Food Chain

The International Journal of Small-scale Food Processing

NUMBER 30 June 2002

India Indonesia Iran Ireland Israel Italy Ivory Coast Jamaica Japan Jordan Kazakstan Keny Korea Laos PDR Lebanon Lesotho Liberia Madagascar Malawi Malaysia Mali Mauritius Mex Morocco Mozambique Namibia Nepal Netherlands New Caledonia New Zealand Nicaragu Niger Nigeria Norway Pakistan Palestine Papua New Guinea Paraguay Peru Philippines Polan Republic of Vanuatu Runion Romania Rwanda Saudi Arabia Senegal Seychelles Sierra Leon Singapore Slovakia Solomon Islands South Africa Spain Sri Lanka St Kitts and Nevis St Lucia Vincent Sudan Suriname Sweden Switzerland Syria Taiwan Tajikistan Tanzania Thailand Tog Trinidad Tunisia Turkey Uganda Union of Myanmar United Arab Emirates United Kingdom Un States of America Uruguay Uzbekistan Venezuela Vietnam Yemen Arab Republic Yugoslovia Zai Zambia Zimbabwe Antigua and Barbuda Argentina Australia Austria Bahamas Banglades Barbados Belgium Belize Benin Bhutan Bolivia Botswana Brazil Burkina Faso Burun Cambodia Cameroon Canada Cape Verde Chad Chile China Colombia Congo Costa Rica Cro Cuba Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Djibouti Dominica Ecuador Egypt El Salvador Eritr Ethiopia Federal States of Micronesia Fiji France Gabon Gambia Germany Ghana Greec Grenada Guatemala Guinea Guyana Haiti Honduras Hong Kong Hungary India Indonesia Ira Ireland Israel Italy Ivory Coast Jamaica Japan Jordan Kazakstan Kenya Korea Laos PD Lebanon Lesotho Liberia Madagascar Malawi Malaysia Mali Mauritius Mexico Morocc Mozambique Namibia Nepal Netherlands New Caledonia New Zealand Nicaragua Niger Niger Norway Pakistan Palestine Papua New Guinea Paraguay Peru Philippines Poland Republic Vanuatu Runion Romania Rwanda Saudi Arabia Senegal Seychelles Sierra Leone Singapo Slovakia Solomon Islands South Africa Spain Sri Lanka St Kitts and Nevis St Lucia St Vince Sudan Suriname Sweden Switzerland Syria Taiwan Tajikistan Tanzania Thailand Tog Trinidad Tunisia Turkey Uganda Union of Myanmar United Arab Emirates United Kingdom Un States of America Uruguay Uzbekistan Venezuela Vietnam Yemen Arab Republic Yugoslovia Z Zambia Zimbabwe Antigua and Barbuda Argentina Australia Austria Bahamas Banglades Barbados Belgium Belize Benin Bhutan Bolivia Botswana Brazil Burkina Faso Burun Cambodia Cameroon Canada Cape Verde Chad Chile China Colombia Congo Costa Ric Croatia Cuba Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Djibouti Dominica Ecuador Egypt El Salvad Eritrea Ethiopia Federal States of Micronesia Fiji France Gabon Gambia Germany Ghana Gre Grenada Guatemala Guinea Guyana Haiti Honduras Hong Kong Hungary India Indonesia Ireland Israel Italy Ivory Coast Jamaica Japan Jordan Kazakstan Kenya Korea Laos PD Lebanon Lesotho Liberia Madagascar Malawi Malaysia Mali Mauritius Mexico Morocc READ BY OVER 20,000 PEOPLE IN 152 COUNTRIES Mozambique Namibia Nepal Netherlands New Caledonia New Zealand Nicaragua Niger Niger

Greetings
2

Greetings

Information networks crucial to the success of the food processing sector

Ask any small-scale entrepreneur what are the main factors that are critical to their success and almost all of them will highlight information. Information on a range of topics, from the technical knowhow, where to access ingredients and equipment, knowledge of the recent developments in processing and packaging technology and general information on the market and market price. Networks are an effective means of communication and information exchange and provide small-scale entrepreneurs an opportunity to meet others in their field and to exchange ideas and experiences. Networks of food processors are active in many countries and regions. Gisele Lopes DAlmeida* describes the Interface network for sub-Saharan Africa and the role it plays in the development of the food processing sector. Interface is a network of African food processors that was launched five years ago in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. The network was established to try and respond to the problems that the food processing sector was facing, especially with the effects of globalisation on the local economies. The network has grown into a forum for exchange of ideas and experiences for professionals in the sector and currently covers thirteen countries in west Africa, ranging from Mauritania to Nigeria, including the western Sahelian countries. It is gradually growing in the countries of central, eastern and southern Africa and, hopefully, will become a pan-African organisation that works for African entrepreneurs who are involved in regional and international trade of all raw and processed agricultural produce. The impacts of globalisation and liberalisation of world markets means that African food products have to compete with European food products that are often heavily subsidised and promoted in the African domestic markets. The challenge for local small and mediumscale enterprises is to produce quality products that can compete with the imported goods. This is where Interface plays a valuable role. The stance taken by Interface is to positively welcome globalisation and look for the potential opportunities it can offer to local entrepreneurs.

Front Cover: Marketing grains in North Darfur, Sudan

M4X1.00.01 Economics M Majzoub

Back Cover: Packaging and labels for honey processors in Bangladesh

A4.BangladeshE1.21 Zul

Here we have to be more inventive and more creative in finding viable niches in the international market place. Secondly, we have to devote more attention to developing our local, sub-regional and regional markets. We know from experience that they can be developed profitably and we can improve their performance by having better access to key information such as product supply and prices. Development of the local food processing sector cannot take place in isolation. It needs the whole-hearted support of other closely-related sectors scientific research, especially in postharvest technology and biotechnology; close control over the production to ensure that both quality and quantity are sufficient to meet the demand; marketing support to deliver products and labels of quality that consumers know and appreciate. It is essential to recognise the leading role played by the private sector in Africa in the economic development of the continent, and in particular by small and medium-scale enterprises. They have to be found a special place in decision making bodies if they are to play their part as the motor of development to the utmost. The success of Interface and the food processing sector in strengthening the local economy will depend on the initiatives of entrepreneurs themselves and on their own ability to locate and obtain the resources they need. In this, there is a supportive role to be played by programmes which will enable entrepreneurs to access information, technology, markets and finance. This issue of Food Chain brings a range of articles and information from across the globe. As always we welcome your comments and feedback on the articles in this journal and your suggestions and contributions for future issues. Please contact us via e-mail (foodchain@itdg.org.uk) or at the postal address on the back cover. Sue Azam-Ali Production Manager * This interview by Ms DAlmeida appeared in Spore 97.

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Introduction
For the past five years women entrepreneurs assisted by the SIDO Women Entrepreneurship Development Programme (WED) in food processing, have learned and excelled in the production of peanut butter. Peanut butter, a smooth paste obtained after grinding roasted peanuts (Arachis hypogaea) is traditionally an important product used for cooking purposes in many homes in rural Tanzania. The paste is used in preparation of side dishes and is also cooked with vegetables, pearled sorghum and maize to make a variety of dishes. This long-standing traditional use of peanut butter prompted the WED Programme to introduce it as a commercial product on the training programme for women entrepreneurs. Commercially produced peanut butter is used as a spread on bread, especially by the urban middle classes who consume bread as part of their meals, especially at breakfast. In addition there is a growing use of the product by housewives for cooking. This has made the product one of the best selling processed products of the beneficiaries of the WED Programme. Most peanut butter is packed in 400g jars or in 250g and 500g sachets that are targeted for household use in cooking. The latter is mainly a plain paste without any additives. On the other hand peanut butter meant for use on bread, is either salted or unsalted. Sugar, stabilizers and sometimes hydrogenated oils are added to improve its spreadability and flavour.

1. Cleaning Nuts are cleaned to remove dust, twigs, parts of packages and damaged nuts. This is achieved by winnowing and blowing away the light particles. Broken and infested nuts are removed by hand. 2. Roasting This operation should be performed carefully to achieve uniform roasting without scorching any of the nuts. Adequate heat is required to ensure cooking of the nuts. Roasting may take 10 to 30 minutes to obtain uniform golden coloured (light brown to brown) nuts. Proper roasting results in a pleasant aroma. 3. Cooling The roasted nuts are cooled before proceeding with the next step.
Zul

Keywords Peanut butter, stabiliser, training, enterprise, business development

Figure 1: Peanut butter is passed through the grinder two or three times to get a fine paste

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A4 Zimbabwe A5.01

Africa

Happiness Mchomvu of the Small Industries Development Organisation (SIDO) describes the successful work carried out assisting women entrepreneurs in peanut butter production. SIDO has 52 trainers working in 14 regions of Tanzania. A key element leading to their success is the technical and business skills training they provide. In addition to the training is the relationship developed between SIDO and a British company that enables SIDO to purchase ingredients and equipment that are not available in Tanzania. This business linkage enabled SIDO to import a stabiliser that is needed to prevent oil separating out of the peanut butter, thus improving the quality and marketability of the product.

Processing
Making of peanut butter requires great care in the choice of raw materials as this has a bearing on the final quality and safety of the product. The peanuts should be mature and dry, of uniform size and free from fungal infestation. Fungal infestation can be detected by a dark stain on the skin. The dangerous toxin-producing mould Aspergillus flavus will grow on nuts that have not been fully dried and any stained nuts must be rejected. The various steps in the making of peanut butter are outlined below:

Tanzania

Small-scale peanut butter processing in Tanzania The experience of women processors

4 4. Skinning and sorting Roasting dries the nut and makes the skin brittle, which cracks and can be removed easily. The nuts are rubbed and winnowed to separate the skins from the kernels. After roasting some nuts may have been burnt, these are removed. Any nuts with undesirable qualities that may have escaped the initial cleaning operation are also removed. 5. Grinding There are different types of peanut butter as far as smoothness is concerned. In Tanzania a finely ground, smooth paste is preferred. The cleaned kernels are ground in a hand operated plate mill, available in the local market. Sometimes two to three repeated grindings are required to give the required smooth consistency. 6. Mixing Ground paste is then mixed with other ingredients such as vegetable oil, sugar, salt and stabiliser. Edible oil such as corn, sunflower or groundnut is heated to 8090C before adding a small quantity (about 25%) to the paste to improve its spreadability. Some producers add 6% of sugar or maltose and 1.7% salt to improve the flavour. Peanut stabiliser is added to the paste at a rate of 23%. This is best added at the grinding stage to ensure thorough blending with the butter. The stabiliser prevents oil separation. The paste, with added ingredients is then heated to about 80C to ensure that the stabiliser melts and is well blended into the paste.

Africa

Tanzania

Table 1. Some common problems experienced during peanut butter processing and possible remedies Problem Texture too soft
q

Reason Stabiliser not thoroughly mixed into the peanut paste Stabiliser did not melt during the mixing process Too little stabiliser used
q

How to resolve Add the stabiliser at the grinding stage to ensure that it is thoroughly mixed with the paste Heat the paste to at least 5C above the melting point of the stabiliser before adding the stabiliser. Mix well Manufacturers of the additive usually advise on the levels to be used. The exact amount required is influenced by the quality of the peanuts and the processing conditions. Knowledge of the correct amount to add comes with experience Fill into the jars at around 40C Heat the paste to at least 5C above the melting point of the stabiliser before adding the stabiliser. Mix well Dissolve sugar or salt into clean boiling water before adding to the paste Only leave 2.5cm head space at the top of the jar Tap the bottles during filling to ensure there is no trapped air Store containers in a cool dry place, away from direct sunlight Follow manufacturers guidelines Ensure that the paste is of a high enough temperature when the stabiliser is added and mix well Do not add more than 25% oil to the paste

Temperature too high when the jars filled Un-melted stabiliser Un-dissolved sugar or salt Excessive head space in the jar Trapped pockets of air within the peanut butter Containers are stored in strong sunlight Use of insufficient stabiliser Improper mixing of stabiliser Excessive use of vegetable oil Poor quality ingredients Failure to adhere to good manufacturing practice

Texture is not smooth

Rancidity

q q

q q

Oil separation in the product

q q

q q

q q

Spoilage within 6 months

Use good quality ingredients and discard any bad peanuts q Ensure that each stage of the process is carefully controlled and monitored. It is important that the roasting stage is carried out properly

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5 7. Filling The butter is filled hot into containers that have been cleaned and sterilised. It is important to ensure that there are no air pockets within the product as these can cause the oil in the peanut butter to oxidise and produce rancid off-flavours. The jars should be filled to within 2.5cm of the top of the container and closed tightly with sterilised lids. and is available in groceries and supermarkets in Tanzania. The SIDO WED programme greatly values and appreciates the assistance of Midway in obtaining the vital ingredients and equipment. A third challenge that the women face is the problem of packaging. Despite the good quality of peanut butter, its packaging is still inferior to that of imported products. The programme is now focussing on improving the packaging and presentation so that the product can compete effectively with the imported products. Notwithstanding all these problems the prospects for the peanut butter produced by the women entrepreneurs are good because of its acceptability among consumers. We believe that concerted technological and quality improvements will ensure a lucrative business for the producers.

Quality control
During the processing of peanut butter, it is important to ensure that the quality of the product is high and that there is consistency between different batches. Through experience, SIDO and the women entrepreneurs have identified several critical points during the process where care needs to be taken. Table 1 identifies some common problems, the reasons for them and the care that should be taken during processing to avoid these problems.

Midway Technology Ltd

Midway Technology Ltd (Midway) is a small company dedicated to providing assistance to small and medium-scale food processing enterprises. In recent years the company has been pilot testing a programme to provide ingredients, packaging and small items of equipment to agencies in Tanzania and Uganda. As this case study shows, making available a vital ingredient (stabiliser) can overcome a local constraint. Midway has also assisted SIDO to obtain a wide range of inputs for other products, including wine corks, wine bottle capsules and bottle cappers that are not available in Tanzania. The small size of orders required by agencies working with micro-enterprises means that companies are often reluctant to ship directly. Midway is thus acting as a procurement company, purchasing goods in the UK and then shipping a mixed order to the client. Midway wishes to expand this role, working with development agencies, and is currently preparing a catalogue of goods and services that are available. For further information on the services offered by Midway, please contact foodchain@itdg.org.uk Happiness Mchomvu, Small Industries Development Organisation (SIDO), PO Box 2476, Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania (sido@intafrica.com)

Constraints and prospects

Since the introduction of peanut butter by the programme, some 40 women entrepreneurs produce on average 2.5 tonnes per month. Individual capacities range from 25 to 250kg per month. These outputs are low because of limited capacities of the technology used (the manual roasting, winnowing, and grinding). Most entrepreneurs use a hand corn grinder that can process 1kg of kernels at a time and normally grinding has to be carried out two or three times. These technologies are certainly limiting for an entrepreneur who would like to grow. We (SIDO) are thus searching for better and higher capacity roasters and mills and would appreciate any information from readers on where to obtain technologies with a capacity for 3050kg per hour. A second constraint, which discouraged the early peanut butter makers was the oilseparation of the butter a few weeks after processing. This problem has now been solved by obtaining a supply of peanut butter stabiliser from Midway Technology Ltd of the UK (see the box below). By using the stabiliser and adhering to good manufacturing process throughout, the processors have managed to make a peanut butter that is stable for more than six months. This is a great achievement for the women. Their peanut butter is increasingly being accepted by consumers

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Africa

Tanzania

Improving some traditional Malaysian fish products Malaysia

Fish plays a central role in the diets of many Asian and south Asian countries. Due to the perishable nature of fish, traditional methods of preservation have been developed over the years, resulting in a wide variety of fermented and processed fish products. The Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute (MARDI) is actively involved in the development and improvement of fisheries products. In this article the authors describe their work to improve traditional fermented fish products.

Fermented fish products

Fermented fish sauces and condiments are widely used in Asian cuisine, where they add nutritional value, flavour, and variety to the bland rice-based diet. The fermented fish products can be divided into two broad groups:
q

Introduction
Fish are an important component of the diet of people in Asian countries, providing much needed protein, minerals and essential fatty acids. However, fresh fish are highly perishable, especially in tropical temperatures, and need to be processed to preserve for longer periods. Refrigeration or storage on ice will prolong the shelf life, but even this method is only useful for 1 to 2 days and is not really appropriate for consumers in rural areas. Salting, lactic acid fermentation, drying and smoking are various simple methods that have been used to preserve fish. Over the course of time, a wide range of fermented fishbased products has been developed to preserve this highly perishable commodity. The fermentation conditions for fish products varies widely from place to place and between different batches of the same product. Research at MARDI seeks to improve and standardise some of the traditional fermentation processes used for fish. Sort shrimps, remove foreign matter and drain off excess water Add 10% salt and sun-dry until 50% of the original weight is lost Mince and pack into a jar closed with muslin and allow to ferment for 1 week at room temperature Sun dry again and re-mince Repack and continue fermentation

Those with a very high salt content, typically 1525%, in which preservation depends on the salt level and low moisture content of the product. Those with a much lower salt content in which fish is fermented with salt, sugar and rice or another cereal such as millet or flour. The amount of added carbohydrate and the salt concentration control the extent of acid fermentation and the keeping quality of the product. This type of fermentation is carried out by bacteria of the Lactobacilli family, which results in the formation of lactic acid. The presence of lactic acid increases the acidity of the product to a level that restricts the growth of food poisoning organisms.

Asia

Keywords Fish, fermentation, lactic acid, snack foods

Figure 1. The preparation of belacan

Repeat the process several times, the whole process taking 68 weeks

An example of the first group of preserved fish products is Belacan or shrimp paste, which is made by fermenting shrimps with salt. During the fermentation, enzymes and proteins in the fish react with the micro-organisms present, producing compounds with savoury flavours. The final product is a paste with a strong, characteristic odour. A typical production method is shown in Figure 1. Analysis of the belacan by MARDI showed a considerable fall in the number of micro-organisms during the process. This indicates that the breakdown of the tissue is largely due to the action of enzymes present in the shrimps. It is believed that the micro-organisms are more involved in the development of flavour. Microbiological tests on the final product could not detect any organisms with a public health significance. The products made in the laboratory at MARDI were analysed and compared with samples of commercially produced belacan. The results of the analysis are shown in table 1. Regulations in Malaysia require belacan to have at least 15% salt, 30% protein and less than 40% moisture. As can be seen in table 1, some of the commercial samples do not meet these criteria with regards to moisture content.

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Laboratory samples pH Moisture % Ash % Salt % Protein % Fat % Ref R Awang, 1983 7.5 27.2 27.7 27.9 37.5 0.6

Commercial samples 7.27.8 36.347.2 21.227.7 20.927.4 22.236.4 1.21.7

Researchers at MARDI are currently involved in trials to investigate packaging alternatives to prolong the shelf life and increase the marketability, with possibilities of export. They have also developed a fully dried powdered form of belacan that is a convenient ready-to-use product with a shelf life of more than 18 months. This product is considered to have good export potential. Pekasan is an example of the second type of fermented fish products. It is made by fermenting species of fresh water fish commonly found in rice paddy fields with salt and rice. This type of product is limited to rice growing areas in north west Malaysia.

Production of pekasan
The traditional preparation of pekasan involves fermenting the fish for about 5 to 6 weeks. After gutting, the whole fish are washed and mixed with 20% salt and packed into an earthenware container where they are left overnight. The following day 20% of the weight of roasted rice is added. Spices such as

Rokiah Mohamad and Yeoh Quee Lan, Food Technology Division, Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute, Malaysia

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Asia

Malaysia

Table 1. Analysis of laboratory samples and commercial samples of belacan

turmeric or tamarind may also be added according to taste. The container is tightly closed and allowed to ferment for 5 to 6 weeks. The final product consists of complete fish but the flesh has broken down to a powdery texture. It is normally fried for consumption and has a sour, salty flavour. Research at MARDI aimed to reduce the fermentation time while at the same time ensuring consistent quality of the product. During laboratory trials, the fermentation conditions were varied to try and reduce the fermentation time and to standardise the product. The cleaned fish were mixed with toasted rice, tamarind and brown sugar and then covered with saturated brine. It was found that small fish were fermented in 2 weeks, while larger ones required 3 to 4 weeks. The preparation of pekasan depends on the fermentation of carbohydrates (rice, sugar) to lactic acid. The use of a brine, rather than dry salt, ensures a more uniform product and speeds up the fermentation. The addition of tamarind is important as it lowers the pH and retards the growth of spoilage organisms. During fermentation the initial pH of 6 falls to 4.14.6 with the production of lactic acid. The product, if packed in sealed bottles and covered with the fermentation brine, has a shelf life of 6 months. Since the salt content is only 10%, pekasan can be eaten as a main dish rather than used as a condiment. In conclusion we would like to mention another example of the many traditional fish products made in Malaysia. The first is Keropok crackers that are made from fish, shrimps or molluscs. These are produced by over 100 small-scale producers. The fish flesh is mixed with flour (usually sago or tapioca) and spices and filled into a casing, rather like a sausage. This is then steamed, cooled, sliced and finally dried. It is quickly cooked in hot oil before consumption.

Starting with the Market The importance of marketing research

Global

Entrepreneurs need practical guidance on how to conduct simple yet effective marketing research a key tool for gathering information which will help them make the best business decisions on what to produce. Analysis of consumers and markets can help entrepreneurs identify potential selling opportunities for their products. This article is the first in a series for Food Chain on marketing and has been partly based on advice offered in a new book Drying Food for Profit (see end note for more details). Marketing, in simple terms is about making products that will sell, rather than trying to sell what has been made! A simplified definition of marketing is: Seeing things as your customers see them and doing something about it to make money. A more formal definition of marketing from the UKs Chartered Institute of Marketing: Marketing is the management process responsible for identifying, anticipating and satisfying customer requirements profitably. The first definition is helpful because it emphasises the importance of getting to know and understand the customer. Small-scale entrepreneurs are often wellplaced to do this when their customers are local, but for opportunities outside their community the exercise becomes more challenging. The second definition draws attention to the fact that marketing is a process. Marketing research activities are key steps in this process which can identify the potential customers for a product. It can tell a business who will buy, when, where, what quantities and at what price. Figure 1 shows a simplified representation of the marketing process.

Step One Market segments or identifying a customer group

The very first question any entrepreneur should ask is who are the expected customers? Existing businesses will already have a group of customers who they can get to understand better. They can also identify other groups of customers they could sell to. The entrepreneur should ask a series of questions about existing and potential groups of customers (see Figure 2).
q q q q

Who buys from you now? What groups of customers can you identify? Which groups buy most from you? Which groups pay the best prices/are most profitable? What characteristics do these groups share? Where can similar potential customers be found? What other groups of customers have you considered selling to?

q q

The first step, therefore, is to assess the options and decide which groups or market segments could be targeted.

Examples of possible market segments

q q q q q q q

Figure 2: Key questions for the entrepreneur

Children and/or young people Men or women People interested in healthy foods or with special dietary needs Restaurants and hotels Institutions such as prisons, hospitals, schools, government departments Processors, such as bakeries, using the product as an ingredient Regional or international buyers

1. Identify a customer group(s) 2. Learn what they want that you can do/make 3. Do/make something to meet the needs better than competitors

Figure 1: The Marketing Process

4. Tell customers about it

It is important to understand the different characteristics and requirements of each of these groups if a business wants to target them with products. Children using pocket money to buy a sweet snack will, for example, be influenced by aspects such as small packs at a low price, the use of bright packaging and a convenient location to purchase, perhaps close to a 5. Keep improving school. The catering trade, institutions and processing enterprises, on the other hand, would

Agar/Shekleton (1999)

ITDG Food Chain 30

9 not be interested in attractive packaging but would be concerned with price, quality and reliability of supply. These broad market segments can be broken into more clearly defined segments. Families as consumers, for example, can be divided into groups by their income (rich, middle-class or poor), their occupation (e.g. office workers) and their location (rural, urban or peri-urban) which will result in different expectations and demands. The buying habits and reasons for selecting a particular product will vary from group to group. Finding out as much as possible about their lifestyles and what they are likely to want from products, such as convenience, is important so that products can be developed which are targeted to specific groups. Having identified some customer groups the next step is to find out what these customers want in more detail.

q q q q q q

Personal interviews in the street or shops Observation Discussions with groups of potential customers Questionnaires and postal surveys Telephone surveys Visiting potential buyers

Secondary data is taken from existing reference material and includes:

q q q q q

Step Two Market surveys or finding out what these customers want
Market surveys are a way of gathering and analysing information so products are developed to meet the needs of potential customer groups. Specialist market research agencies can be commissioned to conduct surveys but this can be costly and there are benefits if the entrepreneur carries out the market survey themselves. It may be useful to have some help from advisors to design the survey. The process of carrying out the surveys allows the owner of a small enterprise to gain a deep understanding of the potential customers. It is argued that the most effective method

Trade associations and journals Internet sites Yellow pages of telephone directories Government and official records Competitors literature

The first step in conducting a market survey is to decide what information is required and where and how this will be obtained. Where possible this is best done as a team, made up of business partners, family members or employees, who will produce a list of what information should be gathered and from where.

Designing consumer surveys

The most valuable information that can be gathered will be from the likely purchasers of the product end consumers and intermediary buyers (e.g. restaurant and shop owners, supermarket buyers). Small businesses should focus their limited resources on consumer surveys, rather than extensive studies of market conditions. Interviews with existing and potential customers can be structured or unstructured, often a mixture of the two. To guide the interview process it is usual to prepare a questionnaire, similar to the example shown in table 1, which is a structured interview with a consumer. Sensitivity is needed when deciding which questions to ask. In general, it is important to avoid direct personal questions, for example about income. Open ended questions such as what type

Why are they buying at all what need are they trying to meet? q What do they buy now (from you and others)? q Why do they buy from you (and from your competitors)? q How often do they buy? q In what quantities? q When/where do they buy? q How much do they pay? q Who does the buying (in the family, in the business), who influences the decision, who uses the product what is the buying process? And so on
q

Figure 3: Key questions about groups of consumers

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Global

of research for a small business is to talk to potential customers directly, find out what they buy now, what problems they have, what would make their lives easier or better (see Figure 3). In marketing research language this is gathering primary data. Marketing surveys can include two broad types of data: primary and secondary. Primary data is the most valuable and collected directly through activities, which include:

10

Global

Table 1. Example consumer questionnaire for dried fruit snack products Market survey form 1. Do you buy snacks in the street? 2. How often? 3. Where else do you buy from? 4. What kind of snacks do you like? 5. Do you buy dried fruit snacks? 6. If yes, what do you like about them? 7. If no, why not? 8. Which fruits do you prefer? 9. How much are you prepared to pay for a pack this size? Yes Daily Dried fruit snacks No Weekly

Monthly

products for urban middle income customers if the research indicates they are more likely to buy dried fruit than rural low income customers.

Having gathered the information it is vital that it is analysed in a Mango Papaya Pineapple useful way. The more data that has been 25c 35c 45c collected the more accurate the results will be, but it will be time of dried fruit do you prefer? rather than consuming to analyse. It can be kept closed questions such as which do you simple, for example, 15 out of 20 prefer dried mango or dried pineapple? interviewees said they preferred mango, give more useful data. i.e. 75%. The aim of the analysis exercise is to How many interviews to conduct get a summary about what the consumer Sampling groups want, which will inform the Interviewing one customer will not decisions about what to produce (and how provide reliable information. The value of to target the product to specific groups). the exercise will be increased if say ten Since the survey exercise cannot possibly people are surveyed and even more so if include all potential customers a further the sample is increased to twenty or more. step is to estimate the market size and As the sample size is increased, it will be value. found that results begin to repeat Price Other themselves. This indicates that a representative sample of customers is being surveyed.

Yes Taste

No Healthy

Analysis What is the information saying?

Market size and value

To estimate the potential total market demand for a given product it is possible to extrapolate the results from the small sample of potential customers to the total market under consideration. For example, a survey of the demand for dry onion rings, aimed at the hotel and restaurant sector, has shown that 30% of owners indicated a positive interest in using the product. The next step is to determine how many hotels and

Classification
It can be useful to classify the interviewees according to their social class. Typical questions are:
q q

Where do you live? (Urban or rural) Which school do your children go to? (May provide information on class) q Do you have a TV? (If yes, would indicate middle or upper class) q Which shops do you use? (Richer people Table 2. Total market demand for dry onion slices tend to use higher price shops) Number of hotels surveyed 100 % stating they would purchase dry onion 30% When this information is analysed it will help Demand per month to determine which Per hotel (range) (1 to 3 kg) market segments the Average 1.5 product should be Total demand from 30 interested establishments 45kg/month targeted at. For example it would be Number of hotels registered in the city 500 better to develop Total demand based on marketing survey 225kg/month

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11 restaurants exist in the city. This can be done in several ways. Firstly the city can be divided into areas and a physical count of all such establishments made. Alternatively, it is often possible to use secondary data such as tax information or registration of hotels and restaurants by public health bodies to obtain a full list. This type of analysis will typically give data as shown in table 2. The danger of this exercise is that it makes assumptions about the potential market which may turn out to be incorrect. This would be a problem if the entrepreneur has invested in the business on the strength of the likely market potential.
Neil Cooper

There is a saying that markets dont buy anything, customers do, which means that the promises of good market potential may not be translated to purchases. Getting to know customers, serving them better, selling more to them and expanding to new customer groups gradually may offer a less risky route for small entrepreneurs.

Assessing the advantages and weaknesses of the competition against your own products advantages and weaknesses is a helpful exercise. It can help to identify a potential competitive advantage. In a saturated local market it could be through little improvements, either in quality, price or service. In an international market it is essential. For example, certain fruits, like apples from the Southern hemisphere have found markets in the North not because they are cheaper but purely because they are available when European apples are not. However, as the market has become crowded with suppliers, the producers must find out what special features of their particular variety they can draw attention to e.g. sweeter, crunchier, cheaper. It should be remembered, even in a situation where competition seems weak, if a good opportunity exists then new competitors may quickly enter the market. In the next editions of Food Chain we will look at the other steps in the Marketing Process understanding product development and promoting the product and the business, and finally developing a marketing strategy.

A4 Bangladesh C5.10

Step 3 Understanding Market share and reviewing the competition

The above example assumes that the enterprise in question has no competition, which is very rarely the case. The total market for a product will be divided between the competition. The market share which a particular enterprise can expect to gain will depend on several factors:
q q

Sources:
Drying Food for profit, B Axtell 2002, ITDG Publishing, London. Marketing for the Local Market, J Agar 1999. Marketing Services for Entrepreneurs, Mikkelsen 1999.

The number of competitors The size of the competitors

Alison Griffith, Marketing Specialist, ITDG, Schumacher Centre for Technology and Development, Bourton on Dunsmore, Rugby, CV23 9QZ

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Global
Finding out what your consumer wants

Whether the products are similar or different The pricing and presentation of competitive products

12

No more fingertip shelling: The TEK groundnut cracker to the rescue Ghana
Researchers at the Kwame Nkrumah University in Ghana, in collaboration with groundnut farmers, have developed a groundnut cracker-winnower that can either be manually operated or run with a small engine. The machine has been field tested and its efficiency compared with other machines available in Ghana and also with the traditional hand shelling process. The trials measured the shelling efficiency, capacity, cleanliness and damage to nuts. The best result was achieved using a variable speed motor at 160180rpm and a feed rate of 240250kg/hr of nuts, which gave 1214% of broken nuts. When the machine was powered by a 2.5hp Yamaha petrol engine and field tested the shelling capacity, shelling efficiency, cleanliness and breakage were 6080kg/hr, 9597% and 1.54% respectively, which compares favourably with other methods.
q q

Africa

Manual hand separation, which involves beating the nuts with stones or wood Mechanical shelling which can be by hand or pedal cranking or using a power source. Mechanical shellers can be divided into reciprocating (semirotary) types and continuous or rotary types.

Manual shelling
In Ghana hand-shelling peanuts by beating with wood or stones is one of the oldest and the most popular methods in rural areas but is slow, inefficient and laborious. The output depends on the efficiency of the worker, the ease of breakage of the pods under pressure, moisture content and the variety. Figure 2 shows manual shelling methods practised by women in Ghana.

Introduction
Groundnuts (Arachis hypogaea)are an important food and industrial crop in Ghana and provide food and income for small-scale farmers and urban dwellers. Shelling must be performed before any other post-harvest processing takes place. The traditional shelling methods of hand separation or beating with planks are slow and tedious. Groundnut shelling can be classified into two main categories as shown in figure 1.

Manually operated groundnut shellers

The semi-rotary sheller (see figure 3) of Indian origin is widely used. It consists of a hopper, wire mesh, a shelling bar and a reciprocating arm. The hopper is a semicylindrical trough with the wire mesh attached to the bottom. The shelling bar is attached to the lower end of the reciprocating arm. The Tamale Implement Factory (TIF) in Ghana produced a hand-operated rotary

Keywords Groundnut, peanut, shelling, decortication, manual, powered

Shelling techniques

Manual

Motorised

Finger-tip breaking and separation

Beating and separation as two distinct operations

Beating with sticks/stones followed by separation

Hand cranking

Power operated

Figure 1. Groundnut shelling techniques

Semi-rotary (to and fro motion)

Rotary

ITDG Food Chain 30

13 drum, a blower assembly, a nut discharge spout and husk outlet chute. The groundnut pods are cracked between the rotating cylinder, a pneumatic tyre, and a stationary concave sieve. The broken shells and nuts pass through the sieve. After leaving the shelling chamber, the nuts and husk fall into a duct meeting an air stream from the fans of the blower assembly and are winnowed. The lighter shell passes out through the husk outlet chute and heavier nuts fall onto an inclined plate and are collected through a spout. The clearance between the drum and the sieve is adjustable to accommodate various sizes of groundnuts. The best clearance is 1618mm. For optimum performance, the blower is set at a speed of 560rpm. The motorised version was tested with a variable speed motor, a 2.5hp Yamaha petrol engine and a 750-watt single-phase electric motor. The blower (winnowing unit) is run through a chain and sprocket transmission using the same power source. The shelling drum and blower speeds are variable between 180220rpm and 500560rpm respectively. The degree of shelling is controlled by the intake slide (flap gate), which regulates the amount of pods falling into the shelling chamber. The separation of shell from nuts is regulated by the blower speed, which can be adjusted to suit the variety and condition
E Bobobee E Bobobee

groundnut sheller on a commercial scale. The Sheller has a feed hopper, a rubber tyre roller with a fixed cover, a concave sieve through which the shelled nuts drop to the floor followed by a hand-winnowing operation to separate the clean nuts from
E Bobobee

Figure 2. Manual shelling methods practised by women in Ghana

the shells. A crank handle turns the tyre roller. The shelling efficiency is 80%, while broken kernels constitute 8%. The output is 18kg/hr of clean nuts.

Figure 3. Manually operated semi-rotary groundnut sheller

The Tek groundnut cracker/winnower

The Tek groundnut cracker/winnower (see figure 4) has been developed by the Agricultural Engineering Department of the Kwame Nkrumah University in response to the drudgery associated with fingertip shelling, which still predominates in Ghana. The machine can be operated either by hand cranking or a motor. It consists of a hopper, a crank lever mechanism, a rotating pneumatic shelling

Figure 4. The Tek groundnut cracker/winnower

ITDG Food Chain 30

Africa

Ghana

14 Table 1. Characteristics of groundnut samples used in the experiment of pods being treated. In this way, Average measurements impurities are kept to the minimum. Variety Pod Pod Nut Kernel Moisture Operation, diameter length diameter weight content servicing and (mm) (mm) (mm) (g) of pods cleaning of the at shelling (%) machine are very Mani pinta (red) 12.6 31.9 7.8 1.4 1222 simple. The TEK Chinese (white) 11.6 26.3 7.5 1.0 12.28 groundnut cracker/winnower q proportion of unshelled pods blown was developed with the objective of with the chaff and those whole pods producing a multi-pulse sheller cum retained in the shelling chamber, winnower for a range of commodities q fuel consumption, such as groundnut, bambara beans (Vigna q output of the equipment. subterranea), jatropha (Jatropha curcas L), neem seed (Azadirachta indica) and Several modifications were made to the sunflower (Helianthus spp). Farmer concave sieve, the pulleys and the blower participation in the development of the fan to improve performance and to machine and the evaluation of its process other crops. A variable speed performance were critical for the motor was used to fine-tune the design successful development and adoption of especially to determine the optimum this machine. The equipment was tested operating speeds of the cracking and in the University workshop for functional winnowing units. The existing finger-tip or performance and later taken to the endhand shelling techniques were examined users in a predominantly groundnut thoroughly to determine critical points for growing area for farmers acceptance intervention. A series of tests were trials. During acceptance trials, several conducted on the manual shelling quality parameters were assessed. These process. The time taken to crack a preincluded the following: determined quantity of pods was noted and translated into output (kg/hr). This q percentage broken nuts, was followed by comparative tests on q cleaning ability of the fan (blower unit), some existing mechanical shellers in the country to determine their capacities,

Table 2. Performance test of various shelling methods Shelling methods Finger-tip Beating and separation at once Beating followed by separation TIF Sheller Tek Sheller (hand-cranking operation) Tek sheller (motorized) small engine/ motor Time Wt. of Wt. of Wt. of Wt. of Wt. of (min) sample unshelled clean husks cracked (g) pods (g) nuts (g) (g) nuts (g) 90.5 83.7 1000 1000 0 0 657 568 343 366 0 66 Break- Shelling Cleanli- Output Nut age efficiency ness (kg/hr) recovery (%) (%) (%) (%) 0 10.7 100 100 100 89.5 0.44 0.41 100 89100

Africa
67.4

Ghana

1000

508

414

78

13.2

100

87.8

0.45

85100

15.5 2.4

1000 1000

204 357

550 340

199 207

47 96.7

7.9 1022.1

79.6 66

92.1 77.9

2.13 8.53

79.6 64.3

1.2

1000

88.4

645

240

26.8

1.52.5

91.2

9498

6080

91.2

ITDG Food Chain 30

15 shelling and cleaning efficiencies and damaged nut percentage. The tests were limited to two varieties of groundnut (white and red). The moisture content of the pods was determined prior to cracking. The characteristics of groundnuts used in the test are shown in table 1. Modifications are now underway to adapt the equipment to run on the existing 8 hp corn mill engines used in many rural areas of the country to process more difficult-to-crack seeds such as jatropha and castor. the equipment is set to operate automatically (without an attendant), while the higher value is obtained when it is attendant operated. When the equipment is operated by hand cranking, the output is 810kg/hr. These results are encouraging when compared with outputs from fingertip shelling and beating with wood which yielded 0.721.15kg/hr. These results show that the equipment performs the functions of shelling and winnowing more satisfactorily than the existing shellers. The equipment was modified and used to crack and clean jatropha and castor seeds with encouraging results at rates of 1220kg/hr and 2030kg/hr respectively. Proposals are now being considered for introducing the equipment on a pilot basis in predominantly groundnut producing areas to monitor its impact on the beneficiary communities. Emmanuel Bobobee, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana.

Results and discussion

The results of tests performed are shown in table 2. Data collected from the preliminary testing indicate that when the equipment is coupled to a variable speed motor at 180200 revolutions per minute, its output is in the range of 240250kg/hr with a breakage of 1014%. When equipped with a 2kW Yamaha petrol engine and or a 0.75W single-phase motor, output values were 6080kg/hr. The lower value of 60kg/hr was obtained when

Drying Food for Profit A Guide for Small Businesses

B Axtell (2002), ITDG Publishing, London, UK. ISBN 1 85339 520 X 120 pp This handbook attempts to provide a comprehensive guide to potential entrepreneurs considering the setting-up of a food drying enterprise. In this aim the author is largely successful; it is refreshing to read a realistic and non-propagative volume on small-scale drying. Chapters are included on basic food drying principles, marketing factors, drying and associated processing technology, production plant design, costing and operation, and guidelines on dryer design and construction. Whilst these subjects are covered separately in numerous other publications the strength of this book is that appropriate, not token, emphasis is given to all aspects required for the development of a successful business. Useful case studies are included throughout outlining both successful and, equally importantly, failed enterprises. The book is well referenced on a practical level, both for further information and for development and business contacts. Minor criticisms are that page layout could have been more effectively utilised and that the usefulness of some diagrams and figures are restricted by their small size. I would strongly recommend this book as essential reading for both development workers and would-be entrepreneurs interested in the establishment of food drying enterprises. David S Trim Agro-processing Consultant

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Books

Africa

Ghana

16

B ook Lines

Books

Fruits for the Future

A series of five fact-sheets describing under-utilised tropical fruits has been produced by the International Centre for Underutilised Crops (ICUC) at Southampton University UK. The fact sheets give a brief description of the fruit, including its morphology and form, agronomic and climatic requirements and the locations in which it is commonly found. Basic details are provided on how to grow and cultivate the fruit and the economics of its production. The uses of the fruit and reasons for growing it are also outlined, along with details of processing where appropriate. These fact sheets give a good basic overview to several potentially valuable under-utilised species of tropical fruit. They are useful starting material for those who are interested in finding out more about the fruits, and who have a potential interest in cultivating and processing the fruits. References for further reading and advice are included with each fact sheet. The following fact sheets: Tamarind Ber (Tamarindus indica L.) (Ziziphus mauritiana Lam.) (also known as Indian jujube) (Adanasonia digitata L.) (Dacryodes edulis L.) (Annona spp)

Fruits for the Future project at ICUC. At the time of writing, only Tamarind and Ber monographs and extension manuals are available from ICUC. The remaining three monographs and extension manuals will be available towards the end of 2002.

Baobob Safou Annona

are available from the International Centre for Underutilised Crops (ICUC), University of Southampton, Southampton SO17 1BJ (a.hughes@soton.ac.uk). In addition to the fact sheets, a series of monographs and field manuals for extension workers on the same species have been produced by the

ITDG Food Chain 30

Brewing is womens business

17 Michael McCall, with inputs from Sue Azam-Ali, highlights the importance of small-scale brewing to the livelihoods of African women. Because of various reasons the importance of this incomegenerating activity is often overlooked by donors and development agencies. under-valued and ignored by governments and donors alike (McCall 1996, Saul 1981, Pradervand 1990). The ignorance is due, in the first instance, to the paucity of studies on rural or urban artisanal brewing, and beyond that by ideological and interpretative factors. The figures in table 1 give an indication of the importance of brewing to peoples livelihoods in a selection of African countries. The proportion of villagers actually brewing is difficult to generalise, depending so much on cultural and especially religious traditions, as well as the resource base. Local beer accounts for a very large portion of intra-village money flows, and particularly of trans-gender cash flows between men and women

Introduction

In sub-Saharan Africa, small-scale beer brewing is primarily a household-based business that is carried out by women. Brewing may be one of the few incomegenerating activities that rural women can be widely and thoroughly involved in, but it is equally important to stress that it is by no means a minor enterprise, and not just the peripheral scraps on the rural economic plate. On aggregate, beerTable 1: Brewing is womens business and brewing is household brewing is a major income (various sources) element of the rural economy and in many Womens household Location Year individual cases, a business & women incomes relative business success for the women Findings from Botswana involved. This does not 2050% of households brew between Five villages 1985 imply that village one and seven times a week brewing is a moneyIn top 4 of household income sources Five villages 1985 spinner; microeconomic studies By far highest income source for women In sample villages 1990 usually show that the 2nd highest household income In sample villages 1990 financial returns to source (after cattle sales) womens labour are poor, but that is true for Findings from Burkina Faso most rural womens enterprises in Africa. The heavy labour inputs and the relatively high risk of product failure are the key factors that determine profitability. 3rd highest household income source (after farm produce sales & wage labour) Findings from Tanzania 73% women brew at some time 25% households brew regularly National sample survey 1990

Keywords Beer, fermentation, women, Africa, brewing

The importance of brewing to the local economy

Rural and small-scale urban brewing is a major income earner for small-scale brewers (the majority of whom are women) and is vital to their function in the rural economy and society. However, the significance of artisanal brewing is consistently

2nd highest household income source (after agriculture as a whole) 75% state it is main income source of women National survey 75% of women brewers state it Survey of female is their main income source brewers, Usangu Plains Findings from Zambia 60% of households brew regularly 25% of female-headed households brew Main cash source for women (ahead of wage labour and charcoal) 77% of respondents state it is 1st or 2nd main income source for women Most common income source for women Northern Province Chipata District Mkushi District Luapula District Northern Province

National sample survey FAO national sample survey Tanga Region

1983 1984 1994 1983 1992

1985 1985 1990 1985 1985

ITDG Food Chain 30

Africa

18 (McCall 1996, Nkhoma 1992, Gattegno 1987, Tellegen 1997). Although a considerable proportion of women drink, the customers are primarily men, including the brewers own husbands. The consumption of local brew in rural areas is very high, a common figure given in eastern and southern Africa being 1/2 to 1 litre of brew per adult per day. Brewing also provides opportunities for women (and men) to be employed by the female brewers for activities such as cutting and transporting firewood or the arduous job of carrying water. Beer brewing is not without its problems. The process is fairly time consuming and demands large amounts of water and fuel for the various stages. A SADC rule of thumb estimates that on average between 1 and 2kg wood fuel is required to produce 1 litre of local beer (Kaale 1990). Variations in fuel consumption depend on the different types of brew, and the fuel used, and thus the technology in use. This raises cause for concern over environmental degradation and the time required by women to collect fuel wood. In a typical sub-Saharan village, where beer is brewed for home use, for ceremonies and for sale in village bars, it is estimated that this accounts for between 5 to 30% of annual wood consumption. The whole family (including children) consume this sweet drink. One of the major health benefits of producing the fermented drink, is that water is boiled during the process and thereby made safe to drink. In some countries, home-brewing of any alcoholic beverage without a licence is not encouraged. Although the reasons for this are justified, the positive benefits of fermentation, such as the improved safety of drinking sources, is overlooked. Of course beer brewing and alcohol consumption are not accepted by all customs and cultures. The dangers of excess alcohol consumption and the impact this can have on personal health and family status are well known. We are not advocating alcoholism, but are highlighting the real potential for rural and urban small-scale business offered by beer brewing.

Africa

The technique behind brewing skills and brewing losses

Artisanal beer brewing is an inherently risky operation. The technical processes are not as simple as they look and each stage involves continuous care and skilled management. Some argue that it is one reason that brewing is an art that has been left as a womens enterprise, even in male-dominated societies. The risks are great and losses can easily be up to 90% or 100%, usually due to over-fermentation or failure to ferment. There is no single brewing recipe, indeed there are wide variations even within a particular farming system because an important determinant of the brewing method, and thus the fuel required, is the source material. Mbege banana beer for instance from Kilimanjaro or Rwanda, requires bananas to be boiled for 5 to 6 hours but uses much less wood than sorghum beer. The basic technique of brewing beer is characterised by three stages: malting, brewing, and fermentation. Normally, all three stages are completed in 7 to 10 days, from the first preparation to drinking. Thus in many cultures, local sorghum beer is called seven days brew. Water is needed for both the first two stages, but the high levels of firewood use are in the stage of brewing. This stage of brewing or mashing places the maximum demand on fuel wood supplies.

Benefits of brewing
Fermentation is a form of food preservation that has been used for centuries to improve the nutritional value and the safety of foods and to add variety to the diet. The traditional diet of many cultures includes lightly fermented beverages with a low alcohol content. These products are made by fermenting cereals or vegetables to produce a low alcohol drink. The transformation by bacteria and yeasts breaks down complex carbohydrates into sugars that are easier to digest, breaks down poisonous and toxic compounds (such as the cyanide in cassava) and can increase the availability of certain minerals and vitamins (for example the B group of vitamins). Families have traditionally made weak alcoholic beverages by fermenting locally available cereals. The fermentation process entails a lengthy boiling process to produce the fermentable substrate, followed by a fermentation with yeast.

ITDG Food Chain 30

19 First stage: Malting In the first stage, starch contained in the grain is broken down into sugars (mainly maltose) by germination. The grain is soaked and left to germinate in drums or large vessels, taking up to 7 or 8 days. Soaking the grain requires 3 to 3.5 litres of water per kilo of grain. It is essential that the water used is clean and potable. The malting stage has to be carefully controlled to balance quality against malt volume. It is important to check the degree of germination in the early stages as this affects the final alcohol content and acidity of the brew. Second stage: Brewing The germinated grain is dried, usually by spreading out to dry in the sun, and the dried sprouted grains are ground into a flour. The quality of the wort (the technical name given to the liquid made from warm water and malted grain) will be affected by the fineness of grinding of the grain. The wort is prepared by adding water to the ground grain (about 25 litres of water per kg of grain). The mixture is heated and boiled for about 1 to 2 hours. At this point, extra sugar can be added to the wort if desired (up to 1kg per 25 litres of water). After heating the wort is cooled down and is strained. Quality control at this point is essential to the final quality of the beer. Too little wort leads to thin beer with a poor taste and low alcohol content whilst too much produces a brew that is heavy to drink and with a higher alcohol content. The cooking period is also crucial to monitor under cooking results in low alcohol contents but over-cooking can produce a beer with a burnt taste and aroma, which is unacceptable to the consumer. Third stage: Fermentation A starter culture, either yeast or a small amount of beer left over from the previous batch, is added to the wort. The bucket is covered with a lid or cloth and allowed to ferment for several days. When the foam dies down on the top of the beer, the fermentation is over and the beer is ready to drink. Fermentation proceeds quite rapidly in the tropical heat, but occasionally the mash is heated to speed up the process. The product may contain enough of its own yeasts, but sometimes yeast is added to speed up the process. The alcoholic strength of the beer is dependent on the conversion of sugars to alcohol and carbon dioxide, which relies on the length and rate of fermentation. The length and rate of fermentation is affected by several factors:
q q q

the ambient temperature the amount and activity of yeast the amount of sugar present at the start of fermentation.

The alcohol content is lower, the slower the rate of fermentation or if a low sugar content was present at the start of fermentation. Brewers need to take care during fermentation to ensure that the alcohol is not converted into acetic acid (as in vinegar production) which produces a sour-tasting beer. The end product is a dense milky beer that contains suspended particles of grain, malt, yeast and starch. The beer is a live product and therefore has a relatively short shelf life of up to 2 weeks. It can be consumed anytime after 1 or 2 days of fermentation. As time passes, the beer becomes stronger as fermentation is still proceeding. However, there comes a point when the sugar has all been converted into alcohol and the yeast dies off. After this time the alcohol may be broken down into acetic acid (vinegar) by the acetobacter species and the beer spoils. Storing in a cool environment to slow down the rate of fermentation will prolong the period that the beer is good to drink. It will also help the beer to clear. It is possible to extend the shelf life to several months by bottling and pasteurising the beer after fermentation. This process however, incurs additional costs for the processor.

Improving the brewing process

The beer produced by this traditional method is a sweet, cloudy alcoholic suspension with a distinctive flavour of the main ingredients. The colour varies according to the ingredients used. For example, rice beer is a whitish liquid whereas sorghum and millet beers are a darker reddish brown colour. Quality of the beer varies from batch to batch and the alcoholic strength depends on how soon it is drunk after fermentation. Spoilage of the beer is quite rapid, especially in the humid tropics which makes the whole art of beer brewing a

ITDG Food Chain 30

Africa

20 fairly risky business for small-scale brewers. There are a few simple improvements that can be made to the traditional brewing process that will significantly improve the quality of the product.
q

Attention to hygiene. Although the raw materials are sterilised by boiling, the wort is an excellent substrate for microbial growth. It is therefore essential that all equipment is thoroughly sterilised to prevent contaminating bacteria from competing with the added yeast and producing acid instead of alcohol. This can be done by cleaning with boiling water or with chlorine solution. Care is necessary to wash the equipment (with boiled water) to remove traces of chlorine as this interferes with the action of yeast. Only potable water should be used for cleaning the equipment and for adding as an ingredient to the beer. If available, sodium metabisulphite is an excellent sterilising agent. Use of quality raw material. Grain should be harvested when fully mature to maximise the carbohydrate content. The dried grains should be of the correct moisture content and should be stored properly to prevent moisture uptake, which would allow mould growth and reduce amylase activity. Proper grinding of the grain. The germinated grain should be ground as finely as possible (to pass through a 1mm sieve) as this increases the surface area and maximises amylase activity. Controlled time and temperature of boiling. The grain should be boiled for a sufficient amount of time to break down the carbohydrates to sugars so that they are more available for yeast action. Addition of sufficient yeast. The yeast should be active and a sufficient amount added to complete the fermentation of sugars. Controlled temperature of fermentation. The wort should be cooled to an optimum temperature (room temperature) for the yeast to act. If the temperature is too low the fermentation time will be extended and the beer may spoil before the alcohol level is increased. If the temperature is

too high (above 45C), the yeast will be inactivated. Filtration. If a clear product is required, the beer can be strained after fermentation and allowed to stand in a cool place so that the sediment falls to the bottom. Bottling and pasteurisation. To extend the shelf life and improve the appearance of the product, beer can be bottled and pasteurised. It is essential that clean, sterile bottles are used and that after filling these are heated to 8090C for 30 minutes to pasteurise the beer. This process will obviously result in a product with a different taste and appearance, which may or may not be acceptable to local taste. It will however have a shelf life of several months when stored in a cool place away from the direct sunlight. Processors should test the acceptability of such products before investing in the necessary equipment.

Africa

ZERO, an organisation working in Zimbabwe, is one of the few organisations that recognises the value of and supports small-scale brewing. The organisation has produced a training manual for brewers (Nyabeze, 1994) which reviews some of the problems faced by small-scale brewers and attempts to improve the quality of the products.

Developments in the traditional brewing sector

The penetration of the small-scale womens enterprise sector by the commercial brewing giants is by now well-established and is having serious effects on small enterprises in urban areas. It is rapidly extending to rural areas as well. A significant technical advantage for the small producer has always been that local brew cannot store and must be consumed quickly, which precludes an extensive distribution system from a central brewery, and partly explains why there have been so few attempts to commercialise it. Only in the dense urban markets of southern and eastern Africa is grain beer (chibuku) brewed with largescale modern equipment by big commercial breweries. In South Africa in 1997, the market for sorghum beer was estimated to be 2 to 3

ITDG Food Chain 30

21 billion litres, of which 200 million litres was made from a dry-base powder. livelihood and is a potential key to their economic empowerment, yet in its current condition it is environmentally damaging as well as being technically and commercially under-developed, because it is being ignorantly undervalued, if not deliberately scorned. The forthcoming publication by Deborah Bryceson makes useful reading for those involved in alcohol production. D.F. Bryceson (ed.) (2002). Alcohol in Africa. Mixing Business, Pleasure and Politics. Westport CN: Greenwood.

Commercial companies are starting to market powdered beer concentrates for the production of traditional beer (chibuku). Traditional Beer Investments (TBI) which belongs to the South African Breweries giant markets Chibuku and Elephant brands. Chibuku Breweries in Zimbabwe makes Chibuku and Thabani brands. Chibuku Breweries also produces in Mozambique and Zambia. Of great significance for artisanal brewers throughout Africa, are the technical developments by CSIR (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research) in South Africa. CSIR has developed stable sorghum beer products, including a wort concentrate that can be later diluted and fermented to make beer. All are safe to transport over long distances and keep in storage. For example, CPC Tongaat Foods (a subsidiary of South African Breweries (SAB)) in South Africa is already marketing Funa Beer Powder, made of maize grits, sorghum malt and yeast. 175 litres of warm water are added to a 25 kg sack and fermented for a day to make one drum of sorghum brew. (CPC Tongaat website), CPC Tongaat Website: http://www.cpctongaat.co.za/products/trad itional.html South African Breweries (SAB) Website: http://www.sabplc.com

References
1. Gattegno, Isabelle (1987), Woodfuel and Small Scale Food Processing, Massy, France: ALTERSIAL Kaale, Bariki K (1990), Women dominate rural industries in the SADCC region. SADCC Energy, [Luanda], 8, (no 22), 5357 McCall, Michael (1996), Rural brewing, exclusion and development policy-making, Gender and Development, 4, (3), 2938 Nkhoma-Wamunza, Alice (1992), The informal sector: a strategy for survival in Tanzania., 197213, in: D R F Taylor and F Mackenzie (eds) (1992), Development from Within, Survival in Rural Africa, London, Routledge Nyabeze, Washington (1994), Beer Brewing. Improvements to Existing Technologies for Beer Brewing Industries in Zimbabwe, Training Manual (ed: Carmel Mbizvo), Harare: ZERO Regional Environment Organisation (11pp) Pradervand P (1990), Listening to Africa. Developing Africa from the Grassroots, Praeger, New York Saul, Mahir (1981), Beer, sorghum and women: Production for the market in rural Upper Volta, Africa, 51, (3), 74664 Tellegen, Nina (1997), Brewing beer or brewing trouble? Paper given at Conference on Alcohol in Africa: Multiple Utilities and Meanings, African Studies Centre, Leiden, June 1997, (10pp)

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Conclusions
Beer brewing is a relatively simple technique that has been carried out by families for centuries. It contributes to improved food safety, involves thousands of small-scale female entrepreneurs and has the potential to be a source of household income. Support for the improvement of brewing facilities does place a government agency or NGO in a difficult position. But the arguments to bring beer onto their agendas should overwhelm any moral qualms or social sensitivities. Small-scale brewing is central to womens
7.

8.

Michael K McCall, Social Science Division, ITC, PO Box 6, 7500 AA Enschede, The Netherlands (mccall@itc.nl)\ With inputs from Sue Azam-ali, ITDG, Bourton on Dunsmore, Rugby, UK

ITDG Food Chain 30

Africa

Powdered sorghum beers.

22

The preparation of pectin from tamarind kernel powder

Asia

Small-scale manufacturers in developing countries find it notoriously difficult to obtain pectin for the preparation of jam and jellies. It is fairly costly and quite difficult to obtain. An effective gelling agent, known commercially as jellose, can be produced from tamarind kernels. This article by Professor Gunasena from Sri Lanka describes the preparation of tamarind kernel powder and the gelling agent jellose.

other fruits will not form a gel when heated with sugar and it is advisable for processors to use pectin to ensure that each batch they produce is of consistent quality. The problem for small-scale processors in developing countries is that pectin is fairly costly and quite difficult to obtain. Processors can make their own pectin from fruit wastes, such as apple skins and passion fruit seeds (see box 1).

Introduction
Tamarind (Tamarindus indica L) is found throughout much of the tropics, where it grows unattended in backyards, on roadsides and on wastelands. It is a tree with a multitude of uses, some of which are unknown from one region to the next. It is a valuable timber species, widely used for making furniture, tool handles, charcoal and fuel-wood. The leaves are an important source of food and herbal medicine and the edible pulp of ripe fruits is used as a flavouring agent in cooking, soups, jams, chutneys and sauces. The fruit pulp of tamarind forms the tamarind of commerce. It is the richest natural source of tartaric acid (818%) and is the chief acidulant used in the preparation of foods in India and many other Asian countries. The major industrial product is the seed kernel powder (TKP) which is an important material used in the sizing of textiles, paper and jute. The tamarind kernel powder can also be made into a pectin substitute that is known commercially as jellose.

Preparation of tamarind kernel powder (TKP)

Tamarind kernel powder is made from the seeds of tamarind, which are otherwise discarded. The tamarind kernel powder is prepared by decorticating the seed and pulverising the creamy white kernels. The kernels are ground to the required mesh size by machines to obtain a yield of 5560%. The resultant powder is not very stable, particularly under humid conditions and deteriorates quite rapidly during storage. To prolong the storage life, it can be mixed with 0.5% sodium bisulphate and stored in a cool, dry place. One of the uses of TKP is in the preparation of a pectic-like gelling substance called jellose. The polysaccharides in tamarind seed kernels form mucilaginous dispersions with water and can form a gel with sugar concentrates, in much the same way that a fruit pectin works. However, unlike fruit pectins, tamarind polysaccharides can form a gel over a wide pH range (fruit pectins require acidic conditions to form gels). Also, tamarind polysaccharides are not affected by boiling in neutral aqueous solutions for long periods (fruit pectins lose up to two thirds of their gelling strength when boiled for one hour). Tamarind polysaccharide can be useful as a gel formation agent and may be substituted for fruit pectin in jams and jellies. Since tamarind polysaccharide does not contain galacturonic acid, which is a principle component of pectin, it cannot be called a pectin and instead is referred to as jellose.

Key words Tamarind, pectin, gelling agent, fruit

The use of pectin

Pecitin is used as a gelling agent in the preparation of jams and jellies. Some jams and jellies do not need pectin as the fruits they are made from contain sufficient natural gelling agent. However,
H Gunasena

Preparation of jellose
Jellose is made on a large scale by adding tamarind kernel powder to 30 to 40 times its weight of boiling water that contains citric or tartaric acid at a concentration of 0.2%. The solution is stirred vigorously and boiled for a further 30 to 40 minutes, then left to settle overnight. The following day the supernatant liquid is siphoned off

Tamarind for sale in polypaks

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Box 1. The preparation of pectin from fruit waste

q q q q q

a good knowledge of the potential market for products and the quality standard required a careful assessment of the economics of production a certain amount of additional production knowledge a certain amount of additional capital investment in equipment a fairly large amount of waste to make utilisation worthwhile.

Description
The process of pectin extraction is not too complex. The shredded fruit peel or dejuiced pulp is soaked in hot water (6070C), or the hot water is re-circulated through the material, and the pectin is extracted into the water (along with sugars and other fruit components). This is continued, often passing the same water through several batches of material, until the pectin concentration increases to around five per cent. The pectin is then precipitated as a gel from the solution by adding one of a number of chemicals. The most common are hexane or spirit alcohol which are then recovered by distillation and reused (the percentage of recovery and cost of this step are often the most critical in determining profitability). It is also possible to use ammonium sulphate (a component of fertiliser) but this cannot be recovered and the higher cost therefore prevents its use commercially in large-scale operations. The pectin gel is then washed and re-dissolved in water to produce a concentrated pectin solution. It is at this stage that it is standardised or modified to give the specific properties required. On a large-scale it is usually dried to a powder, but on a small-scale it is possible to add sodium benzoate preservative and sell the concentrated liquid in bottles. and concentrated under vacuum, then it is passed through a filter press and dried in a drum drier. The resultant product is pulverised in a ball mill. A good sample of jellose should have a relative viscosity of 5.0% at 35C in 0.5% solution, which is higher than cornstarch. Jellose is much
H Gunasena

cheaper than cornstarch and is required in smaller quantities, making it an attractive option for the small-scale processor. Further information on the cultivation and uses of tamarind can be found in a recent publication Tamarind (Tamarindus indica L) by H P M Gunasena and A Hughes. This book and an accompanying field manual are the first in a series of Fruits for the Future, a project that has been supported by the Forestry Research Programme of the United Kingdom Department for International Development (DFID). Enquiries about this project and the publications should be forwarded to A Hughes, International Centre for Underutilised Crops (ICUC), University of Southampton, UK (e-mail: A.Hughes@soton.ac.uk). Professor H Gunasena, Director PGIA, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka

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Tamarind seeds, pods and juice

If commercial pectin is not available, it is possible to produce a pectin solution by boiling the sliced skins of passion fruit or citrus fruit in water for 20 to 30 minutes. The solution should be filtered before it is added to the fruit pulp. The amount needed depends on the type of fruit and the concentration of the pectin solution and can only be found by trial and error. Although it is technically possible to produce pectin from fruit waste, there is no strong evidence to suggest that this is economically viable. It is essential that full financial evaluation is carried out before attempting to produce pectin at the small-scale. Production of pectin cannot be based on the availability of fruit wastes alone. It also requires the following:

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Content s
Greetings Small-scale peanut butter processing in Tanzania The experience of women processors Improving some traditional Malaysian fish products Starting with the Market The importance of marketing research No more fingertip shelling: The TEK groundnut cracker to the rescue Book Lines Brewing is womens business The preparation of pectin from tamarind kernel powder 2 3 6 8 12 15 17 22

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