The CD Era

1984: Bruce Springstens Born in the USA is converted into digital data. The two channels of audio have their voltage analysed 44,100 (44.1kHz) times each second (the sample rate) and the voltage is converted into one of 65,536 possibilities. This number is 2 to the power of 16in a 16-bit binary code system (each number is 16 digits of zeroes and ones) from 0000000000000000 to 1111111111111111. Each of these represents the amplitude of the sound wave, which is reconstructed by reading the numbers and converting them back into voltages (via a DA converter)

The CD is marketed by Sony/Phillips as Perfect Sound Forever. It has error correction meaning that the system can analyse missing/damaged data (e.g. a scratch) and make up the data that is no longer there. A Laser beam reads pits 1.7 microns in diameter which cut the beam in half to read either a 0 or 1. CDs begin in the centre at 458rpm slowing to 197rpm at the outer edge. Requires incredible precision! NOT an analogue of the wave, the information is discrete bits of info: DIGITAL The system is deemed to be successful if each sample is read within a certain margin of error, using steps small enough to seem smooth and continuous. Is this perfect?

The CD eliminated speed problems, noise, pops, clicks and resonance. It also vastly improved the dynamic range. What wasnt there was greatbut what was there was terrible! The quality of AD (Analogue to Digital) converters improved hugely from the 80s to now. And the art of mastering to digital is now sophisticated although the loudness wars mean the hugely improved dynamic range (one of CDs biggest benefits) has been hugely compromised by over use of compression and limiters to compete on radio, iPods etc etc. Back to Phil Spector!

The conversion rate of sampling is based on a system called Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) This system uses the Nyquist theorem that states any analogue signal can be reproduced digitally if it is sampled at precise intervals at a rate at least 2 x faster than the highest significant frequency component of the signal. The problem occurs when higher frequencies exist in the sound. These are then reflected back at a lower frequency causing distortion in the system called aliasing. An anti-aliasing filter comprises a lowpass filter to remove any frequencies above half the sample rate (e.g. 20 kHz in a CD system). 44.1kHz chosen as it is just over double the highest frequency humans can hear therefore satisfies the Nyquist theorem. The problem is that low-pass filters are not perfect and therefore higher frequencies slip through and aliasing does occur.

Other digital formats: DATsmall cassettes aimed at the consumer market. Failed, but pushed into service as a mastering/ storage format. Slightly disastrous as the data becomes corrupted over time and most DATs are now unreadable! ADATanother tape format, but wider with video cassette shape. Became a standard recording medium between analogue tape and hard disc recording, but disputes over quality remain. MiniDiscpre-recorded version flopped in early 90s but boomed later pre-iPod as excellent Walkman format to replace audio cassette. MP3s and lossy formatsthe current standard for consumers. Lossy formats use algorithms to eliminate frequencies masked by others that we will not hear and compress the file size. But do we really not hear them? AAC generally considered to be the best. WAVs and lossless formatscontain all the info with no data compression: FLAC increasingly popular consumer format.

Sampling
Other sample rates/bit depths:

Drum Machines: Linn Early samplers: Fairlight CMI (1979) - contained 8-bit sampler combined with additive synthesis and draw your own wave light pen. Sampler was just thrown in to get over limited memory Emulator (E-MU) Hardware samplers: Recording Storing/Editing - Normalising - Trimming - Looping etc Roland E-MU SP-1200 - 12 bit - popular with hiphop producers who loved gritty sound (PEs Nation of Millions) - 2.5 seconds max - but Hank Shocklee of Bomb Squad sampled records at 45rpm and slowed pitch down in E-MU so 5 seconds but less fidelity

The move to computer samplers and sequencers Sound Designer (Digidrums later Digidesign) allowed E-MU users to edit samples on Macs Emulator III (1987) - relationship parted ways as Digidesign want to control hardware as well. Sound Tools (1989) - able to stream audio at 16 bits and do fast nondestructive edits. Full DAW in the box. - 2 tracks so used primarily for mastering Pro Tools (1991) 4 tracks By 1997 it was 24-bit, 48 track! Began migration into professional recording studios Desmond Child (Ricky Martins Livin La Vida Loca) make leap to using Pro Tools for mixing as well as recording and editing

Analogue vs Digital:

Increasingly, expensive studios only used for mixing. Expensive SSL desks and analogue tape machines increasingly unpopular. Classic studios begin to shut down 200770-80% of pop music mixed in the box