Chapter 17: Manifest Destiny and its Legacy (1841-1848)

1840s American diplomacy and politics were governed by territorial expansion The Accession of Tyler Too Early 1841 William Henry Harrison was president, but the real leaders of the Whig party were secretary of state Daniel Webster and Senator Henry Clay But after only a month in office, Harrison died of pneumonia, so vice president John Tyler became president Tyler was an old school Virginian who was a member of the Whig party, but largely was still a Democrat at heart, and was anti-bank, anti-protective tariff, and anti-internal improvements

The Whig Congress passed a law ending the independent treasury system, and Tyler approved John Tyler: A it despite being against it President Without Then, the Whigs pushed a bill to establish a new Bank of the United States (a Fiscal Bank), a Party but Tyler flatly vetoed it The Whigs tried again with a bill for a Fiscal Corporation, but Tyler also vetoed it So Tyler became very unpopular with the Whigs, with his entire cabinet except for Webster resigning and attempts to impeach him Tyler also vetoed the Whigs proposal for a tariff because would distribute revenue to the states from sale of Western lands So the Whigs tried again without the distribution stipulation and with a lower protective tariff, and Tyler approved because needed additional revenue Hatred of Britain periodically flared, as it did in 1842 Causes of anti-British sentiment: Memories of the two Anglo-American wars The pro-British Federalists had died out, leaving the Jacksonian Democrats British travelers wrote travel books that look down upon American habits, ex. Tobacco spitting, slave auctioneering, and lynching A literary war (Third War with England) ensued when British and American magazines and authors began attacking the others shortcomings, ex. British author Charles Dickens America borrowed heavily from Britain to pay for canals and railroads, but many states defaulted on their bonds or repudiated them because of the panic of 1837 American involvement in the 1837 insurrection in Canada: Despite the insurrection being supported by too few Canadians to have a chance at success, and despite Americas neutrality policy, Americans gave military supplies or volunteered to fight because wanted to strike a blow against Britain 1837 American steamer Caroline was carrying supplies to insurgents on the Niagara River, but was attacked and burned by an invading British force in NY 1840 Canadian McLeod was arrested and charged with murder for his involvement in the attack on the Caroline, but Britain said that executing him would mean war, but McLeod was freed after establishing an alibi 1841 tension increased again when Britain offered asylum in the Bahamas to the VA slaves who had rebelled and captured the American ship Creole Early 1840s Britain wanted to build a road from Halifax to Quebec though disputed ME territory because the St. Lawrence River was frozen in the winter, so conflict between lumberjacks and militias in the Aroostook River valley (the Aroostook War)

A War of Words with Britain

Manipulating the Maine Maps

 So Britain sent financier and nonprofessional diplomat Lord Ashburton to negotiate with Webster, and they hammered out a compromise: America would receive more of the disputed land than Britain, but Britain would be able to build its road The Caroline affair was settled by an exchange of diplomatic notes The small print gave America some territory attached to Minnesota that would later be found to contain valuable Mesabi iron ore The Lone Star of Texas Shines Alone 1836-1842, Mexico refused to recognize Texas' independence and considered it a province in revolt to be reconquered sometime, so Texas had to maintain an expensive military establishment But the Texans were outnumbered, so had to make negotiations with European countries to secure a protectorate, and 1839 and 1840 it concluded treaties with France, Holland, and Belgium France wanted to help Texas because then could result in the fragmentation and militarization of America Britain was interested in an independent Texas because: Would check American expansion southward Could be influenced to turn against the States Subsequent clashes in Texas could provide a diversion, so European powers could move into the Americas against the Monroe Doctrine British abolitionists thought that if they could free the few black slaves in Texas, they would trigger the nearby Southern slaves to revolt British traders saw it as a potential free-trade area, without the protective tariff of the States British manufacturers saw it as a potential cotton-producing area to free them from their dependence on American cotton

The Belated Texas Texas became a major issue in the 1844 presidential elections: Nupitals The South wanted Texas or else disunion, while anti-expansionists opposed annexation Democrat James K. Polk won the election against Whig Henry Clay Because the pro-expansion Democrats won, Tyler felt the need to acquire Texas So early 1845 a resolution was passed that formally invited Texas to join the Union But Mexico still maintained that it had control over Texas America was eager to annex Texas because it was valuable and because the existence of an independent Texas threatened America with war in America and in Europe Oregon Fever Populates Oregon Oregon Country stretched from the Rockies to the Pacific Ocean north of California and south of the Alaskan panhandle It had been claimed at various times by Spain, Russia, Britain, and America, but Spain dropped its claim with the 1819 Florida Treaty, and Russia with the treaties of 1824 and 1825 with America and Britain, leaving only America and Britain to contend Britain had a strong claim to the area north of the Columbia River, based on discovery, exploration, treaty rights, and colonization (the most important colonizing agency was the Hudson's Bay Company that traded with the Pacific Northwest Indians for furs) America had a tremulous claim by exploration (1792 Captain Rovert Gray discovered the

Columbia River, and 1804-1806 the Lewis and Clark expedition crossed through Oregon Country to the Pacific), but was strengthened by 1830s missionaries and settlers because created interest in an area that Americans otherwise thought would not be colonized soon the Treaty of 1818 adopted a plan for peaceful joint occupation because America and Britain could not decide who should receive the valuable Columbia River But early 1840s, the American population multiplied because of Oregon fever, greatly outnumbering the British settlers, so Britain began considering arriving at a peaceful settlement of the land dispute Actually, by 1845 only a small portion of the Oregon Country was in dispute, with Britain wanting the Columbia River as the boundary, and America wanting the 49th parallel A Mandate (?) for Manifest Destiny May 1844 the Whigs enthusiastically chose Clay as their presidential candidate because was extremely popular The Democrats, after deadlock, chose Polk because was pro-expansion; Polk was the first surprise presidential candidate (dark-horse) 1840s and 1850s a wave of Manifest Destiny swept over America; many Americans believed that God had manifestly destined America expand and bring democracy to all of North and maybe also South America So the Democrats supported annexing Texas and occupying all of Oregon, and accused Clay of being a corrupt bargainer, a dissolute character, and a slaveowner (despite Polk owning slaves himself) The Whigs countered by accusing Polk of owning slaves, but lost supporters on when Clay, the Great Compromiser, wrote a series of confusing letters that said that he favored both annexation, appealing to the South, and postponement, appealing to the North Polk won the election by a narrow margin only because Clay lost in NY because of the tiny antislavery and anti-Texas Liberty party So the victorious Democrats concluded that they had received a mandate from the people to annex Texas, and Tyler signed a joint-resolution that formally invited Texas to join the Union, but the mandate was not so clear-cut Young Hickory Polk was persistent, narrow-minded, shrewd, and unwilling to delegate authority Polk developed a four-point program: A lower tariff: 1846 secretary of the Treasury Robert J. Walker produced the Walker Tariff that reduced the average rates of the Tariff of 1842, and it proved to be profitable The South supported, but New England and the middle states opposed because feared that American manufacturing would be negatively affected The restoration of the independent treasury; 1841 the independent treasury had been dropped by the Whigs, but 1846 Polk recreated it despite opposition from pro-bank Whigs The acquisition of California: [see next section] The settlement of the Oregon dispute: Northern Democrats still wanted to reoccupy all of Oregon, but Southern Democrats, incl. Polk, cooled off after the annexation of Texas So Polk proposed that the boundary be set at the compromise 49th parallel, and Britain

Polk the Purposeful

again refused But Britain changed its mind (British anti-expansionists were called Little Englanders) because: Now saw less value on the Columbia River Feared that the rapidly expanding American settlers would one day take their Oregon land Hudson's Bay Company had become unpopular and had furred out the area So Early 1846, Britain came around and proposed the boundary be set at the 49th parallel, and the Senate quickly accepted But diehard fifty-four fortyists (those who wanted all of Oregon) and abolitionists were angered that all of Texas was gained, but not all of Oregon Polk and California: Misunderstandings Polk and believers of Manifest Destiny though of San Francisco Bay as America's future with Mexico gateway to the Pacific By 1845, the population of CA consisted of mostly Indians, some Spanish-Mexicans, and even fewer Americans Polk wanted to buy CA from Mexico, but US-Mexico relations were embittered, in part because Mexico had to default on payments for damages to American citizens and their property Ill-founded rumors circulated that Britain was about to buy or seize CA, so late 1845 Polk sent John Slidell to try to buy it for a maximum of $25 million, but Mexico was insulted by the offered amount and refused Polk and Texas after annexation: After annexation, Mexico threatened war and cut off diplomatic relations Also, there was a boundary dispute because the expansive Texans had pushed past the original southwestern boundary of the Nueces River to the Rio Grande, and Polk sided with the Texans, and kept troops out of the disputed zone for fear of Mexican retaliation But the boundary dispute was not such a big deal to Mexico, because Mexico still considered Texas theirs, though in revolt American Blood on American (?) Soil January 13, 1846 Polk sent American troops under General Zachary Taylor to the Rio Grande in hopes of triggering a violent response from Mexico, which Mexico provided on April 25, 1846 So Polk told Congress to declare war because hostilities had been forced upon America, which they did enthusiastically, and even war-fevered Whigs supported the decision Some accused Polk of provoking war, ex. Illinois congressman Abraham Spotty Lincoln who demanded the location of the exact spot of American soil on which American blood was spilled, and ex. extreme Northern abolitionists Polk did indeed provoke war, because the only way to get CA from Mexico before the British did was to fight for it, and grievances against Mexico were only annoyances at the time But Mexico was also eager to fight because wanted to humiliate the Bullies in the North, and thought that successful American invasion was highly unlikely after the 1812 failed invasion of Canada Santa Anna, dethroned and exiled in Cuba, promised Polk that if he let him slip back into

The Mastering of Mexico

Mexico, then he would help him; Polk agreed, but Santa Anna turned and helped Mexico instead 1846 General Stephen W. Kearny captured Santa Fe 1846 Captain John C. Fremont, with help from the American navy and locals, won CA Meanwhile, General Zachary Taylor fought across the Rio Grande and into Mexico, and February 22-23, 1847 won a difficult victory over Santa Anna at Buena Vista September 1847 General Winfield Scott, a hero from the War of 1812, brilliantly managed to make to Mexico City despite being outnumbered and facing harsh conditions

Fighting Mexico for Peace

Polk wanted the minimum amount of fighting needed to gain CA Chief clerk of the State Department Nicholas P. Trist made an armistice with Santa Anna for $10,000, but Santa Anna used the money to bolster his defenses Polk was displeased and demanded Trist return, but Trist refused and February 2, 1848 signed the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo: Gave America Texas, Oregon Country, and CA, or about half of Mexico America would pay $15 million for the land and assume the $3,250,000 in claims against Mexico by its citizens The treaty was approved by the Senate, despite being opposed by the antislavery Whigs (AKA Mexican Whigs or Conscience Whigs) who did not want any of Mexico and the expansionists who wanted all of it Despite being victorious, Polk paid $18,25000 to Mexico, down from the $25,000,000 offered before the war, because needed to finalize the agreement quickly before opponents had time to sabotage his plans The Mexican War caused relatively little loss of life, but gave huge gains; America increased in size by 1/3, and the spirit of Manifest Destiny was stimulated Effects of the Mexican War on the military: Provided field experience for most of the officers of the Civil War, and the well-trained officers justified the existence of the Military Academy at West Point, founded 1802 Proved the usefulness of the Navy and Marine Corps Effects of the Mexican War on foreign relations: British critics and other foreign skeptics revised their opinions on the power of the US military Mexico and America gained greater respect for the others military power Mexico would remember for a long time how America took half its land Before, Latin America regarded America as complacent and even friendly, but now it increasingly feared it as the Colossus of the North Effects of the Mexican War on the slavery issue: Abolitionists accused the South, whose people had participated heavily in the war, of wanting to add more slave states to the Union, when actually the heavy participation was due to proximity 1846 PA representative David Wilmot introduced legislation that outlawed slavery in territory gained from Mexico; caused bitter fighting in the Senate against the Southerners and abolitionists

Profit and Loss in Mexico