3.

10 Solubility and temperature, solubility of salts in water o o The solubility of a potassium dichromate in 100 g of water varies with temperatures: 0 C - 5 g, 10 C - 7 g, o o o o o o o o o 20 C - 12 g, 30 C - 20 g, 40 C - 26 g, 50 C - 34 g, 60 C - 43 g, 70 C - 52 g, 80 C - 61 g, 90 C - 70 g, 100 C - 80 g. 1. Show that a saturated solution contains less dissolved solid at a lower temperature than at a higher o temperature. Make a 50 mL saturated solution of potassium dichromate or potassium nitrate at 60 C. o Pour the clear solution into a clean container and keep the temperature of this container at 40 C until crystals stop forming. Pour the clear solution from this container into another clean container. Do not pour crystals into the container. Leave to cool and note more crystals forming as the solution cools. 2. Repeat the experiment with sodium chloride. This salt is unusual because the solubility hardly changes with change in temperature. Potassium nitrate is added to four flasks of pure water until no more will dissolve. Each mixture is sealed and stored at different temperatures. The same volume of each solution is removed and evaporated to crystallize the solid. The results are shown on the following graph

(a). Plot a graph of solubility (g/ml) VS. Temperature. (b). What can you generalize about the effect of temperatures on solubility?

How to Calculate Solubilities

Solubility indicates the maximum amount of a substance that can be dissolved in a solvent at a given temperature. Such a solution is called saturated. Solubility is measured either in grams per 100 g of solvent (g/100 g) or number of moles per 1 L of the solution. As an example, calculate the solubility of sodium nitrate (NaNO3), if 21.9 g of the salt is dissolved in 25 g of water. Based on this calculation, the final volume of the NaNO3 saturated solution is 55 ml. Instructions Divide the mass of the compound by the mass of the solvent and then multiply by 100 g to calculate the solubility in g/100g . Solubility of NaNO3=21.9g (NaNO3) x 100 g/ 25 g =87.6 (g/100 g). Calculate the molar mass of the dissolved compound as the sum of mass of all atoms in the molecule. Atomic weights of corresponding elements are given in the periodic table of the chemical elements. (See "Resources" below.) In our example, it would be: Molar mass (NaNO3)=M(Na)+M(N)+3 x M(O)=23+14+3x16=85 g/mole. Divide the mass of the dissolved compound by its molar mass to calculate the number of moles. In our example, this would be: Number of moles (NaNO3)=21.9g /85 g/mole= 0.258 moles. Divide the number of moles by the solution volume (in liters) to calculate solubility in mole/L. In our example, the solution volume is 55 mL or 0.055 L. The solubility of NaNO3=0.258 moles/0.055 L=4.69 mole/L. Calculate the solubility, in grams per 100mL of water, of potassium sulfate if 1.20 g of the solid dissolved i? 1.2 g / 10.5 mL = 0.114285 g/mL so just multiply this thimes 100 and you'll have the solubility (or how much) of the solute dissolves in 100 mL at the given temp: 11.43 g / 100 mL If 1.2 g dissolves in 10.5 ml then x g dissolves in 100 ml x= 100 x 1.2 / 10.5 = 120/10.5 = 11.42 g or 11.42 % w/v

Purpose: The Purpose of Experiment 15 is to determine the solubility of a substance as a function of temperature and to compare solubilities in different solvents. Sample Calculations: Water as Solvent Solubility: Mass of Solvent = (Volume of H2O) x (Density of H2O) Mass of Solvent = (10.00mL H2O) x (0.9975g/mL H2O) Mass of Solvent = 9.975g H2O Concentration = (Mass of K2Cr2O7/Mass of H2O) x 100g H2O Concentration = (6.0211g K2Cr2O7/9.975g H2O) x 100g H2O Concentration = 60.36g K2Cr2O7 in 100g H2O Mole Fraction: Moles of Solute = (Mass of K2Cr2O7) / (Molar Mass of K2Cr2O7) Moles of Solute = (6.0211g K2Cr2O7) / (1mol/294.18g K2Cr2O7) Moles of Solute = 0.02047mol K2Cr2O7 Moles of Solvent = (Mass of H2O) / (Molar Mass of H2O) Moles of Solvent = (9.975g H2O) / (1mol/18.02g H2O) Moles of Solvent = 0.5536mol H2O Xsolute = (Moles of K2Cr2O7) / (Moles of K2Cr2O7 + Moles of H2O) Xsolute = (0.02047mol K2Cr2O7) / (0.02047mol K2Cr2O7 + 0.5536mol H2O) Xsolute = 0.03566 70:30 Water:Dioxane as Solvent Solubility: Mass of Solvent = (Volume of H2O:C4H8O2) x (Density of H2O:C4H8O2) Mass of Solvent = (10.00mL H2O:C4H8O2) x (1.023g/mL H2O:C4H8O2) Mass of Solvent = 10.23g H2O:C4H8O2 Concentration = (Mass of K2Cr2O7/Mass of H2O:C4H8O2) x 100g H2O:C4H8O2 Concentration = (3.1517g K2Cr2O7/10.23g H2O:C4H8O2) x 100g H2O:C4H8O2 Concentration = 30.81g K2Cr2O7 in 100g H2O:C4H8O2

Report Questions: 1. Solubility of potassium dichromate increases as temperature increases. K2Cr2O7(s) + H2O(l) + heat <> K2Cr2O7(aq) Energy is required to separate the potassium dichromate and water molecules. This is an endothermic process. Then, attractive intermolecular forces between the K 2Cr2O7 and H2O allow the solid to dissolve, releasing energy. This is an exothermic process. Because the reaction takes in more energy than it lets out, the overall energy of the solution, Hsoln, is positive. 3. CoCl2 (s) + H2O (l) + heat <> CoCl2 (aq) Hsoln = (+)

5. NH4Br (s) + H2O (l) + heat <> NH4Br (aq) Solubility of NH4Br increases with increasing temperature. Conclusion: In this experiment, a solubility apparatus was used to determine the solubility of a substance as a function of temperature and to compare solubilities in different solvents. As a whole, the section studied the differences between oxalic acid and potassium dichromate. Potassium dichromate was delegated to my column. The solubility apparatus was used to combine different amounts of potassium dichromate and water to create varying aqueous solutions. First, in part A, 6.0211g solute was added to 10.00mL distilled H2O in the test tube. The apparatus was placed in a hot water bath and cooled it until crystals first appeared and then recorded the temperature, which was 75.5 C. This process was repeated three more times, adding 5mL distilled H2O each time. The temperatures recorded for the crystallization of these three trials were 63.0C, 43.0C, and 34.5C. In part B, the same procedure was used, only with 1.744g solute instead. Crystallization occurred in 10.00mL distilled H2O at 26.0C, at 19.0C in 15mL, and 8.0C in 20mL. Finally, in part C, 3.1517g solute was combined with 10.00mL 70:30 water:dioxane mixture. The same process of heating and cooling was used and found that crystallization occurred at 78.0C. This was repeated three more times, adding 10.00mL each time. The temperatures of crystallization were found to be 39.0C, 23.0C, and 13.0 C in 20.00mL, 30.00mL, and 40.00mL, respectively. The addition of dioxane in part C resulted in lower solubility of the potassium dichromate, even with the addition of heat. It was discovered, for this solution process, that the solubility increased with increasing temperature because it was an endothermic reaction with a positive change in enthalpy for the reaction. Thus, the absolute value of the energy required to separate the solute particles from themselves and the solvent particles from themselves was greater than the absolute value of the energy lost during hydration. With all due analysis of the qualitative information derived from this experiment, it is to be assumed that there could be multiple sources of error and complications. In an ideal situation, we would be able to tell exactly when the crystals began to form, but because each student had to estimate and try to figure out when it was a good point to consider the solute crystallized, there is room for some error and discrepancies. In addition, some of the dust particles of potassium dichromate remained in the weighing dish after measuring its mass. Although this may not have made a huge difference, it could have partially led to skewed results. It also proved difficult to use the 5.00mL pipet. It was challenging to use the bulb to measure the solvents to use in the aqueous solution to exactly 5.00mL.

How can i find the experimental and theoretical value?

Experimental value is what you determine it to be from the results of your experiment. It is affected by such things as incomplete and competing reactions that consume reactants and produce undesired materials, physical losses during recovery, inaccuracies in measurement, and so on.

The accepted value is what is listed for that property in reference books such as the CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics.

The theoretical value is what the quantites of materials used in your experiment would yield if your experiment were ideal. That is, if it took place with no errors, losses, other reactions, etc., according to the balanced chemical or mathematical equation for the process being studied.

Instructions 1 Calculate your theoretical value by following the steps outlined in your experimental procedure. Enter the ideal quantities for each step. No physical work should be done at this point.

2 Find your experimental value by following the same steps as in step 1, only you will be physically measuring and performing the tasks as listed in the experimental procedure.

3 Subtract the theoretical value from step 1 from the experimental value in step 2.

experimental value - theoretical value

4 Now divide that difference by the theoretical value to get a decimal representation of percent error.

(experimental value - theoretical value) / theoretical value

5 Multiply the quotient from step 4 by 100 to obtain the percent error.

percent error = ([experimental value - theoretical value] / theoretical value) * 100

Exothermic- the word describes a process that releases energy in the form of heat.

Forming a chemical bond releases energy and therefore is an exothermic process.

Exothermic reactions usually feel hot because it is giving heat to you.

Endothermic - a process or reaction that absorbs energy in the form of heat.

Breaking a chemical bond requires energy and therefore is Endothermic.

Endothermic reactions usually feel cold because it is taking heat away from you.

A source of error is any factor that may affect the outcome of an experiment. There are countless conceivable sources of error in any experiment; you want to focus on the factors that matter most. Identify each source of error specifically and then explain how that source of error would have affected the results. Keep in mind that an "error" to a scientist does not mean "mistake"; it more closely means "uncertainty". Many students are tempted to say "human error", but this term is vague and lazy; any decent teacher will not accept it. Instead, think about specific things that happened during the lab exercise where the end results may have been affected. To give an example one might find in a bio lab: perhaps a water bath's temperature was not monitored very carefully and you found that an enzyme's activity was greater than you expected. In that case, you could write something like,

"The temperature of the water bath during this exercise was not monitored carefully. It is possible that it was warmer or cooler than intended, and this would have affected the enzyme activity accordingly. The fact that our enzyme activity was found to be higher than expected leads me to believe that perhaps the water bath was too warm."

Conclusion(s) Firstly, in your own words summarize your results based on the data, observations and analysis. Then, describe whether the purpose of the experiment was met and, if so, how was it achieved. In other words, this provides the answer to the purpose or aim of the experiment. Secondly, discuss the validity of your results, particularly if the results are mathematical in nature. Compare your results to the known or theoretical values and discuss the major probably experimental errors which may have caused your results to vary from the theoretical results. Common errors may appear in the list below: 1. Equipment error This is the inherent error which is built into all measuring instruments. Equipment error is directly related to the degree of sophistication and hence the cost of the instrument which limits the precision that may be expressed. Human error adds to equipment error in that we are unable to read any scale 100% accurately. The last digit of even the most careful measurement is still an estimate. 2. Mathematical error The error introduced into calculations by the necessity of rounding off measurements and answers. Whenever a formula is used to arrive at a result, there will be mathematical error. Mathematical error can be kept to a minimum by retaining interim results in the memory of your calculator until the final answer is expressed. This error is insignificant when compared to the error introduced by equipment. 3. Technique error

Errors in technique can have the greatest effect on the results of an experiment. Technique errors should be minimized by careful attention to methods and equipment used to perform the experiment.