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PART ONE
The Concrete Equation Deterioration of Concrete Structures Durability Issues Effect of Materials Deleterious Substances Corrosion of Reinforcement Exercise
Equation of Concrete
Cement+Water+Fine Agg.+Admixture+Mixing+Transportation+Placing+finishing+curing
Raw Materials
Cement + Water+Fine Agg. + Coarse Agg. +Admixtures
Manufacture
Mixing + Transportation + Placing + Finishing + Curing
Product
Materials / Prof.Mufid Samarai
It is a known fact that you seldom improve quality by cutting cost, but you can often cut cost by improving quality.
There are many causes for the failures of concrete and concrete structures and in most cases it does not mean complete collapse of the structural element, but that it is no longer ,in a proper way, serving the purpose for which it was designed. It is believed that the most common causes of failure and the percentage of its occurrence are as follows: Damages due to Compounds of concrete Damages due to manufacture of concrete Damages due to structural design Damages due to excessive loads Damages due to foundations Damages due to fire, etc. Damages due to collapse of structure 40% 22% 12% 8% 7% 4% 5%
Generally a cosmetic problem, but may lead to reduced cover to reinforcement and long -term durability problems Slight local reduction in cover to reinforcement, depending on the blowholes size, but Generally cosmetic problem,only needs to be filled if film forming protective coating is to be applied Significant local reduction in the protection to the reinforcement, could lead to less of effective concrete section
Honey combing
Grout loss
Sand runs on vertical surface Scaling Staining
Movement of the formwork after compaction thus removing support Rust on formwork before casting: corrosion pre-duets from elsewhere (e.g. starter bars that have been exposed for a period) Failure of curing membrane to break down
External Causes
Weathering
Temperature variation
Moisture Variation
Inorganic Salts
Acids
Water
Wind
Traffic
AlkaliAggregate Reaction
Volume Changes
3. Carbonation
4. Alkali-Silica Reaction
5. Chloride Attack
6. Freezing and Thawing
7. Abrasion-Erosion Damage
Adequate cover
Adequate cover over the reinforcing steel ensures that the diffusion of aggressive species to the steel level is delayed. Rasheeduzzafar et al. (1986), based on their field and laboratory studies, have recommended a safe cover for reinforced concrete structures exposed to various aggressive environments of the Arabian Gulf, as given below:
Exposure conditions Recommended cover thickness (mm) 50
Building components which are permanently exposed to the saltladen corrosive atmosphere Building components which are protected against weather and the aggressive conditions of exposure Concrete components exposed to seawater and footings as well as other main structural members cast against the ground
25 to 38
75
Durability of RC structures
The durability of a reinforced concrete structure can be related to its permeability to liquids and gases an increase in durability can normally be achieved by a reduction in the water/cement ratio, which reduces both the level and size of capillary pores.
Contaminated water: used in mixing and curing causes corrosion of reinforcing steel.
Admixtures
concrete mixtures incorporating fly ash, silica fume, or fine cements frequently have a low to negligible bleeding rate, making such mixtures highly sensitive to surface drying and plastic shrinkage, even under moderately evaporative conditions (ACI 234R).
Certain admixtures increase the time of initial setting or reduce the amount of water needed for a given initial slump or both, but such concretes may stiffen faster, sometimes too fast even for a cement and an admixture that separately meet all specifications ,
pulverized-fuel ash (PFA) ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS). condensed silica fume (CSF) metakaolin (MK)
Type III Type IV Type V 1-2. Cement dosage (variable as to structural design) 1-3. Free Water Cement Ratio (DIN 1048 30mm to 60 mm BS5328) 1-4. Use aggregate and dune with low SO3, Mg2O3 & Acids content, (BS 5328) 2. Good workmanship Temperature control, Slump Control, Smooth finish, Preventing water vaporization, (BS 5328) 3. Proper vibration (BS 5328)
Not fit in UAE environment Spoil by sulfate exposure Unable to stop Chloride attack Higher heat of hydration Low workability Not always available
Avoid honeycombs to reduce air void as possible stop segregation Prevent sulfate cracks Reduce shrinkage Increase as possible Protection for steel
REMARKS
Concrete with a water permeability coefficient of not greater than 1x1012 m/s and with a moderate to high sulfates resistance binder (ASTM C1157M) is recommended .
Durability of Concrete
Description Cause Component(s) Involved Symptom
Coarse "map -cracking" with viscous fluids erup ting General cracking and softening General etching of surface Cracks with rust stains above location of reinforcements General scaling and sp alling at surface Fine crack p attern roughly p arallel to joints in p avements Cracking and sp alling Alkali-aggregate Reaction of siliceous Aggregate aggregates by alkali ions S ulfate attack Reaction of p aste Paste comp onents with sulfates Acid attack Dissolution by acids Paste (aggregate) Rebar corrosion Rusting of steel Reinforcement
Paste Aggregate
Fire damage
Decomp osition of Paste (aggregate) hy dration p roducts and develop ment of internal stresses Thermal cracking Internal stresses from Paste (aggregate) S hrinkage restrained contractions
Localized cracking.
Width <1 mm
Width 13mm
Several short cracks
Width 35mm
Many short cracks
Width 5-10mm
Many Wide cracks, some loss of concrete by spalling reinforcement visible and heavily corroded Holes<10mm in diameter
Complete loss of cover concrete protruding Reinforcement, substantial loss of reinforcement section Holes>30mm in diameter
Pop-outs
Three-legged cracks
Pop-outs noticeable
Barely noticeable
CHLORIDES
Penetration of the chlorides starts at the surface, then moves inward. The rate of penetration is governed by the following factors: a) The amount of chlorides coming into contact with the concrete,
Eventually, the concentration of chlorides in contact with the reinforcing steel will cause corrosion when moisture and oxygen are present. As the rust layer builds, tensile forces generated by expansion of the oxide cause the concrete to crack and delaminate. Spalling and delamination occur if the natural forces of gravity or traffic wheel loads act on the loose concrete.
A (10C) Cs=1.0%
Ccr=0.1%
n=0.30 t0=28 days D0=1010-13 m2/s
0,8 1,2
0,6
n=0.30
t0=28 days D0=4010-13 m2/s
0,4
0,2
0 0 20
34.1 40
60 68.2
80
100
120
Evaluation
Where
Carbonation
D KCR t
Evaluation
Chloride
Where t: Service Life in Years S: Concrete cover in mm R= w/c ratio K: Cl- Content of exposure solution in PPM
2.5S t 0.42 R K
1.22
5 15
45 135
Enhancements to Chlorides
For structures exposed to chlorides the following enhancements can be considered (Walker , 1998, 1999 & 2000). Note, that some of these measures are also useful in offsetting carbonation. 1. Addition of surface treatments or coatings to prevent ingress. 2. Addition of corrosion inhibitors to the concrete mix to reduce the action of chloride. 3. Addition of coatings to reinforcement to protect its surface. 4. Use non-corroding reinforcement such as stainless steel or possibly fibre composite materials. 5. Catholic protection 6. Where structurally possible use unreinforced concrete.
Sulfate Attack
The presence of sulfates in soil and ground water has long been a source of attack of concrete below ground. In hardened cement, calcium aluminates hydrate can react with sulfate salts to produce a sulphoaluminate some 27% larger in volume than the solid phase, resulting in gradual disintegration of the concrete. Concrete with a water permeability coefficient of not greater than 1x10-12 m/s and with a moderate to high sulphate resistance binder (ASTM C1157M) is recommended .
sulphates
cathode -ve
cathode -ve
Stage 3: Spalling of the concrete cover over the reinforcing steel is clearly visible, due to the formation of voluminous corrosion products, Stage 4: Severe spalling of the concrete cover over the reinforcing steel is evident, leaving the reinforcing steel bars directly exposed to the atmosphere.
Corrosion of Reinforcement
1. Initiation
Carbonation Chlorides Carbonation and chlorides
2. Propagation
Rust
Reinforcing Steel
Steel
Cement Matrix
Corrosion Process
Type of Damage
Transverse cracking Spalling of concrete Corrosion induced
longitudinal cracking Delamination Rust and staining Loss of integrity
Curing
Min. Moisture Loss
Cement
Aggregate
Temperature
Quantity
Mixing
Avoid or prevent degradation Reduce environmental loading Non reactive aggregate (AAR) Non-corroding reinforcement Cathodic protection Air entrainment
Select the material composition and detailing to resist identified degradation risks for a specific period of time
Multi-Stage Protection Strategy
PART TWO
PART TWO
Evaluation of Concrete Structures Types, causes and evaluation of Cracks Non-Destructive tests Maintenance types and Procedures Exercise
Investigation
to repair
Diagnostic techniques
visual assessment Delamination hammer/chain covermeter - presence of reinforcement chloride analysis phenolphthalein test for carbonation half cell measurements to ASTM C876 resistivity corrosion rate (linear polarisation) permeability ultrasonics petrography radar
EVALUATION OF RESULTS
Correlation differences between the laboratory conditions and site conditions can vary, and this can affect the accuracy of our calibration
The variability of the particular test method, the operator skill and the variability of the concrete under test, control the accuracy with which test results can be calibrated against a particular desired concrete property
Member type Column Wall Beam Slab Typical 28-day wet cube strength cube strength Average 65% 65% 75% 50% in-situ equivalent as % of standard Likely range 55% - 75% 45% - 95% 60% - 100% 40% - 60%
EVALUATION OF RESULTS
Tests have well-defined procedures and the methods used for the calculation and assessment of different parameters from directly measured values will depend to a large extent on the test method used Variation in properties of hardened concrete tend to be random and requires that the results be analyzed using various statistical tools such as graphical and numerical methods The number of test types, location and points used has a significant bearing on the ease with which the variability of concrete within members and between members can be assessed.
Test method Standard cores Small cores Schmidt hammer Ultrasonic pulse velocity Internal fracture Windsor probe Pull-out Pull-off Break-off No. of individual reading recommended at a location 3 9 12 1 6 3 4 6 5
Test method Cores standard small Pull-out Internal fracture Pull-off Break-off Windsor probe Ultrasonic pulse velocity Rebound hammer
Typical COV for individual member of good quality construction 10% 15% 8% 16% 8% 9% 4% 2.5% 4%
10% (3 specimens ) 15% ( 9 specimens ) 20% ( 4 tests ) 28% ( 6 tests ) 15% ( 6 tests ) 20% ( 5 tests ) 20% ( 3 tests ) 20% ( 1 test ) 25% ( 12 tests )
introduction
While concrete look nice when they are new, over time the concrete can chip, crack and crumble. Cracks and potholes form due to the freezing and thawing of water that has seeped through smaller cracks, weed or grass growth in small cracks, and general wear and tear. Regular maintenance will prevent this problem. This is usually easy to do and requires up to a half day to complete depending on the condition and size of your repairs.
SHRINKABLE AGGREGATES
Types of Crack s
AFTER HARDENING
PHYSICAL
CHEMICAL
FREEZE / THAW CYCLES EXTERNAL SEASONAL TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS EARLY THERMAL CONTRACTION
THERMAL
TYPES OF CRACKS
ACCIDENTAL OVERLOAD
STRUCTURAL
CREEP
DESIGN LOADS EARLY FROST DAMAGE
BEFORE HARDENING
PLASTIC SHRINKAGE
PLASTIC
PLASTIC SETTLEMENT
FORMWORK MOVEMENT CONSTRUCTIONAL MOVEMENT SUB-GRADE MOVEMENT
Plastic shrinkage
Types of Cracking
1. Structural cracks 2. Non structural cracks or Intrinsic cracks
Structural cracks
Intersecting cracks
Reinforcing bars
Classification of cracks
Cracks maybe separated into two classes for the purpose of deciding upon the type of repair. a) dormant cracks . 1) fine cracks: 2) wide cracks: 3) fractures :
b) live cracks.
13 2
0.51
1.27
0.18
0.21
12.8
15.0
Reducing cracks
Cracking in concrete can be reduced significantly or eliminated by observing the following practices: Use proper subgrade preparation, including uniform support and proper subbase material at adequate moisture content. 2. Minimize the mix water content by maximizing the size and amount of coarse aggregate and use low-shrinkage aggregate. 3. Use the lowest amount of mix water required for workability; do not permit overly wet consistencies.
NO TESTS SHALL BE CARRIED OUT UNLESS IT IS KNOWN WHAT THE RESULTS WILL BE USED FOR
Location: Concrete on top layer tends to be weaker than the bottom one- well distribution shall be maintained
ASSESSMENT OF PROPERTIES
Property under investigation Corrosion of embedded steel Test Half-cell potential Resistivity Linear polarization resistance Cover depth Carbonation depth Chloride concentration Surface hardness Ultrasonic pulse velocity Radiography Permeability Absorption Petrographic Sulphate content Air content Abrasion resistance Cores Pull-out Pull-off Break-off Penetration resistance Maturity Pulse-echo Acoustic emission Thermoluminescence Thermography Radar Reinforcement location Strain or crack measurement Load test Equipment type Electrochemical Electrical Electrochemical Electrochemical Chemical/microscopic Chemical/electrical Mechanical Electromechanical Radioactive Hydraulic Hydraulic Microscopic Chemical Microscopic Mechanical Mechanical Mechanical Mechanical Mechanical Mechanical Chemical/electrical Mechanical/electronic Electronic Chemical Infra-red Electromagnetic Electromagnetic Optical/mechanical/electrical Mechanical/electronic/ectrical
Concrete strength
TYPES OF TESTS
Destructive tests: These conventional methods enable the strength of the concrete to be measured by way of cores or cubes cut from the concrete. However, this is not possible in all cases and especially not for slender members. Non-destructive tests: By definition, the strength properties are not measured directly so some other properties are measured and the strength estimated by calibration. Naturally, these methods have the great advantage that concrete is not damaged. For example: Ultrasound test and Schemed Hummer Test. Partially destructive tests: In these tests, the concrete is tested to failure but the destructive resulting is very localized and member under test is not weakened to any significant extent For example Core test. .
surface hardness
pulse propagation
x-rays
rays
Neutrons
Microwave absorption
Resonance
torsional
longitudinal
flexural
damping capacity
damping capacity
Testing - Sampling
For elements that contain chloride, it is suggested that 10 % of each elements (Col, Beams, slabs) to be tested with a minimum of 3 from each type. The Building Research Establishment, suggests the following:
Non-destructive tests. By definition, the strength properties are not measured directly so some other properties are measured and the strength estimated by calibration. Naturally, these methods have the great advantage that concrete is not damaged
Partially destructive tests. In these tests, the concrete is tested to failure but the destructive resulting is very localized and member under test is not weakened to any significant extent
Property under investigation Corrosion of embedded steel Concrete quality, durability and deterioration Concrete strength Integrity and performance
Test Half-cell potential, Resistivity, polarization Cover depth, Carbonation Linear depth
Surface hardness, Ultrasonic pulse velocity Radiography, Relative humidity,Permeability, Absorption, Sulphate content.Expansion, Air content ,Cement type and content,Abrasion resistance Cores, Pull-out, Pull-off, Break-off Penetration resistance, Maturity Pulse-echo, Dynamic response, Radar Acoustic emission, Thermography Strain or crack measurement, Load test
IN-SITU Testing
Half Cell potential: It measures the electrical potential on the surface of steel to qualitatively estimate the its likelihood of corrosion. Potential P ( mV) P > -200 mV -350< P< -200 Risk of corrosion 5% 50 %
P< -350
95 %
Our results They range between -200 and 300mV, then we conclude that there is 50% risk of corrosion
TESTING OF CONCRETE
METHOD STANDARDS PRINCIPLE FEATURES
BS 1881 Existing concrete,best used comparatively 207 Existing concrete , high variability Existing concrete surface or partially cored New construction or Exsisting concrete
Pull out
C900
Pull off
207
Break off
C1150
207
IN-SITU Testing
Surface Hardness: Rebound (schmidt) hammer: used to indirectly asses the strength of Concrete Near Surface Strength: used to asses the strength of concrete near surface 2) Capo (Cut and Pull-out) 4) Break off Tests
5) Penetration Resistance Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test: used to assess variation in the strength and presence of Void, Honeycombs
Direct
Semi-Direct
Indirect
Property Department
Architects
Quantity Surveyor
Engineers
Building Maintenance
Area surveyor
Senior surveyor
Valuers
Rural Practice
The maintenance of structures is done to meet the following objectives: Prevention of damages and decay due to natural agencies to keep them in good appearance and working condition. Repair of the defects occurred in the structure and strengthen them if necessary.
Necessity of Maintenance
The maintenance of structures is done to meet the following objectives: Prevention of damages and decay due to natural agencies to keep them in good appearance and working condition. Repair of the defects occurred in the structure and strengthen them if necessary. MAINTENANCE is a combination of any actions carried out to retain an item in ,or restore it to an acceptable condition
Types of Maintenance
1. 2. Routine Maintenance (Cyclic Maintenance) Preventive Maintenance (Scheduled maintenance.
3.
Routine Maintenance
Its the service of maintenance attended to the structure periodically. It is done by the fund provided annually for the purpose which is normally 1 % of the cost of construction. This is rendered to meet day to day problem of normal nature and includes the inspection, planning the program and executing the same. It includes white washing, patch repair to plaster, replacement of fittings and fixtures, binding of road surface.
Preventive Maintenance
The maintenance work done before the defects occurred or damaged developed in the structure. It includes through inspection, planning the program if maintenance and exacting the same. It depends upon the specifications, condition and use of structure.
Corrective Maintenance:
It is the maintenance done after the defects or damage occurs in the structure.
Relative
Time to first spalling Time to first cracking Time to onset of corrosion
deterioration
0.5 0
Corrosion
Time
Ad hoc inspection because: Evidence of cracking or spalling of concrete Requirement for durability assessment of structure Change of use or ownership
Initial assessment of current state of structure Investigation, testing and durability assessment (These can be different for individual elements of the structure) Determine cause of deterioration and whether it is corrosion related Determine degree of deterioration
Establish: Intended use of structure Design life of structure Residual service lifespan Required performance characteristics
Consider: original design approach Environment and contamination Conditions during construction Conditions of use History of structure
Type A Carbonation
Identification of active deterioration mechanisms Type B Type C Cast-in chlorides Ingressed chlorides
Evaluation of deterioration Establish cover depth Establish chloride concentrations Establish depth of carbonation Establish condition of steel Assess structural implications
Modeling and prognosis Future chloride concentrations Future depth of carbonation Future corrosion rate of steel
Detailed assessment of condition of structure or element Choose repair and protection principle appropriate to type of durability deterioration process
PART THREE
Time
Initiation Period Propagation Repair Cycles
Low
Moderate
High
Very high
Extremely high
Low
Moderate
High
Very high
Extremely high
Negligible
Low
Moderate
High
Very high
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.5
Repair techniques
The scope of repair works is summarized as follows:
Replacement of spalled areas Sealing of cracks wider than 0.2mm
Bearings
Details of specimens and test methods utilized to determine the properties of resin-based repair mortars
Property
Test method
Pot life
Rate of cure Adhesion Compressive strength Tensile strength Flexural strength Elastic modulus Shrinkage Thermal expansion Chloride permeability Chemical resistance
3
3 3 6 6 6 6 6 6 3 3
.Details of specimens and test methods utilized to determine the properties of bond coat materials
Property No. of specim ens tested per compon ent 3 3 3 3 3 Test method
Adhesion to steel Sensitivity to steel cleaning Resistance to salt exposure Crevice attack Resistivity
]ASTM D 4541 [21 Non-standard ]ASTM D 1654 [22 ]ASTM G 78 [23 Non-standard
.Details of specimens and test methods utilized to determine the properties of steel primers Property No. of specimens tested per componen t 6 3 Test method
3 3
Non-standard Non-standard
.Details of specimens and test methods utilized to determine the properties of surface coatings
Property No. of speci mens tested per comp onent 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 Test method Specimen size
Adhesion Crack bridging Chloride diffusion Moisture resistance Water permeability Carbonation resistance Chemical resistance
]ASTM D 4541 [21 Non-standard Non-standard Non-standard ]DIN 1048 [24 Non-standard ]ASTM C 267 [19
)x 100 x 300 mm (concrete 62 )x 25 x 250 mm (mortar 25 )mm dia and 50 mm high (concrete 75 )mm dia and 72 mm high (mortar 50 )x 150 x 150 mm (concrete 150 )mm dia and 72 mm high (mortar 50 )x 25 x 25 mm (mortar 25
Purpose
Suggested coating
Cement-based
Moisture barrier Polymer-modified cement
Resin-based
Epoxy resin
Chloride barrier
Crack bridging CO2 barrier Chemical resistance
Epoxy-modified cement
Polymer-modified cement Polymer-modified cement Polymer-modified cement
Epoxy resin
Epoxy resin Acrylic or epoxy resin Epoxy resin
Calcium Nitrate: they are added to concrete at the time of mixing and reacts with the ferrous of the steel to make a passive stable layer up to certain chloride concentration. They are usually applied at a rate of 2 liters of Calcium nitrate / kg of Chloride concentration per m3 of concrete.
Migrating Corrosion Inhibitors (MCI): Recently developed, they follow the same principles of calcium nitrate but can be applied on the surface of the concrete. It is claimed that they migrate from the surface to the reinforcement to react with it and form on its surface a monomolecular layer which displace any chloride and protect the reinforcement from attack. Rate = 1l/m3
Repairing Techniques
Repairing options
No repair Partial Repair full repair
Repairing process:
Reinforcement Replacement Concrete removal Concrete cleaning Old reinforcement cutting and cleaning Reinforcement Protection Coupling system It is recommended for the deck slab due to limitation of space Straight labs system It is recommended for the wing wall
The Benefits
Can be used in corrosive environments including chloride contaminated and carbonated concrete Extends service life of patch repairs User-friendly and easy to install
Repairing cracks
Repairing Techniques
Repair of cracks:
All cracks are treated the same way except the difference between live cracks and dead cracks Live cracks are sealed with flexible material to support the effect of its movements Dead Cracks are sealed with a cementitious material
Repair failure
shrinkage cracking
debonding
Repairing cracks
Tips
Repair concrete cracks when the temperature is above 50 F degrees and overnight temperatures are not expected to drop below freezing the next few nights. Don't do repairs when it's too hot or too windy. The material will dry out too fast resulting in a weak repair. If this is unavoidable, then put plastic over it or shade it. After you repair concrete cracks, it's always a good idea to put a coat of concrete sealer over the area to help prevent water seapage. If your repairs are a darker color than the surrounding concrete, try rubbing it with a flat stone. This will turn it white making it less noticable.
If you plan to acid stain, be sure the caulk or patching used for any repairs contains cement or cementations material. If not the acid won't react and the repairs will be left uncolored.
In humid atmosphere
Different electro-chemical potentials leads to Galvanic Corrosion (Bi-metal corrosion)
In alkaline concrete
High pH leads to the same electro-chemical potentials, hence no corrosion !
corrosion inhibitors
A recent study, on the effectiveness of four types of corrosion inhibitors, calcium nitrite, calcium nitrate, and two organic inhibitors in contaminated concrete, conducted by Al-Amoudi et al. (2003) showed that although all the four corrosion inhibitors investigated were effective in delaying the initiation of reinforcement corrosion. However, calcium nitrite was distinctly efficient in the concrete specimens contaminated with chloride, chloride plus sulfate and sea water
Contamination Chloride (0.8% Cl-) Chloride and sulfate (0.8% Cl- + 1.5% SO3) Sea water Brackish water Unwashed aggregate Preferred corrosion inhibitor 4% calcium nitrite or 4% calcium nitrate 4% calcium nitrite or 3% calcium nitrate 4% calcium nitrite 2% calcium nitrite 4% calcium nitrate
Monitoring
Monitoring is primarily a diagnostic or control process to help understand the in-service performance or management of a structure. It is also a valuable tool in the routine assessment of a structure. Monitoring may be either a periodic or repeated activity, or a continuous recording of data.
3.
SILOS
Recent Improvements
The increasing availability and use of Mineral Additions (such as microsilica, pfa and ggbfs) as cement replacements Advances in local formulation and production of highly efficient Super Plasticisers which have enabled the Free Water/Cementitious Ratio to be reduced to 0.35, or even less Recognition of the importance of the thickness and the quality of the concrete in the cover zone Improvements in the quality of Epoxy Coated Rebar Improvements and increased use of surface coating materials The availability of Corrosion Inhibitors The increased use of Cathodic protection and prevention systems
REFERENCES
ACI Committee 318 (1999), Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete (318M-99) and Commentary (318RM-99), American Concrete Institute, Michigan, USA. ACI Committee 440 (2002), Guide for the design and construction of externally bonded FRP systems for strengthening of concrete structures, American Concrete Institute, Michigan, USA. FIB Bulletin 14, Design and use of externally bonded FRP reinforcement for RC structures. 2001. Macdonald, M. D. and Calder, A. J. J. (1982), Bonded steel plating for strengthening concrete structures, International Journal of Adhesion and Adhesives, No. 4, pp. 119127. Meier, U. (1997), Repair using advanced composites. International Conference : Composite Construction - Conventional and Innovative, Innsbruck, Austria, IABSE, pp. 113-123. Neale, K. (2001). Strengthening reinforced concrete structures with externally-bonded fibre reinforced polymers - design manual no. 4. ISIS Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. SAI (2001), Concrete structures, Australian Standard AS3600-2001, Standards Australia International, Sydney, Australia. Teng, J. G., Chen, J. F., Smith, S. T. and Lam, L. (2002). FRP strengthened rc structures. Chichester, England, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. BRE Information Paper-Testing Anti-Carbonation Coatings for Concrete. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AASHTQ-,Guide Specifications for Polymer Concrete Bridge Deck Overlays-Reference only. . Corrosion Management , ACI 222R-01-Protection of Metals in Concrete Against Corrosion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V BRE Digest 444 Corrosion of Steel in Concrete Part3:ProtectionandRemediation 1679 BRE D53-Guide to the Maintenance, Repair, and Monitoring of Reinforced Concrete Structures-Reference only 1691 i/'ts TR 36-Cathodic Protection of Reinforced Concrete. . . . . . . . . . . . . . CS TR 37-Model Specification for Cathodic Protection of Reinforced Concrete. . . . . . . A Monograph No: 2-An Introduction to Electrochemical Rehabilitation Techniques. . . . . .. . . . . . CPA Monograph No: 4-Monitoring & Maintenance of Conductive Coating Anode Cathodic Protection Systems 1819 CPA Monograph No: 6- The Principles and Practice of Galvanic Cathodic Protection for Reinforced Concrete Structures 1823
REFERENCES
CSA S448. 1-93-Repair of Reinforced Concrete in Buildings-Reference only. . . . . . . . . , . .. . . . . . . . FIP-Guide to Good Practice for Repair and Strengthening of Concrete Bridges-Reference only. . . . . ACt 345.1 R-92 (Reapproved 1997)-Routine Maintenance of Concrete Bridges-Reference only. . . . . . CS TR 33-Assessment and Repair of Fire-Damaged Concrete Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CI 546.1 R-80 (Reapproved 1997)-Guide for Repair of Concrete Bridge Superstructures. . . . . : . . . . . . ACI 546.2R-98-Guide to Underwater Repair of Concrete. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ACI 210R-93 (Reapproved 1998)-Erosion of Concrete in Hydraulic Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ACI 210. 1 R-94 (Reapproved 1999)-Gompendium of Case Histories on Repair of Erosion-Damaged Concrete in Hydraulic Structures 1979 USACE EM 1110-2-2002, Chapter 8-Evaluation and Repair of Concrete Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CI362.2R-0D-Gu'de for Structural Maintenance of Parking Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ACPA TB-020.02P- The Concrete Pavement Restoration Guide: Procedures for Preserving Concrete Pavements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ACPA TB-002.02P-Concrete Paving Technology-Guidelines for Full Depth Repair. .. ACPA TB-003.02P-Concrete Paving Technology- Guidelines for Partial-Depth SpaIi Repair ACPA TB-005P- Technical Bulietin-Guidelines for Unbonded Concrete Overlays. . . .. ACPA TB-008.01 P-Diamond Grinding and Concrete Pavement Restoration. .. ACPA TB-007P- Technical Bulietin-Guidelines for Bonded Concrete Overlays. . . . . ... MSHTuide Specifications for Polymer Concrete Bridge Deck Overlays. . . . . . . .. CRA-Standard Method of Measurement for Concrete Repair. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. CS TR 38-Patch Repair of Reinforced Concrete-Subject to Reinforcement Corrosion. . . . .. . ... ICRI Guideline No. 03735-Guide for Methods of Measurement and Contract Types for Concrete Repair Work ACI 22.1 R-93 (Reapproved 1998), Chapter 3-Causes, Evaluation, and Repair of racks in concrete Structures ICRI Guideline No. 03734-Guide for Verifying Field Performance of Epoxy Injection of Concrete Cracks.. ACPA TB-018P-Concrete Paving Technology-Slab Stabilization Guidelines for Concrete Pavements. . . . . p/ ACI 440.2R-02-Guide for the Design and Construction of Externally Bonded FRP Systems for Guide to Surface Treatments for Protection and Enhancement of Concrete. . . .. ... ICRI Guideline No. 03732-Selecting and Specifying Concrete Surface Preparation for Sealers, Coatings, and Polymer Overlays .. 1JSACE TN CS MR 4.4--Cleaning Concrete Surfaces. . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. USAGE TN CS MR 4.3 ER-Removal and Prevention of Efflorescence on Concrete and Masonry ACI 224.1 R-93 (Reapproved 1998), Chapter 3-Causes, Evaluation, and Repair of Cracks in Concrete Structures-Reference only.. VAC1504R-90 (Reapproved 1997), Chapter 7-Guide to Sealing Joints in Concrete Structures.... . ACPA TB-012P-Concrete Paving Technology-Joint and Crack Sealing and Repair for Concrete Pavements ...............