PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

This article was downloaded by:

On: 17 January 2011
Access details: Access Details: Free Access
Publisher Taylor & Francis
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-
41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK
Drying Technology
Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information:
http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~content=t713597247
CONTRIBUTIONS OF T. K. SHERWOOD AND ASSOCIATES TO THE
FIELD OF DRYING
E. W. Comings
a
a
Dean, E~eritus, Engineering University of Delaware, Newark, DE, California
To cite this Article Comings, E. W.(1983) 'CONTRIBUTIONS OF T. K. SHERWOOD AND ASSOCIATES TO THE FIELD
OF DRYING', Drying Technology, 1: 2, 249 273
To link to this Article: DOI: 10.1080/07373938308916782
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07373938308916782
Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.informaworld.com/terms-and-conditions-of-access.pdf
This article may be used for research, teaching and private study purposes. Any substantial or
systematic reproduction, re-distribution, re-selling, loan or sub-licensing, systematic supply or
distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden.
The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents
will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae and drug doses
should be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss,
actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly
or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material.
DRYING TECHNOLOGY, 1(2), 249-273 (1983-84)
,
(Part l)
CONTRIBUTIONS OF iT. K. SHERWOOD AND ASSOCIATES
TO THE FIELD OF DRYING
,
E. W. Comings
Dean, Engineering
University of Delaware
, Newark, DE
Keywords and Phrases-Chemical Engineering; constant rate; critical
moisture; falling rate; history; heat transfer;
mass transfer; Sherwood number; solids.
During the period froll) 1929 to 1937 Thomas Kilgore Sherwood
published a series of seveh papers (S3, 5, 6, 7, 10. G3. C9) on
I
drying in Industrial and Engineering Chemistry and several others
(G7. S2. 4,10,11.13. 14!. L6. S8) in various journals. These
papers contributed very to understanding the funda-
,
mental mechanisms of drying which provided a basis for many com-
i
mercial designs. Also. dU"ing that period he taught a university
,
course on drying. This including contributions by his
students and associates! at the Massachusetts Institute of
I
Technology, is reviewed and presented here in detail. In later
I
years. Sherwood also contributed many papers on heat transfer.
fluid turbulence. absorpti'on and extraction, and he was author
I
and co-author of books 01) mass transfer. applied mathematics.
properties of gases and liquids, and process design (M4, S18, 20,
I
249
I
Copyright 1983 by Marcel Dekker, Inc, 0737-3987/83/0102-0249$3.50/0
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

A
t
:

1
1
:
1
6

1
7

J
a
n
u
a
r
y

2
0
1
1
250 COMINGS
R2) Only those contributions closely related to drying are
included in this paper.
Colleagues named the dimensionless number used in mass
transfer correlations as the "Sherwood number" in his honor. Sh
is the gas-side mass-transfer coefficient multiplied by a linear
dimension and divided by the molecular diffusion coefficient for
vapor in gas, ked. Since kclD is 1lx, the reciprocal of the
D
equivalent gas film thickness. it may also be written as dlx as
used by Sherwood and Gilliland in 1934 (S24). TIle Sherwood
number is parallel to the Nusselt number for heat transfer.
Drying Solids
Drying as discussed here consists of vaporizing water from a
solid into a stream of air. Air drying is an important com-
mercial process employed for a wide variety of products, shapes,
sizes, and equipment designs. TIle heat requirement is usually
large because the latent heat of evaporation for water is large.
Conventional wisdom dictates the use of lower energy consuming
processes such as draining, pressing, and centrifuging prior to
air drying. TIlus in a large paper machine mechanical removal of
moisture is faster and more economical. Over 95 percent of the
water in the pulp is removed mechanically in the "wet end".
Mechanical moisture removal is done in roughly one-quarter of the
total length of the machine and in a much smaller fraction of the
total length of travel of the sheet as it then proceeds over
heated rolls for the final air drying.
Sherwood pointed out that the design and operation of drying
equipment may require two kinds of information: first, the
physics of moisture movement in solids and of the water vapor
diffusion from solid to air stream; and second, the engineering
of dryer design and of computations of air and heat requirements.
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

A
t
:

1
1
:
1
6

1
7

J
a
n
u
a
r
y

2
0
1
1
CONTRIBUTIONS OF T. K. SHERWOOD AND ASSOCIATES 251
solid based on its dry weight versus
This smooth curve as it is, reveals
His contributions were directed primarily to experiments of the
first kind and the devel0?nent of equations and principles to
interpret them. This he called the "mechanism of drying". He
I
also developed numerous examples of how this first kind of in-
I
formation was to be apptied in the engineering design and
operation of full scale Work was concentrated on experi-
ments for the first kind of information and the organization of
this information so that could be used to obtain the second
kind of information: the actual design of commercial units with
the calculation of air andI energy requirements and cost studies
for economic sizing.
Mechanism of Drying -- by Rate of Drying Curves
A slab of solid was lused as a basic model to study the
mechanism by which its content moves from the interior of
the solid to the air flowing across its surface. Such a slab is
placed in a current of air and dried. The sides of the slab are
coated to prevent water vapor from leaving through them, but this
does not interfere with from the air entering the solid
through them. Heat from air stream passes through the air
boundary layer resistance to the solid surface and when required
I
on into the solid. This heat primarily supplies the latent heat
. I
of evaporation of the wat'1r being transformed into vapor which
then diffuses through the air film into the air stream.
When the wet slab is sypport in an air stream under constant
drying conditions and its weight measured at frequent time
I
intervals, the curve showri in Figure 1 is typically obtained.
I
The percent of water in the
time in hours is shown.
little about the way the takes place. However, by drawing
tangents to the curve at a number of weights (moisture contents)
and determining the slopes:of these tangents with a protractor, a
,
curve of rates of drying, as shown in Figure 2 may be prepared.
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

A
t
:

1
1
:
1
6

1
7

J
a
n
u
a
r
y

2
0
1
1
252 COMINGS
E
12 2

o
TIME, Hours
Fi g. 1 Typical drying curve
This method, apparently first employed by Fisher (F3, 4), reveals
a typical number of periods into which the drying may be divided;
first an initial adjustment period A from A to B in the figure,
then a constant rate period I from B to C (the critical point),
and a falling rate period at moisture contents below C. The
falling rate period may consist of one or two parts such as the
straight line from C to D, II, and the curved line from D to E,
III, or a single curved line as from M to E. The slab does not
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

A
t
:

1
1
:
1
6

1
7

J
a
n
u
a
r
y

2
0
1
1
CONTRIBUTIONS OF T. K. SHERWOOD AND ASSOCIATES 253

C)
z
>=
a:
C
u.
o
w

a:
..........................
.'
.'
c
M 8
A
28
Fi g. 2 Typical rate-of-drying curve
dry to zero moisture even over a very long time but
rather to a moisture content that is in equilibrium with air at
,
its constant relative humidity.
The general mechanisms of drying are:
I. Evaporation of the at the solid surface; where the
resistance to internal diffJsion of liquid is small as compared
I
with the resistance to removal of water vapor from the surface,
for the constant rate period.
II. Evaporation at the surface; resistance to internal
diffusion of liquid increasing as compared with the resistanoe to
removal of vapor from the sur race , for the falling rate period,
,
zone of diminishing wetted surface.
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

A
t
:

1
1
:
1
6

1
7

J
a
n
u
a
r
y

2
0
1
1
254 COMINGS
III. Evaporation in the interior of the solid; resistance to
internal diffusion of the liquid great as compared with the total
resistance to the removal of vapor, providing the falling rate
period, zone of internal diffusion controlling,
A. The solid may have an initial temperature higher or lower
than the temperature attained in the constant rate period. The
solid then warms or cools by adding or removing sensible heat.
The heat transferred from the surroundings is then more than or
less than needed to supply the latent heat of evaporation until
these reach a balance as in the constant rate period, providing
the initial adjustment period.
Drying rate curves may consist of all combinations of periods
A, I, II, and III: Each of these only; A with I, II or III only;
I with II or III only; II and III; or A, I, II,' and III,
providing eleven combinations. The drying curve is determined by
the nature, shape and dimensions of the solid and the conditions
in the surroundings; air velocity, temperature and humidity, the
temperature of the surrounding surfaces and the arrangement of
the solid surfaces through which drying takes place including the
presence of impervious or semi-impervious coatings.
Constant Drying Conditions
The term constant drying conditions means constant air
temperature, air humidity (or relative humidity) and air
velocity. Constant drying conditions also imply constant air
pressure, direction of air flow and turbulence, and a constant
temperature of the surrounding solid sur faces. Thus the con-
ditions under which heat is supplied and water vapor removed are
constant outside the slab itself. These conditions will not
usually exist in a large commercial dryer as the solid moves.
However, it is desirable in these basic studies to limit and
control the number of variables. Each of these drying periods is
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

A
t
:

1
1
:
1
6

1
7

J
a
n
u
a
r
y

2
0
1
1
CONTRIBUTIONS OF T. K. SHERWOOD AND ASSOCIATES 255
analyzed in relation to experiments and theories of moisture
movement.
Initial adjustment period. The wet slab at a uniform
to' pso
surface
temperature (through the t , and uniform moisture, T are
100
placed in an air stream a constant temperature, t
a,
and a
constant partial pressure oflwater vapor p. If t is less than
I a 0
t
a,
heat will start to flow from the air to the wet surface.
Heat will also flow to the dry surfaces and be conducted through
,
the slab to the wet surface. i The partial pressure of water vapor
I
at the wet surface is initially the vapor pressure of water at
I
If Pso is greater Fhan Pa' water will evaporate at the
and the vapor will diffuse through the stagnant (or
I
laminar) surface air layer into the main air stream. If the rate
I
at which latent heat (of e,vaporation) is carried away in the
vapor from the wet surface exceeds the rate at which heat is
conducted to the surface through the air layer, through the solid
,
and by radiation from the sur-round Ings , the slab will cool and
the surface temperature will decrease. This cooling will con-
I
tinue until the rate of inflow equals the rate of latent
heat outflow (by vapor dif(usion). As the surface temperature
decreases, the rate of heat:outflOW will decrease until the two
rates are equal.
A dynamic equilibrium then established and the rates of
,
heat inflow and outflow willi be constant and the surface tempera-
I
ture, t
se'
and th,e rate or drying will be constant. It is
I
evident that if to had been less than t
se'
the slab would warm
I
until equilibrium is established at temperature t . The time
I se
during which this initial adjustment takes place is the initial
I
adjustment period which is usually only a small part of the total
drying time. In some cases , as in drying pulp, the initial
adjustment period may contl'nue for as much as hal f the total
drying time.
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

A
t
:

1
1
:
1
6

1
7

J
a
n
u
a
r
y

2
0
1
1
256 COMINGS
Constant rate period. Under constant drying conditions. and
after the surface has reached the equilibrium tempterature. the
drying of most solids will continue at a constant rate for some
time. This period comprises a major part of the total drying of
some solids but may also be only a small part. The mechanism is
similar to evaporation from a free water surface, the partial
pressure of water vapor in the air decreases with the distance
from the surface. The partial pressure decreases from the vapor
pressure of water at the equilibrium temperature to the partial
pressure of water in the main air stream. Thus, the water vapor
diffuses away from the slab surface. Diffusion is visualized as
a process in which the molecules of water vapor move through the
molecules of oxygen and nitrogen in the air due to their random
molecular velocities as characterizedd by Brownian movement.
Stefan (S18) developed equations for diffusion of one species of
gas through another stagnant gas as in this case. However, since
this diffusion is through a layer of air which is not completely
stagnant, the equation by Stefan is used by introducing a film
thickness B
f
of stagnant air. The film thickness is equivalent
to the actual complex layer of relatively stagnant air next to
the slab surface disturbed as it is by greater degrees of mixing
as one moves into the main stream of flowing air. When the heat
flow to the slab involves no conduction of heat through dry
surfaces and when radiation is negligible, the equilibrium
temperature t
se
reached is the wet-bulb temperature of the air.
The heat flow conditions are represented by the situation where
heat is received at the evaporating sur-race by conduction and
convection through the same surface air film through which the
vapor diffuses into the air stream. With the surface at the
equilibrium temperature (often differing from the wet bulb
temperature). the drying takes place as rapidly as water vapor
can diffuse from the surface into the air stream. This rate of
drying is influenced greatly by air velocity, temperature, and
humidity. For insoluble solids, the rate of drying does not
depend on the nature of the solid or thickness of the slab except
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

A
t
:

1
1
:
1
6

1
7

J
a
n
u
a
r
y

2
0
1
1
CONTRIBUTIONS OF T. K. SHERWOOD AND ASSOCIATES 257
and the geometry
The curves shown
as these influence heat tr-ansrer to the wet surface from dry
surfaces. The air and humidity may change from point
,
to point in a commercial as the solid moves through and the
I
rate of drying will change accordingly. Nevertheless. this
I
period is called the constant rate period.
I
I
Air Temperature and Humi'dity. The rate of vaporization is
I
proportional to the difference p -p , where p is the vapor pres-
I s a s
sure of water at the surfac,e temperature and Pa is the partial
pressure of water vapor in the air; and is inversely proportional
I
to the average partial pressure of air in the surface film (L5).
I
At ordinary temperatures and hlJ1lidities, the latter is approxi-
,
mately equal to the total and may be taken as constant.
For most purposes the rate may be asslJ1led to be proportional only
I
to the difference p -p. The vapor pressure, p , increases with
air temperature for
s
a agiVen' relative hlJ1lidity; spa increase with
himidity at any fixed
Air velocity. As long as the sur face is wet, the rate of
drying is greatly influenced by the air velocity over the
I
surface. The effect is a,nalogous to the influence of fluid
velocity on the dissipation of heat from a hot surface placed in
contact with a fluid stream.
Figure 3, curve A, represents the data of Hinchley and Himus
I
(H5) on vaporization of water from pans. Curve B represents the
i
data of Carrier (C2) on the [vaporization of water from a flat wet
I
wick in a parallel air current. Curve C represents some data of
Kamei and Sedohara (K2) on vaporization from wet aul phf t.e pulp.
Carrier found that in a transverse air current the rate of
I
vaporization increased greatly. Kamei, Mizuno, and Shionie (K1)
report data obtained with the air stream striking the face of the
I
wet sample at various angles. The quanti tati ve effect obtained
I
is doubtless dependent on size of the sample
of the set-up, as well as on the angle itself.
I
on Figure 3 represent data obtained with parallel air flow.
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

A
t
:

1
1
:
1
6

1
7

J
a
n
u
a
r
y

2
0
1
1
258 COMINGS
O . 1 2 ~ r - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . . . . . ,
6 3 4
AIR VELOCITY, MIS.
Effect of air velocity on the rate of vaporization
from a free water surface
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
o /
o
Fig. 3
At very low imposed air velocities the rate of vaporization
is relatively high because of free convection effects. and the
rate is quite appreciable even in "still" air. This effect tends
to straighten the curves and led both Carrier and Hinchley and
Himus to report a linear relation between rate and air velocity.
A power function with an additive term for free convection has
been derived by Himus (H4) burt its more complicated form is
probably not justified for estimates of drying rates.
Curve D on Figure 4 represents the equation:
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

A
t
:

1
1
:
1
6

1
7

J
a
n
u
a
r
y

2
0
1
1
CONTRIBUTIONS OF T. K. SHERWpOD AND ASSOCIATES
W = 0.027 yO.8(ip -Pa'
, s
where
W =rate of vaporization, kg/cm
2hr
I
y =velocity parallel air stream over set
surface,
Ps = vapor pressure of water at the temperature of
the liquid Isurface, rom Hg
I
Pa =partial of water in the air stream,
rom Hg
259
(1)
drying is greater than would be
by assuming Ps equal to the vapor
bulb temperature.
Equation 1 is recommended as a conservative estimate of rates of
vaporization over the rangr of air velocities from 1.5 to 7 mls
at approximately room and is probably safer than the
I
linear relations for extraPolation to higher air velocities.
Heat transfer by radiation and conduction. A very wet solid
I
behaves very much like th'i wet wick of a wet-bulb thermometer.
If heat is also received by radiation or by conduction other than
through the wet surface, the dynamic equilibrium requires a
higher solid temperature the rate of vaporization is greater.
Thus in practice the SOlid: is usually at a temperature somewhat
higher than the wet-bulb ,temperature during the constant rate
I
period, and the rate
calculated from Equation 1
,
pressure of water at the wet
The effect of on the temperature of the wet solid
,
may be calculated, providng the temperatures and positions of
the surrouding surfaces are known. The method of calculation is
to equate the total heat ipput, W, by radiation and convection,
expressed by the equation.
W=
(2l
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

A
t
:

1
1
:
1
6

1
7

J
a
n
u
a
r
y

2
0
1
1
260 COMINGS
I
I
"
-
I /

-
6
U
/ 1/
-t
"
en

/.: f
;;
l-
LL.
18
:;;
c,
;:/" I
<Xi 16
...J
<:J'
z 14
>-
" /'
a:
1 fo /'
c
12
LL.
0
;- -7'
w
10 ...

a::
" 0/
8

6


4

2
..
G
TIME. Hours
Fig. 4 Hygroscopic moisture
A. Leaf tobacco
B. Oak-tanned sole leather
C. Lumber
D. Ivory soap
E. Glue
F. English ball clay
G. Kaolin
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

A
t
:

1
1
:
1
6

1
7

J
a
n
u
a
r
y

2
0
1
1
water at the rate given by
can be solved for the unknown
CONTRIBUTIONS OF T. K. SHERWOOD AND ASSOCIATES
to the heat required to vaporize
I
Equation 1. The resulting
absolute temperature, t , and vapor pressure,
s I
related by the vapor curve. In equation
261
which are
supporting frames
"sight" of other
p = black-body coefficient of the solid surface
I
c = radiation constant in the Stefan-Boltzmann
radiation equation
t
r
= absolute temperature of the surroundings
A = wet surface area
h
c
= coefficient of heat flow
The effect of heat conduction may be large but is not easily
calculated. In a drum dryer for paper or textiles, for example,
the heat conduction to the sheet raises the' sheet temperature
above the dry-bulb temperature of the air. Materials dried on
I
trays receive heat by conducrion through the tray bottom, and the
temperature of the solid is iaised considerably, although usually
not to the dry-bulb tempera,ture. Since the vapor pressure of
water rises rapidly with a small increase in
temperature may increase the rate of drying appreciably.
Caution. A warning is lssued against the design of dryers
I
based on laboratory data obtained under conditions where the
I
effects of radiation and may be large. A small sample
dried in a heated cabinet be found to dry much more rapidly
than in a large dryer in which the heat conduction from
is less, in which the wet surfaces are in
wet surfaces, even though the temperature,
I
velocity, and humidity of the air may be the same.
Critical Moisture Content
During the drying liquid!water moves through the solid to the
,
surface and the moisture conterrt of the solid decreases as the
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

A
t
:

1
1
:
1
6

1
7

J
a
n
u
a
r
y

2
0
1
1
262 COMINGS
moisture is evaporated from the surface. The extent of evapor-
ation below the surface is not defined by these relationships.
The surface behaves like a free water surface even though it may
appear to progressively dry out. However, the rate of drying
begins to decrease before the solid is dry. The rate of drying
then decreases progressively to provide what is termed the
falling rate period. The water content at which this change
initially occurs is termed the critical moisture content. The
rate of drying in the constant rate period is relatively
independent of the nature of the solid being dried. However, the
length of the constant rate period is greatly dependent on the
properties of the solid. The critical moisture content, which
determines the end of the constant rate period. varies over a
wide range being well over 100 percent (dry basis) for certain
wall boards, and as low as 5 percent for a fine grained non-
hygroscopic solid. If the solid is susceptible to shrinkage,
shrinkage frequently occurs during the constant rate period.
Shrinkage may result in surface cracking and a reduction from the
original surface area and slab volume. Where the quality of the
dried product is effected by differential shrinkage, by con-
trolling the rate of drying an improved product may result.
Eguilibrium or Hygroscopic Moisture Content
By continued drying under constant drying, the moisture
content is reduced below the critical moisture content. the rate
of drying continues to decrease. The rate of drying drops to
zero during which time the moisture content drops, not to zero,
but to a value in equilibrium with the air at its relative
humidity. The moisture content in equilibrium with the air is
the equilibrium (or hygroscopic) moisture content of the solid.
Host solids with a lower moisture content than this. when placed
in contact with the same air, will pick up moisture until this
same equilibrium moisture content is reached. Figure 4 shows
curves of equilibrium or hygroscopic moisture content versus
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

A
t
:

1
1
:
1
6

1
7

J
a
n
u
a
r
y

2
0
1
1
CONTRIBUTIONS OF T. K. AND ASSOCIATES 263
percent relative htrnidity Or a number of materials (11). At a
,
constant relative humidity the moisture contents vary only a few
percent over a ccns Ider-ab Ie range of temperature. Free water
content is defined as the water content of a solid above the
hygroscopic moisture
Experimental Dryer
Experiments were conducted in an experimental dryer which
consisted of a horizontal rectangular duct, 116 x 61 em, of
uninsulated galvanized through which air could be
recirculated at a temperature and humidity. Heat was
supplied by a bank of finned tubes in the overhead return duct.
I
and a steam jet in the duct, preceding this heater was used to
I
maintain the humidity. valves controlling the steam,
supplied to both heater and: steam jet. were operated by a Bristol
recording humidity control iinstrument. The air in passing from
I
the upper return duct to lower main duct passed through a
I
smooth semi-circular bend, the samples which were being dried
were hung in the dryer some 11.5 to 6.0 downstream from the bend.
,
Some 6 downstream from the return bend the duct tapered to a
section 15.2 cm wide by 61! cm high, in which tests at very high
air velocities could be A small laboratory balance resting
on the roof of the duct was used. The sample was supported by a
I
wire passing through a smalrl hole in the metal duct. The temper-
I
ature and htrnidity were maintained practically constant. and the
samples weighed at short time intervals over a period of several
hours. At the end of the run the sample was heated overnight in
an oven and the bone-dry obtained.
Some Drying Results-Granular Materials and Clays
The area used in the rate was the initial wetted
surface. Rates were determined as described previously.
Although an error is introduced based on judgment in placing the
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

A
t
:

1
1
:
1
6

1
7

J
a
n
u
a
r
y

2
0
1
1
264 COMINGS
tangents, error has been reduced to a minimum, and the calculated
rates are believed accurate to within 5 percent. The materials
dried from one face were placed in a rectangular galvanized iron
pan, 15.5 x 15.3 x 2.5 cm deep. The sides were lined with tin
foil before the material was packed in the pan. The tin foil
adhered to the material being dried and not to the pan as
shrinkage took place. The clay which dried from two faces was
formed in a rectangular block held vertically in a wooden frame
also lined with tin foil.
Commercial silica and fire-clay brick mixes were used. The
silica brick batch was 98 percent ground quartzite (ganister)
with 2 percent lime; the plastic clay mix was a fire-clay brick
batch, consisting of 60 percent plastic clay and 40 percent flint
clay: and the brick mix was a fire-clay brick batch consisting of
65 percent flint clay, 15 percent plastic clay, and 20 percent of
a clay which had been calcined to a temperature of about 1300
0C.
Washed sea sand and a porous ceramic plate were also dried. The
conditions of the tests are given in Table 1.
Clays. Rate-of-drying curves were obtained from the data for
drying the three clays at 130
0F.
(54.4
0C.)
and at two humidities.
Comparison of these curves brings out several interesting points.
As might be expected, the granular, silica brick batch dries most
rapidly of the three, followed by the brick mix, and the plastic
clay mix dries slowest. The rate or drying in the constant rate
period is essentially the same for each clay, although the silica
brick batch showed an unexplained high rate at the start. The
average rate in the constant rate period is seen to be about 70
percent greater at 10 to 12 percent relative humidity than at 50
percent relative humidity. This ratio of rates in the constant
rate period is, however, doubtless a function of the ratio of dry
to wetted surface, which was large in these tests. Four of the
curves for the falling rate period are definitely divisible into
two zones; the period immediately following the critical point is
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

A
t
:

1
1
:
1
6

1
7

J
a
n
u
a
r
y

2
0
1
1
CONTRIBUTIONS OF T. K. SHERW90D AND ASSOCIATES 265
TABLE 1.
C o n d i t i o ~ s of Individual Tests
Initial
Rela- Criti- Ratio
t1ve Air Dry cal Dry to
Air Hu- Ve- Thick- Mois- Wetted
Run Material Tsmp. midity locity ness ture Surface
C. S M/sec. em. S
A20 Porous ceramic
plate 53.0 12 3.7 O. B5 7.B 1. 21
A21 Porous ceramic
plate 65.6 10 3.7 0.B5 7.8 1.21
A22 Porous ceramic
plate 53.2 17 11.6 0.85 9.6 1.21
B2 Plastic clay mix 54.5 25 3.5 2.05 15.8 0.286
B3 Plastic clay mix 43.3 2B 3.5 2.00 16.2 0.285
B4 Plastic clay mix 65.6 10 3.4 2.10 16.6 0.287
B6 Plastic clay mix 27.B 45 3.3-3.5 2.25 14.7 0.322
B7 Washed sea sand 52-54 15 3.5 3.0 5.3 1.BO
Bl0 Washed sea sand 53-57 17 3.5 2.5 5.3 1. 65
B12 Washed sea sand 52-54 14 3.5 2.3 10 1.60
B13 Washed sea sand 52-54 14 3.5 2.5 5.8 1.65
B14 Washed sea sand 53-55 17 3.4 2.5 21 1.65
B15 Plastic clay mix 54-55 11 3.6 2.5 19.3 1.65
B16 Brick mix 54-55 10 3.4 2.5 12.7 1.65
B17 Silica brick batch 54-55 12 3.4 2.5 9.3 1.65
B19 Plastic clay mix 54-55 50 3.4 2.5 1B.6 1.65
B20 Brick mix 54-55 50 3.4 2.5 12.1 1.65
B21 Silica brick batch 54-55 50 3.4 2.5 6.2 1.65
represented by a straight line and corresponds to the zone of
decreasing wetted surface; the second period is represented by
curves concave upwards and porresponds to the zone where internal
diffusion controls drying! Inspection of the curves for the
I
brick mix shows that the lower branches coincide closely up to 8
i
percent moisture; the straight lines representing the upper
branches of the two curves have slopes which are found to be
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

A
t
:

1
1
:
1
6

1
7

J
a
n
u
a
r
y

2
0
1
1
266 COMINGS
approximately in the same ratio as the rates of drying in the
constant rate period. Thus, for this clay the effect of humidity
is negligible in the lower zone but of considerable importance in
the period immediately following the critical point. The
conclusion is that the mechanism changes suddenly near the middle
of the falling rate period, and the data support the concept of a
zone of decreasing wetted surface drying where surface
evaporation is controlling, and a final zone where internal
diffusion controls. In the case of the plastic clay mix the zone
following the critical is so far depressed by the increase in
humidity that the lower zone is hardly apparent in the drying
rate curves. The rate curve in this zone follows closely the
corresponding curve for the brick mix. Thus, the difficulty of
internal diffusion does not differ greatly for the two clays.
The silica brick batch gives a definitely higher curve at the
lower end than the other clays, indicating a higher coefficient
of internal di ffusion for the coarser material. The two curves
for this material dried at the two humidities do not compare
well, possibly because of a difference in the packing density of
the two samples. It is difficult to reproduce results for a
nonhomogeneous coarse material of this type.
The critical moisture for the plastic clay mix was approxi-
mately 19 percent for both tests; for the brick mix the critical
moisture was at 13 percent for both tests; for the silica brick
batch one test indicated a critical moisture of 9 to 10 percent,
and the other a value of 6 to 7 percent. For plastic clay mixes
in general the critical point approximates the point at which
shrinkage is essentially complete, so that injury to the material
caused by too rapid drying is apt to take place only in the
constant rate period, where surface evaporation is contolling.
Comparison of the critical points for . ", three materials in-
dicates a definite trend with type of material, probably related
particle si ze ,
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

A
t
:

1
1
:
1
6

1
7

J
a
n
u
a
r
y

2
0
1
1
CONTRIBUTIONS OF T. K. SHERWOOD AND ASSOCIATES 267
Sea sand. To investigate further the effect of particle size
on the location of the critical point, tests similar to those
I
described with clay were <1arried out using several si ze s of
washed sea sand. The curves have a shape similar to those for
I
the clays, but the critical point and the zone of unsaturated
I
surface drying clearly vary with the particle size. The critical
,
moisture contents show very fine sand may have a high
critical point (above 10 percent), but that for large particle
si zes the critical point approaches an asymptote of about 5
I
percent. Although this tre9d is apparent for granular materials
of this type, coarse-textured wood pulp blocks and fiber wall-
boards may have critical moisture contents from 50 to 100
percent. The
ends, showing
particle si ze ,
drying rate curves coincide roughly at the lower
a diffusion resistance surprisingly independent of
,
Porous ceramic plate. in order to eliminate any possible
effect of slight shrinkage, experiments were carried out on the
drying of a porous ceramic plate. This was of the type used as a
I
white background for changes of solutions in chemical
titrations. The edges and back of the plate were covered with
tin foil, and the plate in a horizontal position with the
single wet face uppermost. The rates of drying were plotted
against the moisture contentl. The curves are of the same general
shape as those for the e Lays , with the falling rate period
clearly divisible into two distinct zones. The rates of drying
I
in the zone immediately foNowing the critical point are again
roughly in the same ratio as the rates in the constant rate
period, supporting the conclusion that the mechanism of drying is
similar in these two regions
l
Furthermore, the rate of drying in
I
the zone of decreasing wetted surface is greatly increased by an
I
increase in air velocity. Therefore, surface evaporation must be
controlling in this zone. The rates for the two tests at the
same temperature coincide over the lower range, although the air
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

A
t
:

1
1
:
1
6

1
7

J
a
n
u
a
r
y

2
0
1
1
268 COMINGS
velocity was varied threefold. Internal diffusion is obviously
completely controlling in this range. The lower branch of the
curve for the test at the higher temperature falls slightly
higher, as expected. The drying characteristics of the porous
plate are remarkably similar to, those of the clays tested.
Nondrying surface distorts rates. Because of the high ratio
of dry to wetted surface in the tests described, the drying rates
obtained are considerably higher than could be expected in com-
mercial dryers for the same materials under similar .Jrying con-
ditions. Heat is absorbed from the air through the covered sur-
faces, as well as through the exposed wet surface, and the tem-
perature of the solid in the constant rate period is considerably
above the wet-bulb temperature of the air. The effect is similar
to that produced by radiation of heat from the surroundings. It
was first thought that the thermal conductivity of the solid
might be an important factor. since the heat absorbed by the dry
sur face must be conducted through the solid to the point where
vaporization occurs. Experimental tests, however, indicate that
for reasonably thick slabs, at least, this is not the case.
The next issue will continue this classic presentation.
REFERENCES
A1. Adams, F. W., and Cooper, C. M., Ind. Eng. Chern., 22, 127
(1930). -
A2. Apjohn,"On the Theory of the Moist Bulb Hygrometer," Trans.
Roy. Irish Acad., 17, 275 (1837>.
A3. Apjohn, "Upon a New Method of Investigating the Specific Heat
of Gases," Trans. Roy. Irish Acad., 18, pt: 1, 1 (1838).
A4. Arnold, J. H., Sc.D. Thesis, Mass. Inst. of Tech. (1932).
A5. August, Pogg. Ann., 5 series 2, 69 (1825).
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

A
t
:

1
1
:
1
6

1
7

J
a
n
u
a
r
y

2
0
1
1
CONTRIBUTIONS OF T. K. SHERWOOD AND ASSOCIATES 269
A6.
A7.
st.
Awbery, J. H., and Griffiths, Ezer, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London),
44, pt. 2, 132 (1932).'
Ackermann, G. Ver. Deutsch lng, Forschungs., 382, 1-16 (1937).
See also. Colburn. A. P. and T. B. Drew. 33, 197

Bongards, H., "Feucht.fgkei tmes sung ," R. Oldenbourg, Munich
(1926).
B2. Bedingfield, C. H. and T. B. Drew. Ind. Eng. Chem. 42, 1164
(1950).
Cl.
C2.
C3.
C4.
C5.
C6.
C7.
C8.
C9.
ni.
Fl.
F2.
F4.
G1.
G2.
Carrier, W. H., Trans. A.S.M.E., 2l, 1005 (1911).
Carrier, W. H., Ind. Eng. Chem .11, 432 (1921).
I
I
Carslaw, H. S., "Introduction to the Mathematical Theory of
Conduction of Heat in 'Solids," MacMillan (1921).
I
Cohen, L. L., Master or Science Thesis, Mass. Inst. of Tech.
(1932).
Colburn, A. P., Ind. Erg. Chem., 22, 967 (1930).
Colburn, A. P., in Ref. S 8.
I
Collins and Fisher. (Undergraduate Thesis) Mass. Inst. of
Tech. (1927).
Comings, E. W., "The nrying of Solids," Sc.D. Thesis, Mass.
Inst. of Tech. (1934).
Comings, E. W., and T. K Ind. Eng. Chem., 26, 1096
(1934).
Dixon, H. H., Ann. Board of Regents Smithsonian Inst.,
407-425 (1910).
Ferrel, Annual Report, Chief U.S. Signal Officer (1886).
Fisher, E. A., Proc. Roy. Soc., 103A, 139, 664 (1923); 105
(A), 571 (1924).
Fisher. E.A., J. Agr. Sci., ll. 121 (1923).
Fisher. E. A., Advance Paper, Yorkshire Section, Soc. Chem.
Ind., April 5 (1935).
Gardner and Widtsoe, Spil Sci. 11, 215 (1920).
I
Gibson, "The Mechanical Properties of Fluids," p. 178, Van
Nostrand (1925). '
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

A
t
:

1
1
:
1
6

1
7

J
a
n
u
a
r
y

2
0
1
1
270 COMINGS
G3. Gilliland, E. R., and Sherwood, T. K., Ind. Eng. Chern., 25,
1134 (1933).
G4. Gilliland, E. R., and Sherwood, T. K., Ind. Eng. Chern., 26,
516 (1934).
G5. Grosvenor, William M., Trans. Am. Inst. Chem. Eng., 1, 184
(1908).
G6. Gurney and Lurie, Ind. Eng. Chem., ~ , 1170 (1923).
H1. Hawes, (Undergraduate Thesis), Mass. Inst. of Tech. (1928).
H2. Hilpert, Forschungsheft 355, p. 21, July/Aug. (1932).
H4. Himus, G. W., Trans. Inst. Chem. Engrs., I, 166 (1929).
H5. Hinchley, J. H., and Himus, G. W., Trans. Inst. Chem. Engrs.,
2, 57 (1924).
H6. Hougen, O. A., Ind. Eng. Chem., 26, 333 (1934).
11. Int. Crit. Tables, Vol. II, McGraw-Hill Book Co., p, 321.
12. Ivory, Phil. Mag., 60, 81 (1822).
Kl. Kamei, S., Mizuno, S., and Shionie, J. Soc. Chem. Ind.
(Japan), 37, 626B (1934).
K2. Karnei, S., and Sedohara, T., J. Soc. Chern. Ind. (Japan) 37,
657B (1934).
K3. Karnei, S., Mizuno, S., and Shiomi, S., J. Soc. Chem. Ind.
(Japan), 38, 456B (1935).
K4. Keen, B. A., Trans. Faraday see ,; 17, 228 (1922).
Ll. Lees and Chorlton Refrigerating Eng., lQ, 259 (1924).
L2. Lederer, Zeit. Agnew Chern., 37, 750 (1924).
L3. Lewis, W. K., "The Rate of Drying of Solid Materials," Ind.
Eng., Chern., .11, 427-432 (1921).
L4. Lewis, W. K. Trans. A.S.M.E., 44, 325 (1922).
L5. Lewis and Chang, Trans. Amer. Inst. Chern. Eng., 21, 127
(1928). See also, Hanks and McAdams Ind. Eng. Chern., ~ , 1034
(1929).
L6. Lewis, W. K., and Sherwood, T. K., Chapter on Drying in 1930
Guide Book of Amer. Soc. of Heating and Ventilating Engineers.
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

A
t
:

1
1
:
1
6

1
7

J
a
n
u
a
r
y

2
0
1
1
CONTRIBUTIONS OF T. K. SHERWOOD AND ASSOCIATES 271
L7.
LB.
M1-
Lewis, W. K. , Mech. Engr., 55, 567 (1933>-
Lewis, W. K., Trans. AIHE. 20. 9 (1927)
MacDcugal, D. T Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub., 365, March
(1925)
M2. Madgwick, E., Phil, Mag . n, 632 (1932).
M3. Maxwell, article on "Diffusion" in Encyclopedia Britanica, 9th
Edition (1877).
M4. Mickley, H. S., Sherwood, T. K., and Reed, C. E., "Applied
Mathematics in Chemical Engineering," McGraw-Hill Book Co.
(1957>.
N1. Newman, Trans. Am. Inst'. Chem. Engrs., 27. 203 (1931).
N2. Newman, Trans. Am. Inat, Chem. Engrs., 27. 310 (1931).
R1. Regnaul t., Ann. Chem. Phys., 15 series, 3, 201 (1845).
R2. Reid. R. C Prausnitz, J. M and Sherwood. T. K "The
Properties of Gases and Liquids," McGraw-Hill Book Co. (1977).
R3. Richards. L. A J. Agr:. Res., 37, 719 (1928).
R4. Rideal. E. K PhiL Hag., .!!!!.' 1152 (1922).
S1. Sanford. (Undergraduate Thesis), Worcester Polytechnic
Institute (1928).
S2. Sherwood, T. K. , Doctor,'s Thesis, Mass. Inst. of Tech. (1928).
I
S3. Sherwood, T. K., Ind.
Erg Chern. t 1., 12 (1929).
54. Sherwood, T. K. , Paper ~ r a d e J1., Feb. 21 (1929).
,
55. Sherwood, T. K. , Ind.
Erg Chern. t 1., 976 (1929).
56. Sherwood, T. K., Ind. E!'1g. Chern. I 22, 132 (1930).
57. Sherwood, T. K., Ind. Eng. Chern. , 24, 307 (1932).
58. Sherwood, T. K., and Comings, E. W., Trans. Amer. Inst. Chem.
Eng., 28. 88-117 (1932)1.
59. Sherwood, T. K. , Coursel on Drying at the Mass. Inst. of Tech.
(1932)
510. Sherwood, T. K., and Comings, E. W., Ind. Eng. Chem., 25, 311
(1933)
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

A
t
:

1
1
:
1
6

1
7

J
a
n
u
a
r
y

2
0
1
1
272 COMINGS
511. Sherwood. T. K Section on "Drying" in Chemical Engineers'
Handbook, J. H. Perry, Editor-in-Chief, McGraw-Hill Book Co.
(1934).
512. Sherwood, T. K., and Comings, E. W., Izvestiya Vsessoyuznovo
Teplotechnischeskovo Instituta, August (1935).
513. Sherwood, T. K., Chem. & Met. Eng., 42, 215 (1935).
514. Sherwood, T. K., and Garono, L. E., Chem. & Met. Eng. 42, 539,
Oct. (1935).
515. Sherwood, T. K., Trans. Amer. Inst. Chem. Eng., 32, 150
(1936).
516. Sherwood, T. K., Gardner, H. 5., and Whitney, R. P., Paper
Trade Journal 106, No. 24, 29 (1937).
517. Sherwood, T. K., discussion, p. 207, in paper by O. A. Hougen,
H. J. McCauley and W. R. Marshall, Jr., Trans. A.I.C.H.E., 30,
183-209 (1940).
518. Sherwood, T. K., Pigford, R. L., and Wilke, C. R "Mass
Transfer," McGraw-Hill Book Co. (1975); major revision of
"Absorption and Extraction" (1937) and (1952).
S19. Sherwood, T. K., Chemistry in Canada, 19-21, July (1950).
520. Sherwood. T. K., "A Course in Process Design," the M.LT.
Press, Cambridge, MA (1963).
521. Sherwood, T. K., Chem, & Met. Engr., 42, 215 (1935). See
also, Sherwood, T. K., and L. E. Garone, ibid, p. 539.
522. Simmonds, F. A., Paper Trade J1., 97, No. 10,40 (1933).
523. Stewart, A. J., Roy. Soc. (London), Phil. Trans. Ser. B, 198.
41-'85 (1906).
524. Sherwood, T. K., and E. R. Gilliland. Ind. Eng. Chem., 26,
1093 (1934).
T1. Tu, (Undergraduate Thesis), Mass. Inst. of Tech. (1928).
T2. Tuttle, J., Franklin Inst., 200, 609 (1925).
T3. Troop and Wheeler, Trans. Ceram, Soc., 26, 231, 239, 261
(1926-27); 27, 303 (1927-28).
U1. Unpublished data obtained in Sherwood's laboratory.
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

A
t
:

1
1
:
1
6

1
7

J
a
n
u
a
r
y

2
0
1
1
CONTRIBUTIONS OF T. K. SHERWOOD AND ASSOCIATES
U2. Ursprung, Ber. deut, b6tan, Ges. 31, 388 (1913); 33. 253
(1915); ]i, 475 (1918); 36, 514, 577 (1920).
273
VI. Varma, A., Mathematics, in Chemical Engineering, In a Century
of Chemical Engineering, edited by W. F. Furter, pp. 353-388,
Plenum Press (1982). '
W1. Walker, Lewis and McAdams, "Principles of Chemical
Engineering." 2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Co., (1927).
I
W2. Washburn, E. W., J. A m ~ cer , Soc , , .!!.' 917, 961, 983 (1921).
I
W3. Westman, A.E.R., J. A m ~ Cer. Soc .l.?, 585 (1929).
W4. Ibid.,.!2., 552 (1932); .!E., 256 (1933).
W5. Wilke, C. R., and D. T ~ Wasan. AICHE-ICHE Symposium Ser. 6,
Inst. Chern. Engr. (London), 21-26 (1965).
W6. Williams, Glenn C. and J. Edward Vivian, Adv. in Chemistry
Series 190. p. 124. Am. Chern. Soc., Washington, D.C., edited
by William F. Furter (;980).
I
D
o
w
n
l
o
a
d
e
d

A
t
:

1
1
:
1
6

1
7

J
a
n
u
a
r
y

2
0
1
1