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Aalto University

School of Engineering Department of Structural Engineering and Building Technology Rak-11.3001 Design of Bridges 7.11.2012

Cable Stayed Bridge


Jani Juvani Olli Lipponen

Contents 1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................2 1.1. Basics ..........................................................................................................................2 1.2. History .........................................................................................................................2 1.3. Distinctive features ......................................................................................................3 1.4. Types of cable-stayed bridges ......................................................................................3 1.5. Comparison with suspension bridge .............................................................................6 1.6. Pros and cons ...............................................................................................................7 2. Supporting structures ..........................................................................................................7 2.1. Pylon ...........................................................................................................................7 2.2. Cables ........................................................................................................................ 10 3. Deck structure .................................................................................................................. 10 3.1. Concrete deck ............................................................................................................11 3.2. Steel deck .................................................................................................................. 12 3.3. Composite deck ......................................................................................................... 13 4. Erection ............................................................................................................................13 5. Analysis of the structure ................................................................................................... 15 6. Examples of cable stayed bridges......................................................................................17 6.1. Russky Bridge............................................................................................................ 17 6.2. Alamillo Bridge .........................................................................................................21

1. Introduction
1.1. Basics
A cable-stayed bridge is a bridge that consists of one or more pylons with cables supporting the bridge deck. A typical cable-stayed bridge is a continuous girder with one or two pylons erected above piers in the middle of the span. From these pylons, cables are attached diagonally to the girder to provide additional support. Cable-stayed bridges have a low center of gravity which makes them strong against earthquakes, but at the same time makes them vulnerable to uneven sinking of the ground.

Picture 1. Nanjing Third Yangtze River Bridge in China.

1.2. History
Cable-stayed bridges have been around since at least 1840 but it was not until the 1950's did the start becoming prevalent. Even before 1840 there was evidence of primitive bridges that had decks stayed from above by ropes or vines. The first cable-stayed bridges of modern time (Strsund Bridge in Sweden and North Bridge in Dsseldorf) were designed with steel decks. This is no longer the standard but is used in cases where weight is a concern. The Strsund Bridge in Sweden was designed by a German, Franz Dischinger, while the North Bridge (or Theodor Heuss) Bridge was designed by another German, Theodor Heuss. The Strsund Bridge is 332 m long, with a 182 m long span. It was opened in 1956, and it was the largest cable-stayed bridge of the world at that time. The Theodor Heuss Bridge crossing over the Rhine River in Dsseldorf was built from 1953 to 1957 and has a main span of 260 m flanked on either side by spans of 108 m.

Picture 2. Strmsund bridge in Sweden.

1.3. Distinctive features


Cable-stayed bridges can be constructed in a huge variety of designs and the bridge type is usually considered to be very aesthetical. Typical span length for a cable-stayed bridge is 110 m 480 m but the longest built cable-stayed bridge has a span length over 1100 m (Russky Bridge in Russia). Cable-stayed bridge has usually one or two towers where the straight cables are attached. The other end of the cable is attached to the decks girder to support the deck. The cables are transferring tension forces while the towers take compression forces.

1.4. Types of cable-stayed bridges


The most common type of cable-stayed bridges is a bridge with two pylons and three spans. The length of side span is 30-40 % of the mid span. No massive earth anchoring structures are needed in these type of bridges. The layout of the cable stays affects the structural behavior of the bridge, the erection method and the architectural expression of the bridge. The most common solution is to construct the bridge with two cable plains, but some bridges have been built with one central plain. It is typical that for bridges with multiple cable plains there are crossings of cables in the sideview of the bridge. In case the deck of the bridge is very wide it is possible to design three cable plains because transverse bending moment is reduced to when the deck is divided to two parts with three cable plains. If the bridge is for both railway and road, the railway can be placed in the middle of the deck between the cable plains while the lanes are on cantilever in lateral direction.

Picture 3. Lateral layout of cables [Walther] The longitudinal layout has a great effect in the architectural impression. The most common longitudinal layouts are harp pattern, fan pattern and semi-harp pattern.

Picture 4. Longitudinal layout of stays [Walther] In harp pattern the declination angle of each cable is constant, which gives it an acceptable appearance. The cables are connected to the pylon at same height in fan pattern. The horizontal distance between cables in the deck is constant. The connection point of the cables and pylon is heavily stressed, so this zone requires special constructions. However, this pattern has several advantages compared to harp pattern:
The horizontal force introduced by the cable in deck is less The vertical component of cables is greater Longitudinal bending of the pylons remains moderate.

Picture 5. Pasco-Kennewick Cable bridge, Washington USA Semi-harp pattern combines the advantages of harp and fan patterns. In this pattern the longitudinal and vertical spacing of the cables is constant.

1.5. Comparison with suspension bridge


Cable-stayed bridges may look similar to suspension bridges. They both have roadways that hang from cables and both have towers. But the two bridges support the load of the roadway in very different ways. The difference lies in how the cables are connected to the towers. In suspension bridges, the cables ride freely across the towers, transmitting the load to the anchorages at either end. In cable-stayed bridges, the cables are attached to the towers, which alone bear the load.

Picture 6. The difference of suspension and cable-stayed bridge.

1.6. Pros and cons


+ Much greater stiffness than the suspension bridge, so that deformations of the deck under live loads are reduced. + Can be constructed by cantilevering out from the tower - the cables act both as temporary and permanent supports to the bridge deck. + For a symmetrical bridge (spans on either side of the tower are the same), the horizontal forces are balanced and large ground anchorages are not required. + Can be constructed faster than suspension bridge. + Requires less cable than suspension bridge. + Strong against earthquakes. - Vulnerable to the forces of wind because of the cabless flexibility and inability to handle compression and bending forces. - Cables are pulling the bridge deck diagonally, not directly up, requiring the bridge deck to be stronger to resist the resulting horizontal compression forces.

2. Supporting structures
2.1. Pylon
In principle the pylon is a tower structure where the most decisive load will be the axial force originating from the vertical components of the forces in the cables attached to the pylon. The pylon has to carry heavy loads, usually several thousands of tons. Therefore, box sections with a large kern width are the best to provide safety against buckling with the minimum amount of material.

There are various possible types of tower constructions. Typical shapes for bridge towers are single, twin, portal and A-shaped towers. Portal type towers were used in the design of early cable-stayed bridges to obtain stiffness against wind load which the cable transfers to top of the towers. However, later investigation of cable stayed bridges indicated that the horizontal forces of the cables were relatively small so that freely standing towers could be used without disadvantage.

Picture 7. Types of commonly used bridge towers. Tower or pylons can be supported by three different ways. First solution is to fix pylons at the foundation. In this case large bending moments are produced in the pylon although the advantage is the increased rigidity. Second solution is to fix the pylons at the superstructure. In this case of the single-box-main-bridge system the pylons are generally fixed to the box. Third solution is to build hinged pylons. This arrangement reduces bending moments in the pylons and simplifies analysis of overall structure. Most pylons of modern cable-stayed bridges consist of a single rectangular box built with thick steel plates which are joined by either welding or riveting. Pylons may be built of metal or of reinforced or prestressed concrete. The advantage of metal pylons lies in their faster fabrication and erection. However, for large cable-stayed bridges, the pylons can be built more economically with concrete than with steel and the saving can be as high as 40 % of the pylon cost.

Picture 8. Construction of the cast-in-place concrete pylons of the Russky Bridge in Russia.

Picture 9. Pylon cable connections in case of a concrete pylon [Gimsing] 9

2.2. Cables
The cable is a basic element in all cable-stayed bridges. Cables are made from steel and they require excellent mechanical properties, such as a high tensile strength and a high elastic modulus. Furthermore, it is important that the cables have a high corrosion resistance and a satisfactory fatigue strength. They are extremely strong but very flexible which makes them extremely well suited for axial tension. However cables are weak against compression and bending forces. As a result, bridges with long span are vulnerable to the forces of winds and they need some special measures, which eliminate vibrations or swaying under heavy winds. Steel cables are very economical as they allow a slender and lighter structure which is still able to span long distances. The basic element for all cables to be found in modern cable supported bridges is the steel wire characterized by a considerably larger tensile strength than that of ordinary structural steel. In most cases the steel wire is cylindrical shaped with diameter between 3 and 7 mm. In cable-stayed bridges wires with diameter up to 7 mm are used (typical wire diameter in suspension bridges is 5 5,5 mm). The strength of the cable steel is approximately four times that of mild structural steel and twice that of high-strength structural steel. However, this increased strength is paid for by a noticeable decrease of the ductility as the strain at breaking is only about one fifth of that found for structural steel. Several wires are often shop-assembled to form prefabricated strands which are subsequently used in the shop or at the site as basic elements for the construction of the final cable. The simplest strand to be found within cable supported bridges is the seven-wire strand. Wires have normally a diameter of 5 mm so the nominal diameter of seven-wire strand is 15 mm. The most common seven-wire strands comprise wires with tensile strengths between 1770 and 1860 MPa. The seven wire strand consists of a single straight wire core surrounded by a single layer of six wires and has a modulus of elasticity of E = 190 GPa.

Picture 10. Seven-wire strand (left) and cable (right).

3. Deck structure
The structural purpose of the deck / stiffening girder is to carry longitudinal and transverse bending moments, bring stiffness to the bridge and distribute point loads to cables. The required deck properties depend on the longitudinal and transverse layout of the stay cables. A

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bridge with only one central cable plane calls for a deck with high torsional stiffness. Torsional stiffness is not so important if there are two or more cable plains.

Picture 11. Distribution of a point load with two decks having various bending stiffness [Gimsing]

Picture 12. Suitable deck cross sections for bridges with one (right) and two (left) cable plains [Gimsing] The length of the span affects the bridge deck requirements: a long span bridge needs a deck with low self weight. There are three types of decks and their range of selfweight is approximately:
steel deck composite deck concrete deck 2.5-3.5 kN/m2 6.5-8.5 kN/m2 10-15 kN/m2.

The selfweight of steel deck is only 20% of the weight of the concrete. While optimizing the costs of the deck it should be considered that the chosen deck type has an influence on the costs of other bridge structures.

3.1. Concrete deck


Concrete decks can be made of precast elements or they can be cast in place. Because of their high self weight they are suitable for long and medium spans. The concrete is reinforced or prestressed. The cost of concrete is low but its weight increases the dead load of the bridge thus requiring larger dimensions for cables, pylons, piers and anchorage structures.

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Picture 13. Typical cross sections for a concrete deck [Troitsky]

Picture 14. Concrete deck of Cujaba River Bridge, Brazil. Cross sections in longitudinal and lateral directions

3.2. Steel deck


The main advantage of steel deck is its low self-weight which makes it widely used in long span bridges. One proposal for the Messina Strait bridge is cable stayed bridge with steel deck, see figure below. Its cross section varies through

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Picture 15. The proposed Messina strait bridge

3.3. Composite deck


Composite deck is a structure with a steel girder and concrete slab, which form a combined structure. Concrete slab can be precast or casted in situ on steel elements. The selfweight of this deck type is lower than the weight of concrete deck. Concrete carries most of the compressive normal force of the deck.

4. Erection
There are three main erection methods: erection utilizing a temporary roadway erection with cantilever method erection on temporary supports.

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Picture 16. Erection on temporary ropeway [Gimsing]

Picture 17. Erection with cantilever method (left) and on temporary supports (right) [Gimsing] With cantilever method there can be some problems with stability during the construction work. The cantilever deck has little stiffness until it is connected to other cantilever.

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5. Analysis of the structure


Cable stayed bridges is many times statically indeterminate structure. So computer aided methods are needed in analyzing the bridge. However, some preliminary calculations to achieve preliminary structure dimensions can be made with basic equations. Influence lines for bending moment, cable force and pylon reaction force are expressed in picture 21.An estimation for deck cross section can be made modeling the bridge as continuous beam with rigid supports.

Picture 18. Simplified structure model for a cable stayed bridge [Walther] The tensile force in a stay cable from distributed load can be calculated from (1) (1) , where Ni is tensile force in stay cable Rg,i is vertical load force acting on cable spacing length i is cable angle. The sag of the cable has an influence on the ideal modulus of elasticity of cable. The reason for the sag is the self-weight of the cable. The ideal modulus of elasticity can be obtained from (2) (2) , where Ee is cable steel modulud of elasticity is density of cable steel L is horizontal distance between cable ends is normal stress in the cable.

The ratio Ei/Ee depending on the horizontal length and cable stress can be seen from figure below.

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Picture 19. Ratio Ei/Ee [Walther]

Picture 20. Visible sag in stay cable, Knie bridge

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Picture 21. Influence lines for cable stayed bridges [Walther]

6. Examples of cable stayed bridges


6.1. Russky Bridge
The bridge to the Russky island is the world's largest cable-stayed bridge, the 1104 m long central span of which has established a new record in the world bridge building practice. The bridge will also have the second highest pylons after the Millau Viaduct bridge in France (pylons height 343 m) and the longest cable stays.

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Picture 22. Russky Bridge. Bridge specification Total bridge length 1885.53 m Main span length 1104 m Total bridge roadway breadth 21 m Number of driving lanes 4 Under clearance 70 m Bridge pylons height 324 m Longest / shortest cable stay 579.83/135.771 m

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Picture 23. Bridge specification of Russky Bridge. The design of the bridge crossing has been determined on the basis of two primary factors: Shortest coast-to-coast distance in the bridge crossing location 1460 m. Navigable channel depth is up to 50 m. The locality of the bridge crossing construction site is characterized by severe climate conditions: temperatures vary from -31C to 37C, storm wind velocity of up to 36 m/s, storm wave height of up to 6 m, ice formation in winter of up to 70 cm thick.

The piles with diameter of 2,000 mm will be driven as deep as 77 m below ground, and on the island side the 120 auger piles will be piled under each of the two 320-m high bridge towers. The bridge towers will be concreted using custom self-climbing forms in pours of 4.5 m. The pylons will be A-shaped, therefore, the use of standard forms will not be feasible. An individual set of forms has been arranged for each pylon. Transition between section types will be carried out at summer levels at the elevations of 66.26 m and 191.48 m. The use of self-climbing forms will make it possible to achieve better quality and decrease the time of construction of cast-in-situ reinforced concrete structures by half as much again.

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Picture 24. A-shaped pylon of Russky Bridge. The span structure has an aerodynamic cross section to resist squally wind loads. The deck cross section shape has been determined based on aerodynamic analysis and optimized following the results of experimental wind tunnel testing of the scaled model. Along the main span, the bridge deck shape is a round-edged steel box girder, total width 29,5 m, width between railings 26,0 m, depth 3,2 m.

Picture 25. Cross-section of the deck structure in Russky Bridge. 20

The cable stayed system assumes all static and dynamic loads on the bridge deck. Cable stays are provided with maximum possible protection not only against natural disasters, but also against other adverse effects. Cable stays consist of parallel strands of 15.7 mm diameter; every strand consists of 7 galvanized wires. Cable stays incorporate from 13 to 85 strands.

6.2. Alamillo Bridge


The Alamillo Bridge is a cable-stayed bridge with a 200 meter long span painted in Calatrava's trade-mark bright white color. The most distinguishing aspect of the design is the 142 meter tall pylon, which is gracefully slanted at an angle of 68 degrees. The pylon is filled with concrete and acts as a counterbalance for the 35,5 meter wide bridge deck, which is anchored by just 13 pairs of cables. Thanks to this design there is no support needed at the back of the pylon, which results in a more elegant bridge.

Picture 26. Alamillo Bridge. The pylon is made of hexagonal plates of steel, reinforced inside by reinforced concrete. The cables are made up of 60 cords of 6 inches in diameter each, except the last couple of 291m in length, consisting of only 45 cords. The cords are protected by epoxy resin, and the cable is surrounded by a sheath of high density polyethylene injected into the anchorages. The bridge deck is designed as a metal structure and consists of a central platform and hexagonal anchorages where the cables attach.

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Literature Troitsky, M.S. 1988. Cable-Stayed Bridges, Theory and Design. Concordia University, Montreal. Gimsing, N.J. 1998. Cable Supported Bridges, Concept and Design. Technical University of Denmark. Walther, R. et al. 1988. Cable stayed bridges. Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Lausanne. http://bridgepros.com/learning_center/cable-stayed.htm http://rusbridge.net/about/ http://www.aviewoncities.com/seville/puentedelalamillo.htm

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