UNIT 1 SOILS

Structure
1.1 1.2 Introduction
Objectives

Soils

Origin and Nature of Soils

1.2.1 1.2.2 1.2.3 1.2.4 Definition of Soil Types of Soil Constituents of Soil Phase Diagram for Soil

1.3

Phase Relationships
1.3.1 Volume Relationships 1.3.2 Weight Relationships 1.3.3 Interrelationships

1.4 1.5

Summary Answers to SAQs

1.1 INTRODUCTION
You have seen that in construction engineering different types of structures normally rest on soils. A construction engineer must have brief idea about various types of soils, constituents of soil, three phase diagram, weight-volume relationships and interrelationships between different parameters.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to define soil in a broad sense, explain various types of soils in brief, discuss various constituents of soil, draw three phase diagram for soil, and discuss the need for a three phase diagram and to derive various interrelationships using weight-volume relationships.

1.2 ORIGINA AND NATURE OF SOIL

1.2.1 Definition of Soil
In a broad sense, soil may be defined as a natural aggregate of mineral grains, loose or moderately cohesive, inorganic or organic in nature, that have the capacity of being separated by means of simple mechanical processes. It is useful to have an idea of different type of soils.

1.2.2 Types of Soils

The soils are derived from either igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic rocks. The soils may have the same mineral composition as parent rock or new minerals may be formed because of the association of water, carbon dioxide and organic material. The various types of soils are as follows :

Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering

Soil

Residual Soil

Transported Soil

Sand

Silt

Clay

Alluvial Soil

Aeolian Soil Lacustrine Soil

Marine Soil

Glacial Soil

Figure 1.1 : Types of Soils

Residual Soils Residual soils are those that results from the disintegration of rock and stay at the place of their formation. Sands, silts and clays belong to this category. Sand is cohesion less soil. It may be angular, sub-angular, sub-rounded, rounded and well rounded in shape and is usually composed of unaltered mineral grains. Silt is a fine grained soil with little or no plasticity. Clay is cohesive soil. It is composed of microscopic and sub-microscopic particles of weather rock and it exhibits plasticity within a wide range of water content. Transported Soils Transported soils are those that results from the disintegration of rock and carried away by forces of gravity, water, wind and ice and deposited at another location. Transported soils may be classified according to their mode of transportation and deposition : (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Alluvial soils are those which have been transported by running water, e.g. river deposits. Aeolian soils are those which have been transported by wind, e.g. sand dunes. Lacustrine soils are those which are deposited at the bottom of lakes. Marine soils are those which are deposited in sea water. Glacial soils are those which have been deposited as a result of glacial activity.

In addition to the above classification, it is desirable to be familiar with the following types of soils also : (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)
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Organic silt Organic clay Bentonite Black cotton soils Peat Varved clay

(g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (n) (o) (p) (q) (r)

Hard Pan Glacial till Boulder soils Cohesive oils Cohesionless soils Bentonite Diatamaceous earth Dune sands Latersite Loam Kankar

Soils

(m) Calcareous soils

1.2.3 Constituents of Soil

The soil mass consists of solids and voids. The solids consist of mineral matter. The voids may consist of water and air. The voids may be partially or fully filled with water or air. It has been observed that the solids and voids in a sample of soil do not occupy separate spaces, they can be represented as occupied separate volumes.

1.2.4 Phase Diagram for Soil

Soil mass is composed of matters existing generally in three phases-solid, liquid and gaseous. Soil particles form the solid phase, water forms the liquid phase and air the gaseous phase. These phases coexist in real soils in a mixed manner as shown in Figure 1.2(a). These phases are considered to be independent and separate for the purposes of engineering studies. The conceptual three-phase model used in Soil Mechanics is shown in Figure 1.2(b).
AIR AIR WATER SOLIDS

WATER

SOLIDS

Figure 1.2(a) : Soil Three-phase System

Figure 1.2(b) : Conceptual Three-phase Model

1.3 PHASE RELATIONSHIPS

To derive the phase relationships, the weights and the volumes of the three phases are designated as shown in Figure 1.3. The symbols used in the Figure 1.3 have the following meaning : W = Total weight of given soil sample, Wa = Weight of air in the voids, Ww = Weight of water in the voids,
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Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering

Ws = Weight of solids, V = Total volume of soil sample, Va = Volume of air in the voids, Vw = Volume of water in the voids, Vv = Volume of voids, Vs = Volume of solids,
Va Vv Vw V Vs SOLIDS Ws AIR WATER Wa Ww W

Figure 1.3 : Weight-Volume Relationships

The total weight can be written as W = Wa + Ww + Ws or W = Ww + Ws (neglecting the weight of air) The total volume can be written as V = Va + Vw + Vs = Vv + Vs . . . (1.1) . . . (1.2)

1.3.1 Volume Relationships

The volume relationships commonly used in a soil element are voids ratio (e), porosity (n), and degree of saturation (s), percentage air voids (na) and air content (ac). Void Ratio Voids ratio, e, of a soil is defined as the ratio of the total volume of voids to the volume of solids, or V e= v . . . (1.3) Vs The value of e is generally less then one because volume of voids is less than volume of solids. The value of e is greater than one in soil suspensions and in macro-porous soils like loess. Porosity Porosity, n, is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume of the given soil mass, or V . . . (1.4) n= v V Porosity is usually expressed as a percentage. Relationships between void ratio and porosity.

Vv V V Vv n e= v = = = Vs V Vv V 1 n 1 v V
8

. . . (1.5)

We can also write Eq. (1.5) as

Soils

e (1 n) = n or or e en = n e = n + ne

n=
Degree of Saturation

e (1 + e)

. . . (1.6)

Degree of saturation, S, is defined as the ratio of the volume of water to the total volume of voids present in a given soil mass, or S = Vw Vv . . . (1.7)

The degree of saturation is usually expressed as a percentage. Its value varies from 0% for a perfectly dry soil sample to 100% for a fully saturated soil sample.
Percentage Air Voids

Percentage air voids, na, is defined as the ratio of the volume of air voids to the total volume of a given soil mass, or na = Va 100 V
. . . (1.8)

It is expressed as percentage
Air Content

The air content, ac, is defined as the ratio of volume of air voids to the total volume of voids in given soil mass

ac =

Va Vv Vw Vv Vw = = Vv Vv Vv Vv Vw = 1 S Vv
. . . (1.9)

=1

1.3.2 Weight Relationships

The common weight relationships used are water content, unit weight (bulk or moist, dry, saturated and submerged) and specific gravity.
Water Content

Water content, w, is defined as the ratio of the weight of water to the weight of solids in a given mass of soil, or

w=
Unit Weight

Ww Ww = Ws Wd

. . . (1.10)

Unit weight of a soil mass, , is defined as the ratio of the weight of soil to its volume.

Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering

Bulk or Moist Unit Weight

Bulk or moist unit weight, bulk is defined as the ratio of total weight of the soil to its total volume.
bulk = W V

. . . (1.11)

Dry Unit Weight

Dry unit weight dry is the defined as the ratio of weight of soil solids to its total volume, or

dry =
Saturated Unit Weight

Ws Wdry = V V

. . . (1.12)

Saturated unit weight sat, is defined as the ratio of the total weight of a saturated soil sample to its total volume

sat =

Wsat V

. . . (1.13)

Submerged Unit Weight

Submerged unit weight, sub, is defined as the ratio of the submerged weight of soil solids to its total volume.

sub =
=

(Wdry )sub

Wsat Ww V
. . . (1.14)

Wsat Ww = sat w V V

Unit Weight of Soil Solids

Unit weight of soil solids, s, is defined as the ratio of the weight of soil solids to volume of solids.

s =
Specific Gravity

Ws Wdry = Vs Vs

. . . (1.15)

Specific gravity of soil solids, Gs, is defined as the ratio of the weight of a given volume of soil solids at 27oC to the weight of an equal volume of distilled water at 27oC, both weights being taken in air.
Gs = s w

. . . (1.16)

1.3.3 Interrelationships
We can now derive useful interrelationships between the various parameters defined in Sections 1.3.1 and 1.3.2. Relation between w, e, s and G. From the previous Sections 1.3.1 and 1.3.2, we know that

w=
10

V V Ww ,e= v,S = w Ws Vs Vv

and

G=
e=

s W W V ,= s ,= s w w Vs w Vs Ww
Vv Vv W V = =G w v Vs Ws Vw Ws Vw G Ww

. . . (1.17)

Soils

W 1 =G v Ws Vw Vw

=
or or

Gw S

Se = w G w G = Se
. . . (1.18)

For a fully saturated soil, S = 1 and w = wsat

e = wsat G
Relation between bulk, dry, sat, sub, w, G, S, e and w Now,

. . . (1.19)

bulk =

W Ww + Ws = V VV + Vs

W Ws w + 1 W s = V Vs v + 1 Vs
We know that

. . . (1.20)

Ww =w Ws
Vv =e Vs

(from Eq. (1.10)) (from Eq. (1.3))

and

Ws = s = G w (from Eq. (1.16)) Vs

(1 + w) (1 + e)

Putting the values, we get

bulk = G w
For a dry soil mass, w = 0.

. . . (1.21)

Putting w = 0 in Eq, (1.21), we get dry unit weight of soil (dry)

dry = G w = G w 1+ e

(1 + 0) (1 + e) . . . (1.22)
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Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering

For saturated soils, S = 1 and e = wG (from Eq. 1.19). Putting the values in Eq. (1.21), we get (1 + w) (1 + e)

sat = G w = w = w

(G + wG ) (1 + e) (G + e) (1 + e) . . . (1.23)

Submerged unit weight (sub) can be written as

sub = sat w = w = w = w
(G + e) w (1 + e) (G + e 1 e) (1 + e) (G 1) (1 + e) (1 + w) (1 + e) . . . (1.24)

Relation between sat, bulk, dry and s we can write from equation

bulk = G w = w = w
=

(G + wG ) (1 + e) (G + Se) (1 + e)

G w e w +S 1+ e 1+ e

(G + e) w G w = dry + S 1 + e 1+ e
= dry + S sat dry
Example 1.1

. . . (1.25)

A sample of saturated soil has a water content of 45%. The specific gravity of soil solids is 2.65. Draw the phase diagram of soil and determine its void ratio, porosity, saturated unit weight and dry unit weight assuming that weight of soil solids is unity and the unit weight of water is also unity.
Solution

From Eq. (1.10)

w=
12

Ww = 0.45 Ws

Ww = 0.45 Ws = 0.45 1 = 0.45

Now it is given that w = 1 or or or

Soils

Ww =1 Vw Ww = Vw Vw = Ww = 0.45 s Ws = = 1 w Vs w Vs 1

Specific gravity

G = 2.65 =
or
Vs =

1 = 0.38 2.65

Total Volume, V = Va + Vw + Vs = Vw + Vs
= 0.45 + 1 2.65

= 0.45 + 0.38 = 0.83 Voids ratio,

e=

Vv Vw 0.45 = = = 1.18 Vs Vs 0.38

Since, the soil is saturated

Va = 0
Porosity
n= Vv Va + Vw Vw 0.45 = = = = 0.54 V V V 0.83
Volume Vw = 0.45

Weight Ww = 0.45

W = 1.45 Ws = 1.0 Vs = 0.38

V = 0.83

Figure 1.4 : Phase Diagram

Saturated unit weight = W V

sat =
= =

Wa + Ww + Ws V
Ww + Ws V 0.45 + 1 0.83
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= 0.175

Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering

Dry unit weight,

dry = = Ws V 1 0.83

= 1.20
Example 1.2

A sand sample has a porosity of 40% and specific gravity of soil solids as 2.65 calculate : (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
Solution

Voids ratio Dry unit weight of sand Unit weight of sand if degree of saturation is 50% Degree of saturation of the sand sample at water content of 15% Submerged unit weight of sand

It is given that porosity (n) = 0.40 From Eq. (1.5), voids ratio can be determined as
e= n = 0.40 = 0.40 = 0.667 1 n 1 0.40 0.60

Dry unit weight of sand

dry =

G w 2.65 10 = = 15.90 kN/m3 1 + e 1 + 0.667

Unit weight of sand if degree of saturation is 50%

G + Se 2.65 + 0.50 0.667 = 10 w = + e 1 1 + 0.667

= 17.90 kN/m3 From Eq. (1.18) wG = Se Putting the values, 0.15 2.67 = S 0.667 or
S = 0.60 = 60%

Submerged unit weight of sand sample G 1 2.65 1 sub = w = 10 1+ e 1 + 0.667

= 9.90 kN/m3
Example 1.3

14

Calculate the voids ratio, porosity, water content and degree of saturation of a soil sample if it is having bulk density of 21 kN/m3 and dry density 20 kN/m3. Take unit weight of water as 10 kN/m3 and specific gravity of soil solids as 2.65.

Solution

Soils

It is given that bulk = 21 kN/m3, dry = 20 kN/m3, w = 10 kN/m3 and G = 2.65 We know that dry = or or or Porosity, 20 =
G w 1+ e

2.65 10 1+ e
2.65 20

1+ e = e=

2.65 1 = 0.33 20

e = 0.33 = 0.25 1 + e 1 + 0.33

bulk = G W Putting the values,

(1 + w) 1+ e (1 + w) 1 + 0.33

21 = 2.65 10 or or
1+ w=

21 1.33 26.5

w = 0.05

We know that
wG = Se

or or or
Example 1.4

0.05 2.65 = S 0.33

S = 0.4015 S = 40.15%

The dry unit weight of a soil having 20% water content is 18 kN/m3. Find bulk unit weight (bulk), saturated unit weight (sat) and submerged unit weight (sub). Assume G = 2.68 and w = 10 kN/m3.
Solution

Bulk unit weight bulk = dry = (1 + w) = 18 (1 + 0.20) = 21.6 kN/m3 dry =

G w 1+ e

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Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering

or or or

18 =

2.68 10 1+ e
26.8 = 1.49 18

1+ e =

e = 0.49 G w (1 + w) 1+ e

Saturated unit weight sat = =

2.68 10 (1 + 0.20) 1 + 0.49

= 21.58 kN/m3 Submerged unit weight G 1 sub = w 1+ e 2.68 1 = 10 1 + 0.49 = 11.28 kN/m3
Example 1.5

A soil sample is partially saturated. Its natural water content was found to be 20% and bulk density 21 kN/m3. If the specific gravity of solid particles is 2.70 and unit weight of water is 10 kN/m3, find out the degree of saturation and the voids ratio.
Solution

Given

w = 0.20, bulk = 21 kN/m3 G = 2.70 and w = 10 kN/m3 G w (1 + w) 1+ e

Now

bulk = 21 =

2.70 10 (1 + 0.20) 1+ e
27 1.20 = 1.54 21

or or

1+ e =

e = 0.54

We also know that

wG = Se

Putting the values 0.20 2.70 = S .54

16

or

S = 1.0, i.e. 100%

Soils

SAQ 1
(a) A partially saturated sample of soil from an earth fill has a natural moisture content of 22% and bulk unit weight of 20.0 kN/m3. Assuming specific gravity of soil solids as 2.65, unit weight of water as 10 kN/m3 and weight of solids in soil as unity. Draw the three phase diagram and determine its degree of saturation and voids ratio. If subsequently the soil gets saturated, determine its unit weight. The water content of a saturated soil is 40% and specific gravity of soil solids is 2.65. Find the voids ratio and porosity. Also find the degree of saturation if the water content gets reduced to 10% on drying. An imaginary soil mass is contained in a container measuring 100 mm 100 mm 100 mm. The soil consists of spherical grains of size 10 mm in diameter. Determine the maximum possible voids ratio and porosity. A saturated soil sample has a water content of 45%. Assuming specific gravity of soil solids as 2.70 and unit weight of water as 10 kN/m3. Calculate dry unit weight of soil, saturated unit weight of soil and submerged unit weight of soil. Natural water content of a soil in the borrow area is 9% and its bulk density is 17 kN/m3. The soil is to be used in construction of an embankment. The specifications for embankment compaction require its water content to be 11% and dry density of 17.5 kN/m3. Compute the quantity of soil to be excavated per 1 m3 of the embankment.

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

1.4 SUMMARY
In this unit an attempt has been made to introduce you to some basic concepts necessary to understand the various types of soils. To begin with a broad definition of soil is given. Various types of soils have been also discussed briefly. The soil is also represented in a three phases diagram. The weight volume relationships between the constituent phase and their interrelationships have been described in detail.

1.5 ANSWERS TO SAQs

SAQ 1

(a)

It is given that
w = 0.22, bulk = 2.0 gm/cc G = 2.65, w = 1.0 gm/cc and Ws = 1
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Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering

Water content
w= Ww Ws Ww 1

or or

0.22 =

Ww = 0.22
w = Ww Vw

or

1=

0.22 Vw
w Ws = Vs w w

or

Vw = 0.22 G=

or or

2.65 = 1 Vs
Vs =

1 = 0.38 2.65

Total Volume, V = Va + Vw + Vs = Va + 0.22 + 0.38 = Va + 0.60 Bulk unit weight,

bulk = W = 1.22 = 2.0 V Va + 0.60

or or or

1.22 = 2.2 Va + 1.20

2.2 Va = 0.02
Va =
Volume Va = 0.01 Vw = 0.22

0.02 = 0.01 cc 22
Weight Wa = 0 Ww = 0.22 W = 1.22

V = 0.61 Vs = 0.38 Ws = 1

Figure 1.5

Degree of saturation,
S = Vw 0.22 = = 0.9565 = 95.65% Vv 0.22 + 0.01 Vv 0.22 + 0.01 = = 0.61 0.38 Vs

Voids ratio, e =

18

On saturation 0.01 cc of air is replaced by water, which weighs 0.01 gm.

Hence, Saturated unit weight,

sat = 1.22 + 0.01 = 2.02 gm/cc 0.38 + 0.22 + 0.01

Soils

(b)

It is given that w = 40%, G = 2.65 and S = 1 (i) We know that

wG = Se

or or (ii)

0.40 2.65 = 1 e
e = 1.06 e = 1.06 = 0.51 1 + e 1 + 1.06

Porosity, =

(iii) We know that wG = Se Putting the values 0.10 2.65 = S 1.06 or (c)
S = 0.25 = 25%

The arrangement of soil grains will be as shown in Figure 1.6.

100 mm

100 mm

Figure 1.6 : Arrangement of soil Grains

Total volume, V = (100)3 Total volume of soil solids Vs =

(10)3 103 6 Total volume of voids Vv = V Vs = (100)3 (100)3 6

= (100)3 1 6

Maximum voids ratio, emax =

Vv Vs

(100)3 1 6 = (100)3 6

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Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering

1
6

= 0.91 Maximum porosity,

nmax = emax 1 + emax
0.91 1 + 0.91

= 0.4764 = 47.64% (d) It is given that w = 45% = 0.45, G = 2.70, w = 10 kN/m3 and S = 1 being saturated soil. (i) We know that
wG = Se

Putting the values, 0.45 2.70 = 1 e or

e = 1.215
G w 1+ e

Dry unit weight dry =

=

2.70 10 1 + 1.215

= 12.19 kN/m3 (ii) Saturated unit weight sat = G w (1 + w) 1+ e (1 + 0.45) 1 + 1.215

= 2.70 10

= 17.67 kN/m3
G 1 (iii) Submerged unit weight sub = w 1+ e 2.70 1 = 10 1 + 1.215

= 7.67 kN/m3 (e) The weight of solids in the embankment must be equal to the weight of excavated solids Since, in the embankment, dry = 17.5 kN/m3. Weight of solids in m3 of placed embankment = 17.5 kN. The volume to be excavated would be such that it contains 17.5 kN of dry soil.
20

dry of borrow area =

17 = 15.60 kN/m3 1 + 0.09 17.5 3 m = 1.12 m3 . 15.60

Soils

Hence, 17.5 kN are contained in

Therefore every cubic meter in embankment 1.12 m3 have to be excavated.

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