Successful Performance of emotional labour is a matter of right personality: A Review of Literature in reference to hospitality industry

By Neelu Tuteja Nikhanj, MBA, Research Scholar, Banasthali University, Rajasthan

1. Introduction and Rationale

With round-the-clock guest service demands, hospitality industry managers must perform their jobs in a frequently stressful environment. In the hospitality industry, managers face constant challenges from a dynamic and unpredictable environment, including seasonality, availability of labour, commodity shortage, mechanical failure and dependence on suppliers, which increases levels of stress (Krone, Tabacchi, & Farber, 1989). The fatiguing work conditions in the hospitality industry may make managers emotionally strained, even if they do not often interact with customers directly. As a result, many talented, young managers who industry executives do not want to lose leave the industry at the first opportunity because they feel emotionally exhausted and burned out.

Emotions in organizations have found increasing interest among academicians and practitioners recently (Ashforth & Humphrey, 1995; Ashkanasy, Hartel, & Daus, 2002; Briner, 1999). One of the topics is emotional labor. The concept of emotional labor was introduced by Hochschild (1979, 1983) and is defined as the management of feeling to create a publicly observable facial and bodily display.

As organizations are increasingly concentrating on customer relations in an attempt to enhance their competitive position, the nature of job role requirements has changed. The expression of organizationally desired emotions has been considered as part of the work role nowadays (Rafaeli & Sutton, 1987). Consequently, employees are expected to engage in not only physical and intellectual labor, but also emotional labor (Chu & Murrmann, 2006; Sharpe, 2005; Zapf, 2002).

Zapf (2002) concluded that the emotional labor is more important in the service sector than in other sectors for several reasons. First, the assessment of the quality of service is often difficult. Second, the service product is immediately consumed and corrections, such as giving the product back, are not possible. Third, emotional labor should influence the customers emotions, thereby, also influencin g their cognitions and behaviors. Fourth, influencing a customers emotion may make other things easier.

The most valuable occupations for emotional labor research are those in which the demands on emotional expression or experience are strongest (Rafaeli & Sutton, 1987). The hospitality and tourism industry seems to offer one of these instances (e.g., Constanti & Gibbs, 2005; Guerrier & Adib, 2003).

Acknowledging how demanding and stressful work environments have become, studies focusing on human behavior and coping strategies have been conducted in order to better understand the association between personality and performance of emotional labor. Researchers (Kim et al. 2007; Kim et al. 2009) have argued that individual differences are fundamental in explaining reports on performance of emotional labor, and that personality traits play an important role, both in the experience of job-related distress, and also in the manner in which individuals handle stressful situations. For example, Tokar et al. (1998), in their review of the literature on the Big Five and occupational behaviour from 1993 to 1997, noted that extraversion, conscientiousness, and neuroticism were the most frequently emerging personality traits associated with vocational behaviors.

2. Review of Literature and Conceptual considerations

2.1 Emotional labour

Emotional labour possesses the following characteristics (Hochschild, 1983; Morris & Feldman, 1997; Zapf, 2002): (a) emotional labour occurs in face-to-face or voice-to-voice interactions with customers; (b) emotions are displayed to influence other peoples emotions, attitudes, and behaviors; and (c) the display of emotions has to follow certain rules. Many workers in the tourism industry can be classified as front -line service workers, as their jobs involve direct customer contact. The nature of speaking and acting in such work involves displaying emotions, which demonstrate a willingness to be of service. The management of such emotional display is known as emotional labour. The skill with which emotional labour is performed contributes significantly to perceptions of service quality. Although in recent years, this process of emotion management has come to be known as emotional labour, it is still largely unrecognised in day-to-day work environments (Karabanow, 1999). Morris and Feldman (1996, p. 990) cite Hochschild (1983) to explain that emotional labour is performed in one of two ways: Surface acting: involves simulating emotions that are not actually felt.

 Deep acting: involves attempts to actually experience the emotions one is required to display. The idea of deep acting is succinctly put by Mann: feelings are actively induced as the actor psychs him/herself into the desired persona (1997, p.7).

It is generally recognised that there can be either positive or negative consequences for those performing emotional labour, depending on how it is performed. One of the negative consequences of the performance of such labour is burnout, a syndrome of emotional exhaustion and cynicism observed among people who do people work. The positive effects of the performance of emotional labour lead to personal accomplishment and such employees genuinely enjoy their customer service work and take pride in presenting a professional image to their customers.

In other words, service workers must manage their own emotions and emotional display to create a favourable atmosphere in which the interpersonal transaction takes place. Indeed, Hochschild (1983, p. 98) in discussing the selection of Delta airlines trainees, commented:

The trainees, it seemed to me, were also chosen for their ability to take stage directions about how to project an image. They were selected for being able to act well that is, without showing the effort involved. They had to be able to appear at home on stage.

Of particular concern to managers and service workers alike is one particular negative consequence of the performance of emotional labour, known as burnout.

2.2 Emotional Exhaustion/ Burnout

Burnout is a metaphor commonly used to describe a state of mental weariness (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004). It is defined as a syndrome of emotional exhaustion from ones work in response to chronic organizational stressors (Maslach & Jackson, 1981), especially to the emotional strain of dealing extensively with other people (Ledgerwood, Crotts, & Everett, 1998).

The burnout syndrome is prevalent among individuals who do people-work of some kind (Maslach & Jackson, 1981, p.99), such as the hospitality industry. As a result of the emotional exhaustion experienced, workers feel that they cannot give of themselves any longer. Burnout can lead to deterioration in the quality of service provided and appears to be a contributor to job turnover, absenteeism and low morale (Maslach and Jackson, 1981). There are well-known findings about the

major costs that organisations often incur through absenteeism, labour turnover and accidents (Ivancevich, 1995, pp. 639, 668).

It adversely influence organizational outcomes with decreases in job satisfaction and performance, increases in turnover, and negative personal outcomes such as alcohol and drug use, physical and mental illness, and disturbance in family and social lives (Maslach, Schaufeli, & Leiter, 2001; Cameron, Horsburg, & Armstrong-Stassen,1994). In the late 1990s, the concept of burnout was broadened to occupations beyond pure human service and was broadened to managers, as well (Maslach et al., 2001; Maslach & Leiter, 1997).

The nature of occupations also appears to be related to emotional exhaustion. For instance, occupations that more frequently deal with interpersonal relations, such as service representatives, are more likely to have higher employee emotional strain (Brotheridge & Grandey, 2002). Furthermore, employees are more likely to experience emotional exhaustion in such jobs that require emotional control (Brotheridge & Grandey, 2002).

2.3 Personality and Big Five Model

The most frequently used definition of personality is that of Allport (1937), the dynami c organization within the individual of those psychological systems that determine his unique adjustments to his environment (cited by Robbins and Judge 2007, p. 106). In other words it is the conglomerate of the ways in which we interact and react to those around us, and which is usually described via a set of measurable traits that we exhibit. One model which has been used extensively in personality research is the five-factor model of personality (Tupes and Christal, 1961 cited by Robbins and Judge, 2007) and constitutes the following: Extraversion. Comfort level with relationships. Extroverts tend to be gregarious, assertive, and sociable. Introverts tend to be reserved, timid, and quiet. Agreeableness. Individuals propensity to defer to others. High agreeableness people cooperative, warm, and trusting. Low agreeableness peoplecold, disagreeable, and antagonistic. Conscientiousness. A measure of reliability. A high conscientious person is responsible, organized, dependable, and persistent. Those who score low on this dimension are easily distracted, disorganized, and unreliable. Emotional stability (sometimes referred to as neuroticism). A persons ability to withstand stress. People with positive emotional stability tend to be calm, self-confident, and secure. Those with high negative scores tend to be nervous, anxious, depressed, and insecure.

Openness to experience. The range of interests and fascination with novelty. Extremely open people are creative, curious, and artistically sensitive. Those at the other end of the openness category are conventional and find comfort in the familiar.(p. 110)

This model has been labeled Big Five having revolutionized personality psychology (Judge and Bono, 2000).

3. Findings and Discussion:

The complexity of the study of emotional labour is highlighted by the number of strands of literature drawn together in this review. The nature of emotional labour, the coping strategies used by those called upon to perform it, its impact together with that of the personality of the service workers on perceptions of service quality, and human resource management issues of working in teams, selection and training of service workers are discussed.

3.1 Coping Strategies More generally, coping is defined by Lazarus and Folkman (1984) as: constantly changing cognitive and behavioural efforts to manage specific external and/or internal demands that are appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources of the person (p. 141). They suggest that coping is thus a shifting process in which a person must, at certain times, rely more heavily on one form of coping, say defensive strategies, and at other times on problem-solving strategies, as the status of the person-environment relationship changes.

Coping strategies have been classified as being emotion-focussed or problem-focussed. Emotionfocussed coping strategies include avoidance, minimisation, distancing, and wresting positive value from negative events. Some cognitive types of emotion-focussed coping strategies result in a change in the way an encounter is construed, which is equivalent to reappraisal. Behavioural strategies which include engaging in physical exercise to take ones mind off the problem, having a drink, venting anger, and seeking emotional support are also emotion-focussed coping strategies. Problem-focussed coping strategies include reducing ego involvement or learning new skills and procedures (Lazarus and Folkman, 1984, pp. 1502).

People under stress may be able to draw on a number of personal and external coping resources. Personal coping resources include health and energy (a physical resource); positive beliefs (a

psychological resource), and problem-solving and social skills (competencies) (Lazarus and Folkman, 1984, p. 159). External coping resources include social and material resources (p. 243)

3.2 Impact of Performance of Emotional Labor on Perception of Service Quality:

The performance of emotional labour involves the display of organisationally desired emotion, such as friendliness, by customer service workers in their interactions with customers or clients. It is a significant activity as the skill with which emotional labour is performed impacts on perceptions of service quality. Another contributing factor to perceptions of service quality is the personality of service workers, as the service exchange is essentially a social interaction.

On the basis of exploratory research, the SERVQUAL scale of service quality, which has the following five dimensions, has been developed (Parasuraman et al., 1988):

Tangibles: physical facilities, equipment, and appearance of personnel Reliability: ability to perform the promised service dependably and accurately Responsiveness: willingness to help customers and provide prompt service Assurance: knowledge and courtesy of employees and their ability to inspire trust and confidence Empathy: caring, individualised attention the firm provides its customers

Bailey and McCollough (2000, p. 54) suggest that three of these five dimensions responsiveness, assurance, and empathy have potentially high emotional content.

This makes it natural to suggest that the quality of service depends in part, on the skills, attitudes and personality traits of the service providers (Chait, Carraher, and Buckley, 2000). Researchers are generally in agreement about the big five factors of personality, namely, Extraversion, Emotional Stability, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness and Culture. The traits associated with Extraversion, such as being sociable and gregarious have been shown to lead to effective performance for managers and sales personnel (Barrick and Mount, 1991). Thus, the quality of service can be enhanced by the selection of individuals who have the necessary personal characteristics (Chait et al., 2000).

3.3 HRM Practices:

The importance of a systematic approach to selection cannot be overemphasised (Emenheiser, Clay, and Palakurthi, 1998). Furthermore, Cran (1994, p. 37-8) suggests that if service is regarded as a key

job factor individual service orientation should hold as high a priority as skills, abilities or knowledge in employee selection, advancement or placement decisions.

While it has been acknowledged that sound human resource management practices in respect to the selection and training of service workers will contribute to the effective performance of emotional labour and hence, customer perceptions of service quality (Lundberg, 1991), there seems some question about how well such practices are used in the tourism and hospitality industry. Baum and Nickson (1998, p. 76) observe that: On one hand, the industry rightly proclaims itself as a people industry, dependent on the capability and enthusiasm of its frontline staff in order to deliver quality products and services with consistency. At the same time, the industry often laments the low skills base of much of its workforce. Nevertheless, in order to provide excellent service, high levels of communication and interpersonal skills are required from many of these same low-skilled workers, who are the public face of their organisations.

However, in the hotel industry, there is a growing awareness of the need to carefully select employees, as customer relations skills, particularly of front-office staff, are vital. The importance of personality is also reflected in selection, as there is evidence of the use of personality testing and interviews when filling senior management positions, as reported by MacHatton et al. (1997) and Waryszak and Bauer (1993). Indeed, companies are recognising the need to carefully screen applicants, with more consideration being given to the personality of potential employees, in recognition of the emotional demands on those with front-line jobs (Berger and Ghei, 1995; Kuemmler and Kleiner, 1996; Waryszak and Bauer, 1993).

After selection, the importance of staff training programs is widely recognised. Training and coaching can provide service workers with a repertoire of quality service behaviours (Lundberg, 1991). However, as service workers differ in service orientation, so do they differ in their receptiveness to training (Cran, 1994). Indeed, on the basis of the personality factors outlined above, it could be said that any training may be of limited value if the service workers are lacking in personality traits associated with Extraversion and Culture, as they are less sociable and gregarious by nature, and have less positive attitudes towards relevant learning.

Thus, it can be said that managers and service workers in the industry have agreed that the ability to perform emotional labour is a matter of personality, which was seen as being more important than technical skills. This view resulted in the selection and training of workers considered to have the right personality.

3.4 Personality Traits and the performance of Emotional Labor:

Individual characteristics affect how an individual performs emotional labor (e.g., Diefendorff et al., 2005; Kruml & Geddes, 2000;Wharton & Erickson, 1995; Zapf & Holz, 2006). Personality is considered as one of the most important individual characteristics that affect how an individual performs emotional labor (Diefendorff et al., 2005; Zapf & Holz, 2006). Even if few studies (e.g., Kruml & Geddes, 2000) recommended that the ability to perform emotional labor is trainable, other findings have revealed a general consensus that one has to possess certain traits and characteristics in order to perform this type of work successfully.

In a research by Jehn-Yih Wong, Chih-Hung Wang on Emotional Labor of the tour leaders: An exploratory study, tour leaders in Taiwan were interviewed and the following responses were obtained:

Certain personality traits are prerequisite for being a successful tour leader. These determine how an individual interacts with and responds to others and how she/he expresses her or his emotions. (Joan, female, 35 years old, a tour leader for 8 years). We didnt actually look for people with experience or good skills. We wanted people that had a certain personality more than the skills because we felt we could train people to do the job. A tour leader with a good personality often can express and transmit the right emotions to smooth over difficulties. The personality that possibly displays appropriate emotions rather than skills is our most concern, because of personality cant be trained (Peter, male, vice-general manager, 51 years old, holding current position for 7 years).

Another aspect of female personality attributes being more successful in performing the people work was highlighted in this research. Women typically tend to understand peoples feelings better than men and do more emotional work both at work and at home (e.g., Brotheridge & Grandey, 2002; Constanti & Gibbs, 2005; Kruml & Geddes, 2000; Wharton & Erickson, 1993; Wharton & Erickson, 1995). Since the emotions that ought to be expressed vary, tour leaders concluded that both male and female tour leaders can make things right in their own ways.

Both female and male have their own successful characteristics for this job. Female tour leaders are more effective at sensing peoples feelings and do a better job of caring and empathizing, while male tour leaders are more capable of showing calm, reliable, and steady attitudes.

In another research conducted by Barbara Anderson, Chris Provis and Shirley Chappel The recognition and management of emotional labor a CRC tourism research report, a series of interviews were conducted with managers and service workers in the accommodation, hospitality, tourism information and transportation sectors of the tourism and hospitality industry in South Australia. When the service workers were asked about the skills, which they used in their customer service work, their responses generally focused on personal attributes, such as being a people person, and interpersonal skills (soft skills), rather than hard skills, such as job knowledge. Indeed, the importance of personality, in the sense of being a people person was regularly mentioned: I am an excellent people person, I always have been, I was born that way, Im very confident, , I think thats probably the biggest skill, just Im a really, really good people person (Annabelle, bus tour company)

Thus, it is clear that the service workers themselves, after due contemplation, more readily acknowledged the importance of personal attributes (such as being a people person) and communication skills, for example listening, rather than the hard skills, such as job knowledge, in their customer service work.

In discussing the emphasis put on the performance aspects of the job as opposed to the service aspects in the selection process, managers often referred to the importance of the right personality: My personal opinion is that anyone can be trained to do the job, um, so whats most important is the personality of staff members that Im requiring (Lachlan, manager, accommodation) So its probably 60/40, to be honest 60% personality and the way they sell themselves and 40% what theyve actually done on paper. (Michael, manager, hospitality) I tend to look at mainly the personalities of the person and their characters and their nature I think its important because those type of things you cant train people for. (Claire, manager, hospitality) A number of the service workers also commented on the importance of being a people-person, which could be interpreted as their endorsement of the need to be gregarious and sociable, traits associated with Extraversion. From these comments, it appears that managers and service workers equated the performance of emotional labour with the right personality and being a people person.

3.5 Personality Traits and Emotional Exhaustion/Burnout

A majority of burnout/emotional exhaustion studies have focused on occupation-related characteristics (Cordes & Dougherty, 1993). Although a number of empirical studies have found

significant influences of occupational stressors on employees experience of emotional exhaustion, these studies have not yet provided explanations for individual differences in emotional exhaustion levels given the same kinds and intensity of occupation stress (Zellars, Perrewe, & Hochwarter, 2000). That is, within the same occupational context, some employees may experience lower or higher levels of emotional exhaustion than others.

A number of studies explained these individual differences in burnout/emotional exhaustion levels using demographics (e.g., age) as significant determinants of emotional exhaustion (Gaines & Jermier, 1983; Maslach & Jackson, 1981). Industry psychologists have reported that personality traits make a difference in coping with work stress (Maslach, Schaufeli, & Leiter, 2001; Tokar et al., 1998; Vollrath & Torgersen, 2000)

Neuroticism has been described as the primary source of negative affectivity (Watson & Hubbard, 1996). Because of their essentially negative nature, individuals high in neuroticism experience more distress than do individuals low in neuroticism (George, 1992), and therefore, may experience higher levels of emotional exhaustion. While neuroticism is associated with negative life events, extroverts are predisposed to experience positive emotions (Costa & McCrae, 1992). Thus, extroversion is the primary source of positive affectivity. Extraverts tend to exhibit optimism that things will work out. Because of their tendency to be optimistic about the future, extroverts are expected to experience lower levels of emotional exhaustion.

Agreeable individuals have greater motivation to achieve interpersonal intimacy, which tends to be related to happiness (McCrae & Costa, 1991). Conscientious individuals are efficient, competent, hardworking, ambitious, and dependable (Block, 1961). Individuals open to experience tend to experience both the good and bad more intensely (Costa & McCrae, 1984).

Recent empirical research has reported that agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to experience have no significant relationship with emotional exhaustion, but neuroticism and extraversion are statistically related to emotional exhaustion (Kim et al., 2007).

4. Conclusion & Research Implications

In concluding this brief literature review, it can be said that emotional labour, the expression of organisationally desired emotion in interpersonal transactions, can be viewed as a performance, which has positive or negative consequences for those called upon to perform it and it is highly a function of personality. Hence, it can be concluded that personality could be considered as a determining variable to predict an individuals ability to display emotions appropriately. This research

concludes that there are organizational and individual benefits of extraverted people being employed in hotel organizations, and for practitioners, this finding should offer guidance in the employee selection process. From the previous studies conducted with managers about the selection of service workers, it became evident that greater emphasis is placed on the interpersonal skills and the personality (the right personality) of prospective employees, rather than their technical abilities. Having the right personality (however that was defined in each organisational context), is often the basis on which managers made decisions about the provision of further training opportunities. These findings have a number of implications for service organisations relating to the management of their customer service workers. It is recommended that organisational policies and practices be reviewed as to their adequacy in the following areas: 1. Selection: the criteria for the selection of customer service workers should assess the interpersonal skills and the personality of potential employees, in a manner, which is consistent with the definition of personality within the particular organisational context. Several scales (e.g., Goldberg, 1992; Saucier,1994) have been introduced to depict the personality of an individual, practitioners may thus include one of these scale as part of the selection procedure to screen candidates who can display emotions appropriately.

2. Training: related to selection, areas in which consideration for further training to be supplied include communication and conflict resolution skills. 3. Organisational culture: the fostering of a supportive environment in which workers are encouraged to share their experiences, both positive and negative, with managers and co-workers, allowing them to cope more effectively with the challenges of customer service work and hence, display a more consistently welcoming demeanour towards customers. Moreover, these findings have a practical relevance for both hotel stakeholders and academic scholars who wish to further explore the emotional labour-personality association. If, as the findings suggests, neuroticism has a positive impact on emotional exhaustion, for many the prime dimension of burnout, then the rationale exists to recruit, promote and invest in developing those individuals who do not exhibit such a trait. Hotel establishments can utilize the findings when developing their recruitment, selection and training strategies for management and leadership positions. This can be combined with selection procedures that take into account the personality traits of individuals particularly agreeableness and conscientiousness.

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2.1 Emotional Labour

2.3 Service Quality

4.2 The skills used by service workers in their client 4.6 The perceptions of service workers and managers that