical) of the oscilloscope screen represent? 2. The core of an analog oscilloscope is a special type of vacuum tube known as a Cathode Ray Tube, or CRT. With a suitable diagram explain how a CRT functions. What goes on inside the tube to produce waveform displays on the screen? 3. With the aid of a suitable block diagram, describe an Oscilloscope. 4. For the square voltage waveform displayed on a cathode ray oscilloscope shown in the figure bellow, the volt/cm switch is on 40volt/cm and the time/cm switch is on 5ms find (a) voltage. its frequency, (b) its peak-to-peak
5 For the sinusoidal waveform shown in figure (b), the Volt/cm switch is on 50volts/cm and time/cm switch is on 5ms determine (a) its frequency, (b) the peak -to-peak voltage, (c) the r.m.s. (each box rep 1cm x 1cm)
78
ghapter Four
7. What is a signal generator as it applies to electronic design and trouble shooting techniques. 8. Describe the the following types of Signal generator, stating their properties and uses; i. ii. iii. Function generator Audio generator Vedio generator.
79
h i p C A TE 5
Display, Recording and Rep resentation of Measu rement Data.
The earlier chapters in this book have been essentially concerned with describing ways of producing high quality, error-free data at the output of a measurement system. Having got the data, the next consideration is how to present it in a form where it can be readil used and analysed. This chapter therefore stats by covering the techniques available to either display measurement data for current use or record it for future use. Following this, standards of good prectice for presenting data in either graphical or tabular form are covered, using either paper or a computer monitor screen as the display medium. 5.1 DISPLAY OF MEASURED SIGNALS
Measurement signals in the form of varying electrical voltage can be displayed either by an oscilloscope or else by any of the electrical me ters described in the earlier chapters of this book. However, if signals are converted to digital form, other display options apart from meters become possible, such as electronic output displa ys or using a computer monitor. 5.1.1 Electronic output displays Electronic displays enable a parameter value to be read immediately, thus allowing for any necessary response to be made immediately. The main requirement for displays is that they should be clear and unambiguous. Two common types of character formart used in displays are, seven-segment and 7 x 5 dot matrix, are shown in figure
80
Electronic Display
5.1 below. Both types of display have the advantage of being able to display alphabetic as well as numeric information, although the seven-segment format can only display a limited nine -letter subset of the full 26 -letter alphabet. This allows added meaning to be given to the number displayed by including a word or letter code. It also allow a single display unit to send information about several parameter value, cycling through each in turn and including alphabetic information to indicate the nature of the variable currently displayed. Electronic output units usually consist of a number of side-by-side cells, where eac h cell displays one character. Generally, these accept either serial or paralled digital input signals, and the input format can be either binarycoded decimal (BCD) or ASCII. Technologies used for the individual elements in the diplay are either light-emitting diodes (LEDs) or liquid-crystal elements.
Figure 5.1: Character formats used in electronic displays:
(a) seven-segment, (b) 7 x 5 dot matrix.

5.1.2 Computer monitor displays
Now that computer are part of the furniture in most homes, the ability of computer to display information is widely understood and appreciated. Computers are now
81
Recorders
both cheap and highly reliable, and they provide an excellent mechanism for both displaying and storing information. As well as alphanumeric displays of
industrial plant variable and status data, for which the plant operator can vary the size of font used to display the information at will, it is also relatively easy to display other information such as plant layout diagrams, process flow layouts etc. This allows not only the value of prameters that go outside control limits to be displayed, but also their location on a schematic map of the plant. However, this poses a difficulty when there is a
requirement to display the variables behaviour over a long period of time since the length of the time axis is contrained by the size of the monitors screen. To overcome this, the display resolution has to decrease as the time period of the display increases.
5.2
Recording of measurement results data
Many techniques now exist for recording measurement data in a form that permits subsequent analysis,
particularly for looking at the historical behaviour of measured parameters in fault diagnosis procedures. The earliest recording instruments used were various forms of mechanical chart recorder. Whilst many of these remain in use, most modern form of chart recorder exist in hybrid forms in which microprocessors are incorporated to improve performance.
82
Recorders
5.3
Mechanical chart recorders
Mechanical chart recorder are a long -established means of making permanent records of electrical signals in a simple, cheap are and either reliable of the way. Mechanical chart or
recorders
galvanometric
type
potentiometric type. Both of these work on the same principle of driving chart paper at a constant speed past a pen whose deflection is a function of the magnitude of the measured signal. This produces a time history of the measured signal. 5.3.1. Galvanometric recorders
These work on the same principle as a moving -coil meter except that the pointer draws an ink trace on paper, as illustrated in Figure 5.2, instead of merely moving against a scale. The measured signal is applied to the coil, and the angular deflection of this and its attached pointer is proportional to the magnitude of the signal applied. Inspection of Figure 5.3(a) shows that the displacement y of the pen across the chart recorder is given by y = R Sin U.
Figure 5.2: Simple galvanometric recorder
83
Recorders
Figure 5.3: Output of simple chart recorder: (a) y versus U
relationship; (b) curvilinear chart paper.

This relationship is non-linear and brings a percentage of error into the measurement. Also due to pen moving in an arc it is difficult to relate the magnitude of deflection with the time axis. One way of ove rcoming this is to print a grid on the chart paper in the form of circular arcs, as illustrated in Figure 5.3(b). Unfortunately, measurement errors often occur in reading this type of chart, as interpolation of points drawn between the curved grid line is difficult. An alternative solution is to use heat -sensitive chart paper directed over a knife-edge, and to replace the pen by a heated stylus, as illustrated in Figure 5.4. The input-output relationship is still non-linear, with the deflection y being proportional to tan U as shown in Figure 5.5(a), and the reading error for excursion of s10 0 is still 0.7%. However, the rectilinearly scaled chart paper now required, as shown in Figure 5.5(b), allows much easier interpolation between grid lines.
84
Recorders
Figure 5.4: Knife-edge galvanometric recorder.
Figure 5.5: Knife-edge recorder output: (a) y versus U
relationship; (b) rectilinear chart paper.
5.3.2.
Potentiometric recorder
Potentiometric recorders have much better specifications than galvanometric recorders, with a typical inaccuracy of 0.1% of full scale and measurement resolution of 0.2% f.s. being achievable. Such instruments employ a servo system, as shown in Figure 5.6, in which the pen is driven by a servomotor, and a potentiometer on the pen
85
Recorders
feeds back a signal proportional to pen position. This position signal is compared with the measured signal, and the difference is applied as an error signal that drives the motor. However, a consequence of this electromechanical
balancing mechanism is to give the instrument a slow response time in the range 0.22.0 seconds. This means that potentiometric recorders are only suitable for
measuring d.c. and slowly time -varying signals.
Figure 5.6: Servo system of potentiometer chart recorder 5.3.3 Ultra-violet recorders galvanometric recorders concluded are restricted by its systems moment of inertia and spring constants reduces and limit the maximum bandwidth to about 100 Hz. Ultra-violet recorders work on very similar principles to standard galvanometric chart recorders, but achieve a very significant reduction in system inertia and spring constants by mounting a narrow mirror rather than a pen system on the moving coil. This mirror reflects a beam of ultra-violet light onto ultra-violet sensitive paper. It is usual to find several of these mirror -galvanometer
systems mounted in parallel within one instrument to provide a multi-channel recording capability, as
86
Recorders
illustrated in Figure 5.7. This arrangement enables signals at frequencies up to 13 kHz to be recorded with a typical inaccuracy of s2% f.s. Whilst it is possible to obtain satisfactory permanent signal recordings by this method, special precautions are necessary to protect the ultra-violet-sensitive paper from light before use and to spray a fixing lacquer on it after recording. Such instruments must also be handled with extreme care, because the mirror galvanometers and their delicate .
Figure 5.7 Ultra-violet recorder
87
Presentation of Data
5.4
Presentation of data
The two formats available for presenting data on paper tabular and graphical one and the relative merits of these are compared below. In some circumstances, it is clearly best to use only one or other of these two alternatives alone. However, in many data collection exercises, part of the measurements and calculations are expressed in tabular form and part graphically, so making best use of the merits of each technique. 5.4.1 Tabular data presentation A tabular presentation allows data values to be recorded in a precise way that exactly maintains the accuracy to which the data values were measured. In other words, the data values are written down exactly as measured. Besides recording the raw data values as measured, tables often also contain further values calculated from the raw data. An example of a tabular data presentation is given in Table 5.1. This records the results of an experiment to determine the strain induced in a bar of material that is subjected to a range of stresses. Data were obtained by applying a sequence of forces to the end of the bar and using an extensometer to measure the change in length. Values of the stress and strain in the bar are calculated from these measurements and are also included in the table. The final row, which is of crucial importance in any tabular presentation, is the estimate of possible error in each calculated result. A table of measurements and calculations should conform to
several rules as illustrated in Table 5.1:
88
(i)
The table should have a title that explains what
data are being presented within the table.
Table 5.1: Sample tabular presentation of data (ii) Each column of figures in the table should refer to
the measurements or calculations associated with one quantity only. (iii) Each column of figures should be headed by a title
that identifies the data values contained in the column. (iv) The units in which quantities in each column are
measured should be stated at the top of the column. (v) All headings and columns should be separated by
bold horizontal (and sometimes vertical) lines. (vi) The errors associated with each data value quoted
in the table should be given. The form shown in Table 5.1 is a suitable way to do this when the error level is the same for all data values in a particular column. However, if error levels vary, then it is preferable to write the error boundaries alongside each entry in the table.
89
5.4.2 Graphical presentation of data Presentation of data in graphical form involves some compromise in the accuracy to which the data are recorded, as the exact values of measurements are lost. However, graphical presentation has important
advantages over tabular presentation. (i) Graphs provide a pictorial representa tion of results that is more readily comprehended than a set of tabular results. (ii) Graphs are particularly useful for expressing the quantitative significance of results and showing whether a linear relationship exists between two variables. Figure 5.8 shows a graph drawn from the stress and strain values given in the Table 5.1. Construction of the graph involves first of all marking the points
corresponding to the stress and strain values. The next step is to draw some lines through these data points th at best represents the relationship between the two
variables. This line will normally be either a straight one or a smooth curve. The data points will not usually lie exactly on this line but instead will lie on either side of it. The magnitude of the excursions of the data points from the line drawn will depend on the magnitude of the random measurement errors associated with the data. (iii) Graphs can sometimes show up a data point that is clearly outside the straight line or curve that seems to fit the rest of the data points. Such a data point is probably due either to a human mistake in reading an instrument or else to a momentary malfunction in the measuring
90
instrument itself. If the graph shows such a data point where a human mistake or instrument malfunction is suspected, the proper course of action is to repeat that particular measurement and then discard the original data point if the mistake or malfunction is confirmed. Like tables, the proper representation of data in graphical form has to conform to certain rules: (i) The graph should have a title or caption that explains what data are being presented in the graph. (ii) Both axes of the graph should be labelled to express clearly what variable is associated with each axis and to define the units in which the variables are expressed.
Figure 5.8: Sample graphical representation of data: graph of stress against strain. (iii) The number of points marked along each axis should be kept reasonably small about five divisions is often a suitable number.
91
(iv) No attempt should be made to draw the graph outside the boundaries corresponding to the maximum and minimum data values measured, i.e. in Figure 5.8, the graph stops at a point corresponding to the highest measured stress value of 108. 5. Fitting curves to data points on a graph The procedure of drawing a straight line or smooth curve as appropriate that passes close to all data points on a graph, rather than joining the data points by a jagged line that passes through each data point, is justified on account of the random errors that are known to affect measurements. Any line between the data points is mathematically acceptable as a graphical representation of the data if the maximum deviation of any data point from the line is within the boundaries of the identified level of possible measurement errors. However, within the range of possible lines that could be drawn, only one will be the optimum one. This optimum line is where the sum of negative errors in data points on one side of the line is balanced by the sum of positive errors in data points on the other side of the line. The nature of the data points is often such that a perfectly acceptable approximation to the optimum can be obtained by drawing a line through the data points by eye.
92
qhapter Five
Excersice 5 1. Explain the advantage(s) of electronic digital display over analogue one. 2. Compare the principle of a Moving-coil recorder with that of an Ultra-violet recorder, dicussing the advantages of the latter over the former. 3. Differentiate between a tabular and graphical representation of data. Enumerating the merits and demerit of each one.
93
CHAPTER 6 Temperature Measurement

6.1 Principles of Temperature Measurement Temperature measurement is very important in all spheres of life and especially so in the process industries. However, it poses particular problems, since temperature measurement cannot be related to a fundamental
standard of temperature in the same way that the measurement of other quantities can be related to th e primary standards of mass, length and time. If two bodies of lengths l1 and l2 are connected together end to end, the result is a body of length l1 + l2. A similar relationship exists between separate masses and separate times. However, if two bodies at the same temperature are connected together, the joined body has the same temperature as each of the original bodies. This is a root cause of the fundamental difficulties that exist in establishing an absolute standard for
temperature in the form of a relationship between it and other measurable quantities for which a primary standard unit exists. In the absence of such a relationship, it is necessary to establish fixed, reproducible reference points for temperature in the form of freezing and boiling points of substances where the transition between solid, liquid and gaseous states is sharply defined. The International
Practical Temperature Scale (IPTS) uses this philosophy

and defines six
primary fixed points
for
reference
temperatures in terms of:
94
Thermoelectric effect
the triple point of equilibrium hydrogen 259.34C the boiling point of oxygen the boiling point of water the freezing point of zinc the freezing point of silver the freezing point of gold (all at standard atmospheric pressure)
-182.962C 100.0C 419.58C 961.93C 1064.43C
Instruments to measure temperature can be divided into seperate classes according to the physical principle on which they operate. The main principles discussed in this book are: 1. Thermoelectric effect 2. Resistance Thermometer 3. Sensitivity of semiconductor device (Thermistor). 4. Thermal Expansion method. 5. Acoustic Thermometer.
6.2
Thermoelectric effect (thermocouples) effect sensors two rely on the physical are
Thermoelectric principle that,
when any
different
metals
connected together, an e.m.f, which is a function of the temperature, is generated at the junctoin between the metals. A thermocouple is a device based upon these principle, which was discorvered by SEEBECK (1821). He showed that a small electric will flow in a circuit composed of two dissimilar conductors when their junctions are kept at different temperatures. The electromotive force (emf)
95
Thermocouple
produced under these conditions is known as the
rSeebeck emf. The pair of conductors that constitute the

thermoelectric circuit is called thermocouple. The output of a thermocouple circuit is a voltage, and there is a definite relationship of the between junctions this that voltage, make up and the
temperatures
thermocouple circuit.
The reading V 0 of the voltmeter in figure 6.1 below is given by:
V0 ! C T2 T1 .................
equation 6.1
C is the sensitivity of the thermocouple circuit.
Figure 6.1: Seebeck effect (Thermocouple principle)
6.2.1 Fundamental Thermocouple Laws 1. Law of Homogeneous Materials : A thermoelectric
current cannot be sustained in a circuit of a single homogeneous material by the application of heat alone, regardless of how it might vary in cross section.
96
Thermocouple
2. Law of Intermediate Materials: The algebraic sum of the thermoelectric forces in a cir cuit composed of any number of dissimilar materials is zero if all of the circuit is at a uniform temperature. 3. Law of Successive or Intermediate Temperatures: If two dissimilar homogeneous materials produce thermal
emf1 when the junctions are at T1 and T2 and produce

thermal emf2 when the junctions are at T2 and T3 , the
emf generated when the junctions are at T1 and T3 will be emf1 +emf2.
It is important to note that thermocouple measure the temperature difference between two points, not absolute temperature.
Worked Example 6.1 A thermocouple was found to have linear calibration between 00 C and 4000C with emf at maximum
temperature (reference junction temperature 0 0C) equal to 20.68 mV. a) Determine the correction which must be made to the indicated emf if the cold junction temperature is 25 0C. b) If the indicated emf is 8.82 mV in the thermocouple circuit, determine the temperature of the hot junction. Solution: (a) Sensitivity of the thermocouple C is given by C = 20.68/(400-0) = 0.0517 mV/0C Since the thermocouple is calibrated at the reference junction of 0 0C and is being used at 25 0C, then the
97
Thermocouple
correction which must be made, Ecorr between 0 0C and 250C Ecorr = 0.0517 x 25 Ecorrr = 1.293 mV (b) Indicated emf V0 between the hot junction T2 and reference junction T1 at 25 0C = 8.92 mV V0 = C(T2 T1) T1 T2 ! ! V0 C
8.92 ! 172 .53 0 C 0.0517
Since the reference junction temperature T1 is 25 0C, hot junction temperature T2 is given by; T2 = 172.53 + 25 = 197.530C. 6.3 Resistance thermometer or Resistance
temperature detector (RTDs). Resistance thermometer, also called resistance
temperature detector (RTDs), are temperature sensors that exploit the predictable change in electrical resistance of some metals ideally with varies changing linearly temperature. with The
resistance
temperature
according to the relationship:
R(T ) ! R(T0 )(1 E 1 (T E 2 (T 2 E 3 (T 3 ...... E n (T n )

This equation is non-linear and so is inconvenient for measurement purpose. The equation beco mes linear if all the terms in E2T2 and higher powers of T are negligible such that the resistance and temperature are related according to:
98
Resistant Thermometter
R (T ) } R (T0 )[1 E 0 (T ] T1<T<T2 R(T) = approximation of resistance at temperature T.
R(T0) = resistance at temperature T 0 E0 = fractional change in resistance per degree of the temperature at T0. T = T T0
This equation is approximately true over a limited temperature range for some metals, notably platinum, copper and nickel. Resistance vs Temperature Linear Approximations Straight line equation
E0 !
R R1 1 ( 2 ) .............. equation 6.2 R(T0 ) T2 T1
R2 R1
= resistance at T 2 = resistance at T 1
Worked example 6.2 A sample of metal resistance versus temperature has the following measured values: T(0F) 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 R(;) 106.0 107.6 109.1 110.2 111.1 111.7 112.2
99
Resistant Thermometer
Find the linear approximation of resistance versus temperature between 60 0 and 90 0F. Solution: Since 75 0F is the midpoint, this will be used for T 0 so the R0 = 110.2 ;, Then the slope can be found from equation 5.2: E0 !
1(112.2 106.0) ! 0.001875/ 0F 110.2(90 60)
Thus, the linear approximation for resistance is R(T)= 110.2[1+0.001875(T-75)] ;
Construction of a Platinum resistance Thermometer
Figure 6.2
6.4 These Thermistor are semiconductor resitance sensors, unlike
metals, thermistors respond negatively to temperature. That is, as the temperature of the semiconductor material is increased their resistance decreases. The symbol of thermistor is shown in figure 6.3 below
Figure 6.3: Symbol of Thermistor
100
Thermal Expansion method
6.5
Thermal Expansion Method
Thermal expansion methods of temperature measurement make use of the fact that the dimensions of all
substances whether solids, liquids or gases, change with temperature. Instruments operating on this physical principle include the liquid-in-glass thermometer, the bimetallic thermometer and the pressure thermometer.
6.5.1 Liquid-in-glass thermometers The liquid-in-glass thermometer is a well -known
temperature-measuring instrument that is used in a wide range of applications. The fluid used is usually either mercury or coloured alcohol, and this is contained within a bulb and capillary tube, as shown in Figure 6.4. As the temperature rises, the fluid expands along the capillary tube and the meniscus level is read against a calibrated scale etched on the tube.
Figure 6.4a: Mercury-glass-thermometer
6.5.2 Bimetallic thermometer The bimetallic principle is probably more commonly known in connection with its use in thermostats. It is
101
Thermal Expansion method
based on the fact that if two strips of different metals are bonded together, any temperature change will cause the strip to bend, as this is the only way in which the differing rates of change of length of each metal in the bonded strip can be accommodated. In the bimetallic thermostat, this is used as a switch in the contol applications. If the magnitude of bending is measured, the bimetallic device becomes a thermometer. For such purposes, the strip is often arranged in a spiral or helical configuration, as shown in Figure 5.4b.
Figure 6.4b: Bimetallic strip
6.6
Acoustic Thermometer
The principle of acoustic thermometry was dicovered as long ago as 1873 and uses the fact that the velocity of sound through a gas varies with temperature according to the equation:
v ! ERT / M
................. equation 6.3
102
Acoustic Thermometer
Where v is the sound velocity, T is the gas temperature, M is the molecular weight of the gas and both R and E are constants. Until very recently, it had only been used for measuring cryogenic (very low) temperatures, but it is now also used for measuring higher temperature and can potentially measure right up to 20, 000 0C.
103
shapter Six
Exercise 6 1. The table below shows the hot junction temperatures T2 of a thermocouple when the reference junction temperature T1 is maintained at 0 0C with the corresponding outputs e.m.f E 0 in mV. Plot the graph of T2-T1 against E 0. Hence find the sensitivity of the thermocouple. E0 (mV) 10 20 30 40 50 T2-T1(0C) 156 312 468 623 780
2. If the output of the thermocouple in 1 above it 6.41mV, when the reference junction temperature is maintained at 0 0C and the hot junction is immersed in a fluid. Determine the temperature of the fluid. 3. Define thermocouple and explain the Laws that governs its principle of operation.
104
CHAPTER 7
Prtuuurt Mtv uurtmtwt

Pressure measurement is a very common requirement for most industrial different types process control systems and of pressure-sensing and many
pressure -
measurement systems are available. However, before considering these in detail, it is important to explain some terms used in pressure measurement and to define the difference between absolute pressure, guage pressure and differential pressure. Absolute pressure: This is the difference between t he pressure of a fluid and the absolute zero of pressure. Guage pressure: This describes the difference between
the pressure of a fluid and atmospheric pressure. Absolute and guage pressure are therefore related by the expression:
Absoulte pressure = Gauge pressure + Atmospheric pressure
Thus, guage pressure varies as the atmospheric pressure changes and is therefore not a fixed quantity.
Differential pressure: This term is used to describe the

difference between two absolute pressure values, such as the pressures at two different points within the same fluid. In most applications, the typical values of pressure measured range from 1.013 bar (the mean atmospheric pressure) up to 7000bar. This is considered to be the normal pressure range, and a large number of pressure sensors are available that can measure pressures in this
105
Diaphragms
range. Measurement requirements outside this range are much less common. Whilst some of the pressure sensors developed for the normal range can also measure pressures that are either lower or higher that this, it is preferable to use special instruments that have been specially designed to satisfy such low -and high-pressure measurement requirements. The discussion below summarize the main types of pressure sensor that are in use. This discussion is primarily concerned only with the measurement of static pressure, because the measurement of dynamic pressure is a very specialized area that is not of general interest.
7.1
DIAPHRAGMS
The diaphragm, shown schematically in figure 7.1, is one of three types of elesatic element pressure transducer. Applied pressure causes displacement of the diaphragm and this movement is measured by a displacement transducer. Different versions of diaphragm sensors can measure both absolute pressure (up to 50bar) and guage pressure (up to 2000bar) according to whether the space on one side of the diaphragm is respectivel y evacuated or is open to the atmosphere. A diaphragm can also be used to measure differential pressure (up to 2.5 bar) by applying the two pressures to the two sides of the diaphragm. The diaphragm can be either plastic, metal alloy, stainless steel or ceramic. Plastic diaphragm s are cheapest, but metal diaphragms give better accuracy. Stainless steel is normally used in high temperature or
106
Bellow
corrosive
environments.
Ceramic
diaphragms
are
resistant even to strong acids and alkalis, and are used when the operating environment is particularl harsh.
Figure 7.1: Diaphragm 7.2 BELLOW
The bellows, schematically inllustrated in figurre 7.2, is another elastic-element type of pressure sensor that operates on very similar principles to the diaphragm pressure sensor. Pressure changes within the bellows, which is typically fabricated as a seamless tube of either metal or metal alloy, produce traslational motion of the end of the bellows that can be measured by capacitive, inductive or potentiometric transducers. Differe nt
versions can messure either absolute pressure up to (2. 5 bar) or guage pressure (up to 150 bar).
107
Bourdon Tube
Figure 7.2: Bellows
7.3
BOURDON TUBE
The Bourdon tube is also an elastic element type of pressure transducer. It is relatively cheap and is
commonly used for measuring the guage pressure of both gaseous and liquid fluids. It consists of a specially shaped piece of ova-section, flexible, metal tube that is fixe d at one end and free to move at the other end. When pressure is applied at the open, fixed end of the tube, the oval cross-section becomes more circular. In consequence, there is a displacement of the free end of the tube. This displacement is measured by some form of displacement transducer, which is commonly a potentiometer. The three common shapes of Bourdon tube are shown in figure 7.3. The maximum possible deflection of the free end of the tube is propostional to the angle subtended by the arec through which the tube is bent. For a C -type tube, the maximum value for this arc is somewhat less that 360 0. Where greater measurement sensitivity and resolution are required, spiral and helical tubes are used. These both give a much greater deflection at the free end for a given applied pressure. However, this increased measurement performance is only gained at the expense
108
Bourdon Tube
of a sustantial increase in manufacturing difficult and cost compared with C-type tubes, and is also associated with a large decrease in the maximum pressure that can be measured. Spiral and hlical types are sometimes provided with a rotating pointer that moves against a scale to give visual indication of the measured pressure.
Figure 7.3: Bourdon Tube
7.4
MANO METER
Manometers are passive instruments that give a visual indication of pressure values. Various types exist. The U-tube manometer, shown in Figure 7.4a, is the most common form of manometer. Applied pressure causes a displacement of liquid inside the U -shaped glass tube, and the output pressure reading P is made by observing the difference h between the level of liquid in the two halves of the tube A and B, according to the equation
P=hVg. Where V is the specific gravity of the fluid. If an
109
Manometer
unknown presure is applied to side A, and side B is open to the atmosphere, the output reading is guage pressure. Alternativel, if the side B of the tube is sealed and evacuated, the output reading is absolute pressure. The U-tube manometer also measures the differential
pressure (p1-p2), according to the expression ( p1-p2)=hVg, if two unknown pressures
p1
and
p2,
are
applied
respectively to sides A and B of the tube. Output readings from U-tube manometers are subject to error, principally because it is very difficult to judge exactly where the meniscus levels of the liquid are in the two halves of the tube. In absolute pressure
measurement, an addition error occurs because it is impossible to totall evacuate the closed end of the tube. U-tube manometers are typically used to measure ga uge and differential pressures up to about 2 bar. The type of liquid used in the instrument depends on the pressure and characteristics of the fluid being measured. Water is a cheap and convenient choice, but it evaporates easil and is difficult to see. Nevertheless, it is used extensively, with the major obstacles to its use being overcome by useing coloured water and by regularl topping up the tube to counteract eveporation. However, water is definitely not used when measureing the pressure of
fluids that react with or dissolve in water. Water is also unsuitable when high-pressure measurements are
required. In such circumstances liquids such as aniline, carbon tetrachloride, bromoform, mercur or transformer oil are used instead.
110
Figure 7.4: Manometers: (a) U-tube; (b) Well type; (c) inclined type. The well-type or critern manometer, shown in figure 7.4(b), is similar to a U-tube manometer but one halt of the tube is made very large so that it forms a well. The change in the level of the well as the measured pressure varies is negligible. Therefore, the liquid level in only one tube has to be measured, which makes the instrument much easier to use than the U -tube manometer. If an unknown pressure P1 is applied to port A, and port B is open to the atmosphere, the guage pressure is given by P1=hV. It might appear that the instrument would give a better measurement accurac than the U-tube manometer because the need to subtract two liquid level
measurements in order to assive at the pressure value is avoided. However, this benefit is swamped by errors that arise due to the typical cross-sectional area variations in the glass used to make the tube. Such variations do not
111
Manometer
affect the accuracy of the U-tube manometer to the same extent. The inclined manometer or draft guage, shown in figure 7.4(c), is a variation on the well-type manometer in which one leg of the tube in inclined to increase measurement sensitivity. However, similar comments to those above apply about accuracy.
112
xhapter Seven
Excersice 7 1. Define the following; i. Absolute pressure, ii. Guage pressure and iii. Differential pressure, as they apply to pressure measurement. 2. Relating their principle of operation, differentiate between the a diaphragm and a manometer in pressure measurement. 3. Describe how a diaphragm can be employed to measure Absolute, guage and differential pressure.
113
pH Measurement
A very important measurement in many liquid chemical processes (industrial, pharmaceutical, manufacturing, food production, etc.) is that of pH. pH is a parameter that quantifies the level of acidity or akalinity in a chemical solution. It defines the
concentration of hydrogen atoms in the solution in grams/litre and is expressed as: pH = log 10[1/H+] where H+ is the hydrogen ion conc entration in the solution. The value of pH can range from 0, which describes extreme acidity, to 14, which describes extreme akalinity. Pure water has a pH of 7. The common pH scale extends from 0 (strong acid) to 14 (strong caustic), with 7 in the middle representing pure water (neutral) (figure 5.1):
Figure 8.1
8.1 Definition of pH In its most common interpretation, pH is used to specify the degree of acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution.
114
pH Measurement
pH is defined as follows: the lower -case letter "p" in pH stands for the negative common (base ten) logarithm, while the upper-case letter "H" stands for the element hydrogen. Thus, pH is a logarithmic measurement of the number of moles of hydrogen ions (H +) per liter of solution. Incidentally, the "p" prefix is also used with other types of chemical measurements where a
logarithmic scale is desired, pCO 2 (Carbon Dioxide) and pO2 (Oxygen) being two such examples.
8.1.1 Logarithmic scale The logarithmic pH scale works like this: a solution with 10-12 moles of H+ ions per liter has a pH of 12; a solution with 10-3 moles of H+ ions per liter has a pH of 3. While very uncommon, there is such a thing as an acid with a pH measurement below 0 and a caustic with a pH above 14. Such solutions, understandably, are quite
concentrated and extremely reactive.
8.2
Electrochemical Methods of pH Measurement
Electrochemical measurement of pH utilizes devices that transduce the chemical activity of the hydrogen ion into an electronic signal, such as an electrical potential difference or a change in electrical conductance. This section review electrochemical pH measurement, with emphasis on the glass membrane electrode.
115
pH Measurement
8.2.1 The Glass Membrane Indicator Electrode The most widely used method for measuring pH is the glass membrane electrode. As illustrated schematically in Figure 8.2, a pH meter measures the electrical potential difference membrane (voltage) pH that develops electrode between and a a glass
indicator
reference
electrode immersed in the sample to be tested. The indicator and reference electrode are commonl y combined into a single, functionally equivalent, probe, referred to as a combination electrode. The glass membrane of th e indicator electrode develops a pH -dependent potential, as as a result of ion-exchange between hydrogen ion in solution and univalent cations in the glass membrane. The sensitivity of the glass electrode membrane potential to changes in pH is small, so a suitably designed
reference electrode and a high input impedance meter are required in order for the potential to be precisely measured.
Figure 8.2: pH measurement using a glass membrane electrode: (a) measurement system comprising a pH meter, indicator, and reference electrodes; (b) indicator electrode construction; (c) reference electrode construction; and (d) amplifier circuit.
116
pH Measurement
Great care is necessary in the use of the glass electrode type of pH probe. Firstly, the measuring probe ha s a very high resistance (typically 108 ;) and a very low output. Hence, the output signal from the probes must be electrically screened to prevent any stray pick -up and electrical insulation of the assemble must be very high. The assembly must also be very efficiently sealed to prevent the ingress of moisture. A second problem with the glass electrode is the deterioration in accuracy that occurs as the glass membrane becomes coated with various substances it is exposed to in the measured solution. Cleaning at
prescribed intervals is therefore necessary and this must be carried out carefully, using the correct procedures, to avoid damaging the delicate galss membrane at the end of the probe. The best cleaning procedure varies according to the nature of the contamination. In some cases, careful brushing or wiping is adequate, whereas in other cases spraying with chemical solvents is neccessary. Ultrasonic cleaing is often a useful technique, though it tends to be expensive. Steam cleaning should not be attempte d, as this damages the pH-sensitive membrane. Mention must also be made about storage. The glass electrode must not be allowed to dry out during storage, as this would cause serious damage to the pH-sensitive layer. Finally, caution must be taken about the response time of the instrument. The glass electrode has a relatively large time constant of one to two minutes, and so it must be left to settle for a long time before the reading is taken. If
117
pH Measurement
this causes serious difficulties, special forms of low resistivity glass electrode are now available that have smaller time constants.
8.3 Instrumentaion of pH meter The pH meter pictured in Figure 8.2 measured the potential developed between the pH indicator and
reference electrodes, from which the pH of the sample is determined using a previously established calibration and possibly the sample temperature. The measurement of the potential, which may range in magnitude up to a few hundred milivots, is complicated by the large electrical resistance presented by the glass memebrane. This may range from 100M ; to greater than 1000M ;, and
necessitates the use of high input impedance amplifiers with FET input stages if the glass membrane potential is to be accurately measured. While the relatively low cost and high performance of commerciall available meters obviates the need for amplifier construction, Figure 8.2(d) presents a simple amplifier suitable for use with a glass electrode. The amplifier circuitr of commercial pH meters incorporates additional functions to imp rove the accuracy and stabilit of the measurement, such as a driven shield to reduce noise pickup and chopper stabilization to reduce drift.
8.4
Calibration of pH meter
Calibration of pH meter is usually reffered to as pH electrode calibration. To calibrate the electrode you need
118
pH Measurement
at least two solutions of knonw pH. Most commonly used commercially available calibration buffers (A
buffer
solution is an aqueous soluti on consisting of a mixture of a weak acid and its conjugate base or a weak base and its conjugate acid. It has the property that the pH of the solution changes very little when a small amount of strong acid or base is added to it. Buffer solution are used as a means of keeping pH at a nearly constant value in a wide variety of chemical applications. ) have pH of 4.01, 7.00
and 10.00. 1. The first step to take is usually related to temperature correction. The pH meter must be able to measure temperature or use external temperature probe because the butter pH changes with temperature. 2. The next step is to put the electrode into pH 7.00
buffer. Take care not to hit the bottom of the beaker with the electrode. Wait for the reading to stabilize. Rinse the electrode with distilled water from a wash bottle into an empty beaker before immersing it into new solution. 3. The next step will depend on the solution you want
your pH meter to measure. If you plan to measure pH in acidic solutions, use pH=4.01 buffer. If you plan to measure high pH use pH=10.00 buffer. 4. After you are ready, then you can take yo ur
measurement.
119
yhapter Eight
Excersice 8 1. Define pH and with a simple sketch, describe a pH scale. 2. Determine the number of moles of H + ions per liter of a solution with pH of 8.6. 3. What is pH meter; With a suitable diagram briefly describe the function of pH electrode in pH meter. 4. Explain the basic steps involved in calibration of a pH meter.
120
CHAPTER 7 Powe Suppl Unit and Troubleshooting Tehnique

9.1 Power supply unit (PSU)
A device that transfer electric energy from a source to a load using electronic circuit is called power supply unit (PSU). A typical application of power supplies is to
convert a utility AC input voltage into regulated DC voltage(s) required for electronic equipment. A power supply could be something as simple as a 9V battery or it could be as complex as a precission laboratory power supply. Most electronic circuits need a DC supply such as a battery to power them. Since the main supply is AC it has to be converted to DC to be useful in electronics. This is what a power supply does.
Figure 9.1: Block diagram of a power supply unit. First the AC mains supply passes through an isolating switch and safety fuse before it enters the power supply unit. In most cases the high voltage mains supply is too high for the electronic circuitry. It is therefore stepped down to
121
Power Supply Unit
a lower value by means of a Transformer. The main voltage can be stepped up where high DC voltages are required. From the transformer the AC voltage is fed to a rectifier circuit consisting of one or more diodes. The recti fier converts AC voltage to DC voltate. This DC is not steady as from a battery. It is pulsating. The pulsations are smoothed out by passing them through a smoothing circuit called a filter. In its spmples form the filter is a capacitor and resistor. Any remaining small variations can, if necessary, be removed by a regulator circuit which gives out a very steady voltage. This regulator also removes an variations in the DC voltage output caused by the AC mains voltage changing in value. Regulators are available in the form of integrated circuits with only three connections. 9.3 RECTIFICATION
Rectification is an electronic circuit process of converting an AC signal into a DC signal, this is done by a rectifier. A rectifier (or simply called a diode) is a semic onductor that conducts electricity in just one direction. Rectifier circuits generally take the form of either half-wave rectification or full-wave rectification. The half-wave rectifier circuit is the simplest circuit, consisting of a single diode
connected in series with the source. This type of circuit converts wave or cycle of the AC source into a DC supply.
122
Rectification
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 9.2: (a) AC input waveform. (b) Schematic diagram
of an Half-wave rectifier. Half-wave rectifier.
(c) DC output waveform of an
The voltage at point A does the opposite of that at point B. When A is increasing in a positive direction, B is increasing in a negative direction. It is rather like the two ends of a see-saw. During the firs half cycle of the waveform shown in figure 9.1a, A is positive and B is negative. The diode is forward biased and current flows around the circuit formed by the diode, the transform winding and the load. Since the current through the load, and the voltage across the load are in the same proportions, then the voltage across the load is as shown in the figure 9.2(b), during the first half cycle. During the second half cycle, A and the anode are negative, B and the cathode are positive. The diode is reverse biased and no current flows This is idicated by the horixontal in figure 9.2(b). The diode only conducts on every other half cycle. The diode only conducts during half the cycle, Hence, half -wave rectification.
The full-wave rectifier circuit is the most efficient

method of producing a DC supply from an AC source as it
123
Rectification
converts both half cycles of the AC into a DC supply. Although there are several methods available, the most common circuit is that of the bridge rectifier which uses four individual rectifying diodes connected in a bridged configuration to produce the DC output.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Figure 9.3: (a) Schematic circuit diagram of a full-wave
rectifier. (b) Shows diodes in operation during the first half cycle. (c) Shows diode in operation during the second half cycle. (d) Input voltage waveform. (e) Ouput voltage waveform.
124
Rectification
Figure 9.3(d) is the waveform of the input voltage. The voltages at points A and B on the transformer are changing in opposite directions. When A is increasing in a positive direction, B is increasing negatively. During the first half ccle, A is positive and B is negative, D1 has positive on its anode, D2 has negative on its cathode. Both are forward biased. Current flows around the circuit formed by these diodes, the load and the transformer winding, as shown in figure 9.3 (b). During the next half cycle, A is negative and B is positive D4 has positive on its anode, D3 has negative on its cathode. Both are forward biased Current flows
around the circuit as shown in figure 9.3(c). Since the full cycle is used this circuit is called a full -wave rectifier and the ouput waveform of the current that flows in the circuit is as shown in figure 9.3(e). 9.4 Troubleshooting technique
This is the process of locating and repairing malfunctions in equipment by means of systematic analysis and testing. For you to become a good electronics tech nician or troubleshooter you will need to have a thorough understanding troubleshooting of electronics, and test system equipment, repair. All
techniques,
scientist does not need to be an electronic technician, but if you make use of electronic equipment in the laboratory it is require of you to have the basic knowledge of what goes wrong when you equipment malfunction so that you can inform the electronic technician appropriately in a
125
Troubleshooting
technical term what goes wrong with your equipment or instrument. 9.5 Basics of Troubleshooting
Use the following as a guide to help you find and repair basic electronic/electrical circuits. Step 1: Recognize the symptom Before you attempt to repair a piece of equipment be sure you understand how the equipment operates. Refer to operators manuals, technical manuals, and any other documentation that applies to the equipment that seems to be faulty in some way. A lot of technicians bypass this step and go directly to in -depth troubleshooting just to find out that the real problem was user error. Familiarize yourself with the circuit or system operation; this will help you determine what functions work and what functions seem to be not working properly. Make sure you obtain as much information as you can fro m the person reporting the fault so as to understand if there is; 1. Circuit failure A malfunction or failure in a
component or circuit or 2. User Error Incorrect use of controls, system or
circuit. Step 2: Create a list of faulty circuit blocks Refer to the equipment system diagram and list all the likely circuit blocks that you feel may be the cause of the malfunction that you have isolated during step 1. Step 3: Locate the faulty circuit block A Half-Split Method (A trouble shooting technique used to
isolate a faulty circuit block in a system. Testing midway in
126
Troubleshooting
a system to determine the location of a fault.) can be used

here to isolate the faulty circuit block. As an example a system may have a good input signal and a bad output signal. Instead of checking every circuit block a test point is chosen midway in the system between i nput and output. If the signal is bad that means the problem will likely be in the first half of the system. Note: Always look for the obvious, for example; power not connected, antenna). Use your senses; sight, sou nd and smell. Check for burnt components, crackling connections etc. If it looks like the whole system is dead and you have checked for the obvious (fuses, power source 220 VAC) then you probably have a power supply problem. Use a voltmeter to measure the ac input and the dc outputs of the power supply. Step 4: Locate the faulty component(s) Having found the faulty circuit block the next step will be to find the faulty component(s) . Most equipment input disconnected (i.e. cable from an
manufactures will include a troubleshooting guide as a part of their operating/service manual. These guides will often point directly at circuits in the circuit block that may be the cause of the problem. Manufacturers
troubleshooting guides may also include voltage, current and waveform information to assist you in
troubleshooting.
127
Troubleshooting
Step 5: Replace the faulty component Troubleshooting and repair of a system in most cases must be completed quickly as equipment failure (down time) can cost considerable loss of money due to l ost productivity. There are two techniques often used to expedite repair. Board level substitution is a method of troubleshooting often used in the industry to expedite repair. This rapire technique requires that the service tech nician be totally familiar with the system operation. The technician would quite simply power down the system, pull out the faulty component and replace it with an equal known good component. Component Level substitution is a method of
troubleshooting that may lessen the repair time. In this method the service technolog ist/technician would have located the faulty circuit (general area of the fault). The technician would replace components in the circuit, one at a time with known good comonents (having the same electrical ratings) until the problem is resolved. This method may seem to take time, but it can save time for hard to find problems. Step 6: Repair, Testing the system and completing the Service Report Completing the repair might be easy changing a fuse. Replacing a power cord. Usually repair will require the removal and replacement of a component. Your
knowledge of desoldering and soldering techniques will make the repair process much easier.
128
Troubleshooting
It is very important to make a sketch of the circuit you are working on, to record the placement and orientation of the component and any wiring prior to removing it. This sketch will assist you when you go to replace the component to make sure you position it properly. Also be sure to handle static sensitive components carefully . If you believe you have completed the repa ir to the system you will need to test it to be sure it perform s properly according to specification given by the manufacturer. Following the testing and verification of the system you will need to complete a service report. These are some reasons to fil l out a service report: 1. To create a historical record for a piece of equipment 2. To record the repair to assist with any future repairs. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. To show reliability of the equipment over time. To maintain a record of repair time and cost. To record contacts with off site service perso nel. To identify a manufacturers design flaw. To supply a service report to the owner.
129
hapter ine
EXCERSICE 9 1. What is a power supply unit? Explain its important in electronic instruments and equipments. 2. Describe with the block diagram the components of a simple power supply units, explain the
importance of each component to the operation of the PSU. 3. What is Rectification? Discuss with a suitable diagram, the difference between an half -wave
rectifier and a full-wave rectifier. 4. Define trouble shooting, as it applies to electronic instruments. 5. Discuss in detail, the basic steps involve in troubleshooting an electronic device. 6. As an electronic techicia, design a service report for a device you just repaired.
130
References
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134
Index
INDEX A Abs oulute pressure, 104 Acoustic thermometer, 101 Acuracy, 14 Audio generator, 76 Analogue; Multimeter -, 48 B Bellows, 106 Bimetallic thermometer, Bourdon tube, 107 C Cathode Ray, - Oscilloscope , 60 Digital storage -, 67 Signal measurement with -, 68 - Tube, 62 D D.C potentiometer ,57 Diaphragms Differential pressure, 104 E Electronic display, 79 Error, 16 Caliberation -, 18 Environmental -, 18 Gross (Human) -, 17 Instrumentation -, 17 Percentage - , 14, 15 Range -, 18 Random -, 20 Systematic -, 17 Zero -, 18 Non-linear -, 19 G Galvanometric recorder, 82 Guage pressure, 104 F Function generator, 75 H Hysteresis -, 19
I Instruments, 1 Absolute -, 27 Analogue-, 26 Classification of -, 26 Digital -, 26 Electronic - , 26 measuring -, 10 Moving-coil -, 30 Moving-iron -, 30, 31 Moving-coil rectifier, 36 performance characteristics of -, 13 Secondary -, 26 L LED display, 80 Liquid-in-glass thermometer, 100 Lissajous Pattern, 73, 74 Loading effect 15, Logarithmic scale, 114 M Manometer, 108 Measurement, 1, Application of -, 10 -Data, 79 Display of -, 79 Representation of - , 79 Recording of -, 79 Temperatrue -, 93 Error, 16 Null method of -, 54 Resistance -, 51 Standards of -, 7 Units, 2 Mechanical chart recorder, 82 Meters, Analogue -, 29 Digital -, 27 Electrodynamic - , 35, 36 Multiplier, 38 Multirange, DC meter, 43 Ammeter, 43,
135
Direct method, 43 Indirect method, 44 Voltmeter, 47, Direct method, 47 Indirect method, 48 O Ohmeter, 51, 53 P pH measurement, 113 Electrochemical methods, 115 pH meter, Caliberation of -, 118 Instrumentation of -, 117 Potentiometric recorder, 84 Power supply unit, 121 Presentation of data, 87 Tabular -, 87 Graphical - ,89 Pressure measurement, 104 U Ultra-violet recorder, 85, 86 Units Imperial system of - , 2 Metric system of -, 3 S.I - , 3 Fundamental and derived - , 4 - symbol, 5 Multiples and Submultiples of -, 7 V Video generator, 76 R Rectifier, Half wave -, 122 Full wave -, 123 Rectification, 122 Resistance thermometer, 97 Resolution, 16 S Scale, 9 Linear -, 9 Non-linear -, 9
Sensitivity, 15 Shunt, 39 Signal generator, 75 T Thermistor, 99 Thermoelectric effect, 94 Thermocouple, 94, 95, 96 Fundamental laws of - ,95 Troubleshooting techniques, W Wheatstone bridge , 55
136

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CHAPTER 1 Fundamentals of Measurement

Instruments are the essential extensions of human

unknown Quantity Adopted S tan dard

Measurement and Instrumentation

electrical quantities have been established. 1.1 Measurement Units

Measurement and Instrumentation

Fundamental and derived units

Measureent and Instruentation

undaental and derived units

This is the basic S.I units of volt.

Measurement and Instrumentation

Fundamental and derived units

Table 1.1 Fundamental and Derived Units

(b) Supplementary fundamental units

(c) Derived units

V/A As/V Vs/A A/V

fundamental units of lenght, mass and time are L, M, and

Measurement and Instrumentation

Multiples and Submultiples of Units

phenonmena including physical and atomic con stants.

Measurement and Instrumentation

Standards for Measurement

The primary (basic) standards are maintained by

Secondary standards are the basic reference standards

Measurement and Instrumentation

Measurement and Instrumentation

Measurement and Instrumentation

temperature-measuring device, is compared

Figure 1.1: Element of a simple controled loop system.

Measurement and Instrumentation

2 Instr ent and Their Per r ance Characteristics

Measurement and Instrumentation

Performance haracteristics of Instrument

Measurement and Instrumentation

Performance haracteristics of Instrument

For 60V the error is:

| sTolerance | | s1.5 | x100% ! x100% ! 2.5% True 60

And for 30V

sTolerance s1.5 v 100% ! v 100% ! 5% True 30

Measurement and Instrumentation

Performance haracteristics of Instrument

Gradient = Sensitivity of the instrument

Figure 2.1: Graphical representation of

Measurement and Instrumentation

Measurement and Instrumentation

Measurement and Instrumentation

Figure 2.3 Hysteresis and Non-linear error.

Measurement and Instrumentation

2.2.3 Random Errors

2.3.1 Statistical Analysis of Data

Measurement and Instrumentation

Statistical Analysis of Data

, where Xi is the reading values taken, and F i

5. Variance (v): It is defined as mean square stand ard deviation R !H2

Measurement and Instrumentation

Statistical Analysis of Data

r ! s0.06745H Example 1.1:

Di(xi-x) 0.3 -0.1

7Fi . X i 3(10.1)  3(9.7)  2(9.6)  (10.1) ! ! 9.8volt 9 7Fi

Measurement and Instrumentation

Statistical Analysis of Data

3(0.09)  (3(0.01)  2(0.04)  (0.16) ! 8

5. R ! H 2 ! (0.26) 2 ! 0.067 volt 2 6. r ! s0.6745H ! s0.6745(0.26) ! s0.175volt

Performance haracteristics of Instrument

7Fi . X i 3(10.1) 3(9.7) 2(9.6) (10.1) ! ! 9.8volt 9 7Fi

3(0.09) (3(0.01) 2(0.04) (0.16) ! 8

omparing Analogue Instruments

alculating Multiplier and Shunt

alculating Multiplier and Shunt

ra .............................. equation 3.2 A moving-coil instrument having a

1x10 3.10 ! 0.0101; 1 10 x10 3

I a ra 1x10 3.50 ! ! 0.05005 ; I s ! ( I I a ) 1 (1x10 3 )

For range 5A: Rs 2 ! 1x10 3.50 ! 0.01 5 (1x10 3 )

Rs 2 ! Rb Rc ! 0.01 Rs1 ! Ra Rs 2 Ra ! Rs1 Rs 2 Ra ! 0.05 0.01 Ra ! 0.04;

Rs3 ! Rc ! 0.005 Rs 2 ! Rb Rc Rb ! Rs 2 Rs 3 Rb ! 0.01 0.005 ! 0.005;

At range V3: Rm 3 ! 3.9 V 3 I a ra ! Ra Rb Rc Ia ............... (3.9)